The document discusses human behavior, particularly deviations from normality, defining personality disorders and their classifications according to the DSM-III-R. It outlines various personality disorders, their symptoms, diagnoses, and treatment methods, emphasizing the impact of cultural and societal norms on behaviors. Additionally, it highlights the importance of therapy and the possibility of managing, though not always resolving, these disorders.

1. Undoubtedly human behaviour is unpredictable most at times; however, there are certain
ones we could insist from others and others from us. In going about daily activities and trying
to keep a „normal‟ behaviour we try to always behave in a way that will not be termed
improper or „abnormal‟. Although we do not define what a normal behaviour is, whatever we
do that do not warrant any public or any negative reaction from others sometimes are simply
termed as such. However what constitute a normal behaviour varies in terms geographical,
cultural and situational. For instance student who applause lecturer after a normal day
lectures will attract some few unpleasant stares from her colleagues however her refusal to
clap for a fellow mate who answers a question correctly will be seen as bad if the class was
instructed to do so. Because of this the personality we portray are parchments of expected
behaviour traits others insist from us. In the inverse, deviations emanates when certain
behaviour trait exhibited contradicts mainstream cultural and societal norms, values and
conventions and causes impairment in identity and sense of self in interpersonal functioning.
Not necessarily the breaking of rules but rather ranging from simple deviations to
conventions.
To begin with, people with behaviours such alcoholism show some kind of behaviours or
actions that causes either problems to themselves and or others. The magnitudes of such
problems are different and the effects it brings to either others or the victim him/herself either
draws people away or incites negative conception about the victim. Although the behaviour
may not be termed at the beginning as a disorder because at one point we may all drink,
however it gains such status when it becomes a consistent or persistent personality trait. This
trait also causes either massive or a slight discomfort to others and the victim himself in
diverse situations. Such conditions could be termed as a deviation from the average
behaviour.
In addition to behaviours, thoughts and ways of perceiving that could be termed as deviations
from the average are those actions that are unwarranted by society or those society frowns
upon which may be caused by either emotional problems as a results of trauma or other
stimuli from the environment. Because society expects something from us and us from
others, a smile to a close relative without reciprocation would mean there is an abnormality in
the interaction. This may have been caused by the emotional state of the supposed respondent
as at the time of showing the action. But such behaviour is termed deviations. Not deviation
as enshrined in any formal convention but because it the expectation of and from the average
person in such situations. A French novelist Andre Malreaux says that People with behaviour

2. problems appear “stuck” in their problems their behaviour is so inflexible that they never
seem able to change to a new approach, even when it is obvious that their old strategies are
not working.
Notwithstanding, when a behaviour trait results in a negative consequence on the victim him
or herself, it could be termed as a deviation from the average. Humans are endowed with
certain instinctual drives according to Thomas Hobbs which are to be satisfied as such when
an action rather points the opposite it could be termed as a deviation. For instance if a person
inflicts person pains on his or her body and that rather becomes the means of satisfying a
drive, that becomes a deviation in society. The average person is expected to use approved
societal means enshrined in the norms and values and without those there is a deviation.
With the above mentioned points are what could be considered as deviations from average
behaviours. Such traits of behaviours when consistent leads to what is termed personality
disorders. This term could not be used for a behaviour shown once or by accident, for at one
point or the other all humans deviate, but rather when persistent. What then constitute
personality disorders is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistics Manual (DSM-III-R) of the
American Psychiatric Association in 1987 as “enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to,
and thinking about the environment and oneself, and are exhibited in a wide range of
important social and personal contexts. It is only when personality traits are inflexible and
maladaptive and cause either significant functional impairment or subjective distress that
they constitute Personality Disorders” (page 335). It is imperative to acknowledge the fact
that indeed the ways that one perceives, thinks and acts has effect not only on himself but that
of the significant and even insignificant others in society. In addition according to the
definition, the personality trait should be inflexible as in unbending or almost impossible to
change and also poorly adopted. Then, reason for these features lays in the fact that it mostly
surfaces in the adolescence stage but may have existed in the personality for a long time but
hidden and rarely show in late adulthood and old age because there are common ones like
attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) that are in almost all children and
biological. such as Gender identity disorders (GID). This is summarized by the DSM-III-R as
“ the manifestation of personality disorders are often recognizable by adolescence or
earlier and continue throughout most of adult life, though they often becomes less obvious
in middle or old age”. Personality disorders are behavioural patterns that cause personal and
social difficulties, distress, or problems in functioning and such people have temperamental
deficiencies or aberrations, rigidity in dealing with life problems and defective perceptions of

3. self and others. (Sue,Sue & Sue 1990). These behaviours as asserted by Carson and Butcher
(1992) to a large extent caused by immature and distorted personality patterns which may
either be biological or from previous socialization and may not be merely from disabling
defences against anxiety as in a neurotic disorders ( somebody regarded as overanxious,
oversensitive or obsessive about everyday things). They further asserted that three
epidemiological studies conducted on one personality trait disorder showed 2.1%, 2.6 % and
3.3% from different geographical regions. Accidents such as head injuries and brain
pathologies cannot be left out when incomes some causes of the deviations. This accounts for
the ubiquitous nature of personality disorders.
There are several personality disorders that occur to humans with some being just slightly
different from others but defined with divergent deviational features. Among such disorders
are: paranoid, schizoid, obsessive, avoidant, antisocial, borderline, schizotypal, Narcissistic,
Histrionic, Dependent, Obsessive-compulsive, Passive-aggressive. The DSM-III-R
(American Psychiatric Association) in 1987 has however added two new personality
disorders named Self-defeating and Sadistic personality disorders.
DSM-III-R groups these disorders into clusters on the basis of similarities as Cluster I
(paranoid, Schizoid and Schizotypal), Cluster II (Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic and
Narcissistic) and Cluster III (Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-compulsive and Passive-
aggressive). Sue et al (1990) also renamed these groupings as Odd -Eccentric, Dramatic-
emotional- erratic and Anxious- fearful respectfully.
To commence with, the definition, occurrence, symptoms as well as diagnosis and treatment
of seven of such disorders would be looked at:
PARANOID, with such a personality disorders shows the following signs of unwarranted
suspicious, hypersensitivity, and restricted affect thus aloofness and lack emotions as
symptoms. This sometimes occurs among couples who suspect each other of having extra
marital affair (cheating). This could gradually result in the couple not trusting and felling
jealous each other and may even end in break-ups or even physical attacks. Diagnostically
paranoids have persecutory, grandiose, jealousy and hallucinating delusions and reluctant to
confide in others (Sue et al (1990). For treatment of paranoia a therapist or psychologist is
needed through Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) usage (www.sane.org).
Schizoid personality disorder are marked basically by social isolation, withdrawn, lack of
desire or enjoyment of close relationships, almost exclusive preference for solitude. Little

4. interest in sex with others. Few if any pleasures, lack of friends, indifference to praise or
criticism from others, emotional detachment as symptoms. Occur when there is lack of close
friends or confidants other than first-degree relatives. Found in persons diagnosed with
isolation and emotionally cold. This can also be treated by clinical psychologist and therapist
over time and regular practice of newly introduced behaviour by using Cognition Analytical
Therapy (CAT). Thus ways of perceiving and interpreting self, other people, and events
(DSM-IV and DSM-5, revised 2011).
The next under cluster I is SCHIZOTYPAL, such people show oddities in various aspects of
their thinking and behaviour and may even believe that they possess magical thinking
abilities, illusions and cognition problems. They could say “I can predict what people will say
next or I feel my dead father is watching me” They may lack close friends, extreme anxiety
around other people with the occurrence which may be genetic, (Sue et al, 1990). Belief in
extrasensory perception, extreme suspiciousness, paranoia, extreme discomfort are
symptoms. This warrants diagnoses of withdrawal, restricted affectivity, cognitive and
perceptual dysregualtion, and impairment in identity, self-direction and empathy (Tundy,
1994). For treatment, the cognition is seen as the target with psychotherapy by qualified
persons.
The next is cluster II and ANTISOCIAL would be tackled. The individual is at least age 18
years People with antisocial are constantly violating rights of others; callous, manipulative,
dishonest, does not feel guilt. Low agreeableness and low conscientiousness symptoms. This
comes with the following diagnoses antagonism, manipulativeness, deceitfulness,
callousness, hostility, disinhibition, and irresponsibility. Occurs when victim shows persistent
or frequent angry feelings, anger or irritability in response to minor slights and insults, mean,
nasty, or vengeful behaviour and reckless disregard for safety of self or others. Such disorders
may be treated through a therapist advising and under taken a series of activities and making
victim derive other source of interest from significance others in society and also with the
help of a psychopathologist through re-socialization. (APA, 2011).
AVOIDANCE as a personality disorder has the following symptoms and occurrence.
Avoidance of interpersonal contacts because of fear of criticism or rejection. Unwilling to get
involved with others unless certain of being liked. Restraint in intimate relationships for fear
of being shame or ridiculed, Feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, Extreme reluctance to try
new things for fear of being embarrassed. Such victims are diagnosed as being anhedonia,
detachment, anxious and depressed. Treatment is through focusing on affectivity thus the

5. range, intensity, liability, and appropriateness of emotional response and developing
interpersonal functioning and medication thus anti-depressants (APA, 1994).
BORDERLINE personality disorder patterns derives its name from the fact that the
behaviour lays in between psychosis and neurosis thus more extreme mood disorders and
schizophrenia because the latter may be aware of the disorder but may choose to seek
treatment or not. (Carson and Butcher, 1992). Borderline disorder has symptoms such as
frequent impulsive, unpredictable, angry, empty and unstable with chronic feelings of
boredom, low tolerance for frustration. They occur with drastic mood shifts and erratic. They
are diagnosed of self destructive behaviours like binges of gambling, sex, alcohol use, eating,
shoplifting and self-mutilation and diagnosed with emotional liability and separation
insecurity. According to Gundersons & Singer (1986) as quoted by Carson and Butcher
(1992), borderline disorders comes with history of intense but stormy relationships, typically
involving over-idealization of friends or lovers that later end in disappointments. Referrals to
psychotherapist who could offer more sessions, sometimes two in a day and trying to dispose
-off the causal factors helps victim to achieve or develop another self image and purpose
termed dialectic behaviour therapy (DBT) as treatments.
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE personality disorder is the last that would be discussed here
in this work though not the last one under cluster III. Such persons show inability to express
warmth or warm feelings coupled with excessive perfectionism, stubbornness, indecision and
devotions to details as diagnosis. Colleague workers may find the compulsive individual too
demanding and perfectionist with such occurrence. (Sue et al 1990). Victims with such a
disorder may be adamant to seek help but with the help of psychologist, they are able to
endure and also have good impulse control through mood stabilizers. They may be medically
advised not to overdo or over stressed themselves just to please others, spend less hours under
pressure and take frequent breaks whiles working or when such behaviour disorder shows as
treatment.
The major clusters and their subdivision are shown as in the table below with a detail of symptoms,
occurrence, diagnoses and treatment.
Clusters/major class Types Diagnoses Treatment
Cluster I
Odd Eccentric
paranoid, Schizoid and
Schizotypal
Paranoid: Suspicious,
hypersensitivity,
persecutory, grandiose,
jealousy and
hallucination
Schizoid: socially
isolated, emotionally cold
Schizotypal: peculiar
thoughts, poor
interpersonal relations
Long period of sessions
spent with psychologist
and pathologist and
Dialectical Behaviour
Therapy (DBT) ,
Cognition Analytical
Therapy (CAT)

6. Cluster II
Dramatic emotional
Erratic
Antisocial, Borderline,
Histrionic and
Narcissistic
Antisocial: failure to
conform to legal rules,
codes, anxiety, guilt
Borderline: intense
fluctuations in moods,
self-image.
Histrionic: self
dramatization.
Exaggeration, attention
Narcissitic:
hypersensitivity, lack of
sympathy.
Psychological treatment
by learning new methods
of interaction and relating
to others for over a long
period of time and
meeting new persons,
dialectic behaviour
therapy (DBT)
Cluster III
Anxious fearful
(Avoidant, Dependent,
Obsessive-compulsive
and Passive- aggressive
Avoidant: anhedonia,
detachment, anxious and
depressed
Dependent,
irresponsibility
Obsessive- compulsion:
perfectionism, indecision
Passive-aggressive:
inefficiency,
procrastination.
Re socialization and
learning of new self
through therapy and
psychological advice of
stress free methods of
living. Medication thus
anti-depressants.
Clusters adopted from Sue, Sue and Sue 1990 and the DSM-III-R 2011
.
To conclude, it is very important for each and every person to develop a positive
personality throughout his /her life but because all humans are born and raised in diverse
cultural background, different types exist. This would be a reason for major differences in
conditions that constitute a deviation from the average behaviour. Different expectations of
each other making behaviour deviations socially defined. However a research has shown that
sex is not only defined by what is seen in the physical but right from the biological make up
of humans. This has risen concerned about whether or not the behaviours expected of the
various sexes could have anything to do with personality disorders. Where there are what is
termed Sexual Ambiguity or Disorders of Sexual Development (DSD). Thus one may be
male in the outside but female and vice versa in the inside because of malformation and
inadequacy of hormones such as testosterone, estrogens or progesterone. This may lead to a
personality disorder but rarely noticed. Such occurrence makes the disorder rather biological
than social. However the American Psychological associations have come out with clusters of
personality disorders that can either be managed if not totally eliminated though they are not
highly distinguished and exhaustive. According to sue et al (1990) though some disorders
like psychopath can be resolved by use of drugs such as tranquilizers( phenothiazines and
dilantin), Carson & Butcher ( 1992) asserted that not all disorders of personality can be
resolved with some taking years and others just a meeting with psychotherapist. Others also
accept that punishments may also help in extinguishing such behaviours but more effective
methods such as therapy, psychotherapy and re-socialization has been more yielding.

7. References
American Psychiatric Association; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
(1994), Fourth Edition. Washington, DC.
American Psychiatric Association; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
(1980), Third edition. Washington, DC.
Bundy T. (1994), Personality Disorders,
Library of congress. USA.
Carson, R. C and Butcher , J. N. ( 1992) 9th
Edition. Abnormal psychology and modern life
Harper Collins publishers. New York, USA.
Sue, D., Sue, D., Sue, S. (1990), Understanding Abnormal Behaviour
Houghton Mifflin company , NY. USA.
ASSIGNMENT

8. SOWK 316 (PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND
BEHAVIOUR DISORDER)
LECTURER: DR. SAYRAM EMMA HAMINOO
STUDENT ID: 10335243
Question:
Which condition in your opinion do you consider as a deviation from the average person‟s
behaviour? Clearly identify them, giving details definition of each, their occurrence,
symptoms, diagnoses and treatment.
CLUSTER OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS ACCORDING TO American
Psychological Association (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-III-R 2011)
CLUSTER I (paranoid, Schizoid and Schizotypal),
CLUSTER II (Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic and Narcissistic)
CLUSTER III (Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-compulsive and
Passive- aggressive).
Also added by APA in 1987 are:
Self-defeating and Sadistic Personality disorders.