Wine

Introduction and Microbial
Production of Wine Prepared by:
Othima Sharma
M.Sc. Biotechnology 2nd Semester
Roll: 301101023

Wine: An Introduction
Wine is an intoxicating drink and is made from the
grapes as a fermented juice. Wine is also prepared
from other fruits. Since, grapes can ferment without
the addition of sugar, Enzymes or nutrients they are
most preferred to make wines. Nearly all the wines
made in the world are prepared from the Vitis
vinifera, a species of the grape family. Almost 4,000
wine varieties are made from this species. Apple
cider, pears, cherry, plum and berries are some of
the fruits used to make wines. Wines are
manufactured commercially as well as some fruit
wine come as fermented home products. Alcohol
content will be 12% in fruit wines and when they

History
 Wine making and drinking has a long and past
history. Experts agree that wine dates from 6000 BC.
Wines were cultured in Egypt and in Mesopotamia.
Greece, Spain, Mexico, Rome, and United States
followed them. Spain played the important role in
wine making process.
 Wine making and grape cultivation spread
throughout the world. Wine became the valuable
trade. The prosperous people enjoyed the wines and
rulers tried to hide this treasure as a clandestine. As
Christianity spread to the parts of the world, the
monks developed the process by making good use

 From bible to ancient mythology, tales of intoxication
by absorbing the fermented grapes flourished. Fossil
evidence also traced the leftovers of the wine
sediments. It also relieves that the ancient humans
documented the bliss of this exciting liquid.
 Today a variety of vine is found growing all over the
world due to the wide variety of climates. The Vitis
vinifera species is the primary species in making
most of the wines. New routes have been
established to the wine industry due to the varieties
and vintages that come from all over the world. Due
to the captivating history of the wine and profound
interest in their wine France novices and

Popular Wine-Making
Grapes:
Although grapes come in great variety some of them
are more popular. The winemakers as well as
consumers prefer them the most than any other
variety. Some of the popular wine making grapes
include:
Chardonnay
This one belongs to the white grape family and helps to
make the most famous wine in the world. Burgundy and
champagne provinces of France act as the origin for this
variety. In oak barrels it is usually aged.

Merlot
This red grape belongs to the cabernet sauvignon
variety. Merlot is mixed with cabernet for flavour.
Wine that is smooth, dry and rich in flavour is made
by merlot. Since this grape is found to susceptible to
fungus and other mold disease growing this needs
little effort.
Pinotage
A red grape found in South Africa is a cross of pinot
noir and cinsault grapes. Fruit flavourings are found
in a large amount in the wines that made from
pinotage.

Sangiovese
For Chianti and brunello di montalcino this grape is
used in the Tuscany regions of northern Italy. Spicy
and smooth textures are its special characteristic. It
also has excellent acid level. Vintners of California
are trying to grow this grape.
Shiraz or Syrah
It is also as syrah in France and Shiraz in Australia.
This is a red grape variety. Sweet and riper wines
are produced during warmer climates while spicier
and peppery flavours are produced during cooler
climates.
Zinfindel

Wine Grape Varieties:
Grape, a juicy fruit found in
variety of colors. Grape is used
for eating, wine making and as
a dry fruit. It is also used in
jelly, vinegar, candy, seed
extraction, seed oil and jam.
Vitis vinifera and Vitis labrusca
regions act as the origin for the
grapes. Wine making became
the main reason for cultivating
grapes. The major grape
producing countries in the
world are South

In wine production approximately 130 varieties are
used. Chardonnay, merlot and cabernet sauvignon
grape varieties are used by the wine experts since
they think that the wine drinker's focus their
attention only on that and other varieties are not
known.
Wine quality is affected by the factors such as
soil, climate, viticulture and wine making techniques.
When the grape variety is well suited to the soil and
climatic structure the quality of wine is maximized.
Wine types with distinct flavour are produced by
many native grape varieties.
White and red grapes are the major grape varieties.

Wine Grapes
Categories
Red grapes
During the month of august to November the
red grapes grow in plenty. These grapes are
rich in vitamin c and have a sweet pulp. Pinot
noir, syrah, nebbiolo and zinfandel are some of
famous red grapes..
White Grapes
Grapes that are green, yellow, pink or brown in
colour are called white grapes. The world's
famous white wine is the chardonnay, because
of its gamut flavours and styles...

Red grapes:
During the month of august to November the red
grapes grow in plenty. These grapes are rich in
vitamin c and have a sweet pulp. Pinot
noir, syrah, nebbiolo and zinfandel are some of
famous red grapes.
Merlot:
This red grape belongs to the cabernet sauvignon
variety. This grape is used for making Bordeaux
wines. Wine made for merlot has a chocolate taste so
it attracts the lover of chocolates. The cultivators of
merlot grapes are California, Washington, and long
island.
Cabernet Sauvignon:

White Grapes:

Grapes that are green, yellow, pink or brown in
colour are called white grapes. The world's
famous white wine is the chardonnay, because
of its gamut flavours and styles. India's most
loving white wine is Chenin Blanc because of
its high acidity and susceptibility to botrytis.
Weissburgunder (pinot Blanc)
This is an alteration of pinot grapes. These have
the taste of chardonnay grapes. Italy, Alsace
and Austria are the major countries that use
this grape for wine production.

Riesling
To prepare ice wine, Riesling grapes are used by
Germany. These grapes need warm climate as
their most favorable condition. These grapes are
planted in Germany, France, New York and
California.
Chardonnay
These grapes have the taste of peach and melon.
Chardonnay grapes are capable of growing in
different climatic condition and are used for
making champagne. While making wine a small
amount of oak chips are added to it. These grapes
are cultivated in California, South Africa and
burgundy.
Sylvaner

Types of Wine
Wines can be classified primarily by the grape variety
used to make the wine and the region where the
grapes are grown. Wines classified on the basis of
grape variety are called varietals and those classified
on the basis of region are named by the region
itself.
There are different types of wines and wine styles.
Basically wines can be classified into two general
categories. They are white wines which are
colourless and red wines which have the colour
intensity based on the soaking time. This is the
information that most of us know.
But wines can be classified by their taste also. The

Apart from the classification of wine by taste the
general types of wines are as follows

Red wines
Red wines are colour wines. Red
wines are made from the red
grape varieties. These wines get
their colour by allowing the skin of
the grapes to get contact with the
grape juice during the wine
making process. Red wines are
available in different varieties and
taste. The most popular red wines
are:

Red Wine And Its
Types
Red wines are produced from black, red or blue
grapes. Red wine does not get its colour from the
juice. Red wine gets its colour when the juice of
the grapes is allowed to have contact with the
grapes skin for a long time. Red wine does not get
its colour by simply soaking the skin; it also has a
substance known as tannin. Tannin gives the red
wines the density that is ahead of the other white
wines. The mouth drying quality of tannin makes
you feel the firmness of wine in your mouth. The
firmness will be strong if the wine is young.
The qualities of wine will become soft and mix
harmoniously with the other factor of the wine as
the time passes. This act as the main reason for

Though the colour of red wines vary greatly their
flavour does not differ much as white wine
with their counterparts. The flavour of red wine
tends to be deeper due to the presence of
tannins.
Since red wine has more complex flavour it has
to be served at a warmer temperature.
Grapes used to make red wine
Cabernet Sauvignon Gamay
Grenache Merlot
Pinot Noir Sangiovese
Syrah/Shiraz Tempranillo

Following are the major red wine types:
Barbera
This wine is similar to merlot but it is not well
known. This wine can be paired with any type
of dishes that are prepared from tomato
sauce. They have a taste similar to blackberry
and plum fruit, with a glossy texture.
Cabernet Sauvignon
It is considered as one of the world's best wine.
It is often paired with cabernet franc and
merlot. It has a full bodied flavour. It can be
served along with red meat.
Merlot

Pinot Noir
Grapes used to prepare this wine are difficult to
grow and it is rarely mixed with other varieties.
Chicken, lamb and salmon can be served along
with this wine. Pinot noir wines have a fragile taste
and fresh fruity smell and plain notes.
Syrah or Shiraz
These wines match well with beef, steak, stew, and
wild games. It has a fruity taste and fascinating
tannins.
Zinfandel
The grape used to make this wine is considered to
be world's most versatile grape. Wines prepared
from this grape have heavy red colour. The wine
can be served along with tomato sauce, pizza or

White wines
White wines are generally colourless
and they are made from the white
grape varieties. Some of the white
wines can be made from the red
grapes. In such a case the skin of
the grapes is not allowed to have
any contact with the grape juice.
The white wines generally range
from dry to sweet wines. The most
popular white wines are:
Chardonnay
Riesling

White Wine And Its
Types
White grapes are used to prepare most white wines.
By letting the skin to soak along with the juice wines
can get its colour. Since this is the fact it is possible
to make white wine from black grapes. This can be
done by extracting the juice carefully and keeping
the skin aside. The most famous white wine is
champagne. It is prepared from the black grapes
(pinot noir and pinot and meunier.
The amount of tannin is also reduced in the wine when
the skin and stem is not allowed to soak in the juice.
The mouth drying quality of tannin makes you feel
the firmness of wine in your mouth. Sometimes the
white wines are allowed to ferment or age in oak

Grapes used to make white wine
Chardonnay
Chenin Blanc
Gewurtztraminer
Muscat
Pinot Gris
Riesling
Semillon
Sauvignon Blanc

Following are the famous white wines used
all over the world:
Chardonnay
This wine can be described as sparkling or still
wine. It can be served with fish and chicken
dishes. It has a wide bodied and velvety citrus
flavour. It has a buttery quality that resembles
coconut, toast, toffee or vanilla when it is
fermented in an oak barrel.
Gewurztraminer
This wine can be served along with the Asian
food and sausages. It has
allspice, lychee, peach and rose aroma with
fruity flavour.

Riesling
These are fresh tasting wines and improve with
age. They can be served along with
chicken, fish and pork. This wine is very light
and is an evocative of fresh apples'
Sauvignon Blanc
These wines are often considered as versatile
food wines. They can be served along with
poultry. They have an herbal and fruity flavour
but sometimes it is also smoky.

Common White Wine Flavour Descriptions

Citrus
Apple
Pear
Grapefruit
Lemon
Lime
Pineapple
Melon
Butter
Honey
Floral
Herb
Earthy

Rose wines
Rose wines are also called as Blush
wines. Rose wines are not true
not truly red, instead they have
enough of reddish tinge to make
them differentiate from the white
wines. Rose wines are prepared
from the red grape varieties. The
most popular rose wine variety is:
Zinfandel

Rose Wines
Rose wines are also called as Blush wines. Rose
wines are not true not truly red, instead they
have enough of reddish tinge to make them
differentiate from the white wines. The colour
of the rose wines varies depending on the
colour of the grape variety used for making
the grapes. Most of the times rose wines seem
to have orange colour then pink or purple.
Rose wine can be produced in a number of
ways. But most of the times the rose wines
are prepared by crushing the red grapes as a

Drinking rose wine in the hot weather give the feeling
of crispness and lightness and is also very
refreshing. So it is often referred as summer wines.
Generally rose wines are simpler than the heavy
white and red wines.
The styles of rose wines vary generally. Rose wines
from Europe are so dry while rose wines from the
United States are sweet. The most popular rose
wine is the White Zinfandel from California.either alone
These grape varieties are used
Most of the rose wines are with the other in the
or is blend made from red grapes. The
red grape varieties that are used in the preparation
preparation process. Generally the skin
of the grapes is not allowed to have a
of the rose wines are:
Pinot Noir detailed contact with the grape juice.

Sparkling Wines
Sparkling wines have a small
amount of intense
effervescences. Champagne is
the most famous sparkling wine
in many regions in the world.
The famous sparkling wines are:

Rose Champagne
Prosecco
Sparkling Red Wine

Sparkling Wines
Sparkling wine is a delicious, invigorating wine
that also be called as champagne, bubbly and
shimmer wine. Sparkling wine contains large
amount of carbon dioxide. This carbonated
beverage is made in all parts of the world. The
carbon dioxide makes the wine to fizz, bubble
and to be effervescent.
The grape varieties that are used in making
sparkling wines are Chardonnay, Pinot
Noir, Pinot Meunier, and Chenin Blanc.
Sparkling wines are produced mainly from the

There are different types of sparkling wines produced
all over the world. Sparkling wines are made from
different wine making grapes with different
production processes. But the characteristic of all
the sparkling wines are common.
Carbon dioxide that forms the bubbles in the sparkling
wines is formed in the fermentation process itself. To
make a sparkling wine there are more than one
fermentation process. The wine makers all over the
world will use their preferred production method.
Champagne is the king of sparkling wine. It is a proper
name given to sparkling wines produce in the
Champagne region of France. Prosecco is the name

Semi-sparkling wines
Fully sparkling wines are sold between the 5 to 6
atmosphere pressures in the bottle. This
pressure is three times more than the pressure
found in the automobile tire. Sparkling wines
are those that have the atmospheric pressure
between 1 to 2.5. The amount of the
atmospheric pressure in the bottle is
determined by the amount of sugar added to
the wine during the triage stage which comes
at the beginning of the secondary

Sweet Wine or Dessert Wines
Dessert wines are prepared from the
residual sugar that is left in the
finished wine. This gives the wine a
very sweet taste. Dessert wines
vary from off-dry to super, sticky
sweet wines. The dessert wines are
considered to be the sweetest
wines. The famous dessert wines
are:
Sweet white wines

Dessert Wines
Generally by definition a dessert wine is a wine
that has high sugar content. The sugar content
will be high then the normal table wines. A
dessert wine has 3 to 28 percent residual
sugar in them. Dessert wines are available in
different types since they are made from
differential grape varietals.
Dessert wine is said to be potent, sweet and it is
also full of flavour. The sweet flavour of the
wine makes them as a compliment to the
desserts. To raise the alcohol content in the
wine extra spirits are added to it. In

Dessert wines can be white and red in colour.
The white dessert wines are served chill while
the red dessert wines are served at the room
temperature. Dessert wines go well with the
fresh bakery sweets and fruits. It is also
advisable to serve heavier taste for the winter
season and lighter taste for the summer
season.
Dessert wines come in different flavours like
peach, almond, oak, and herbs. Combining the
dessert wine with the creamy desserts will be a

Some of the famous dessert wines include:
Madeira
Vermouth
Marsala
Sherry
Cream Sherry
Port
Dessert wines come in many styles and types. All are
much sweeter than the habitual wines.
Like the other wines in the world the dessert wines are
also defined by the grape variety which is used to
prepare it. It is also described by the region where it
is grown and how it is produced.

Fortified Wines
Fortified wines are those that are
produced with a small addition
of the grape spirit. Fortified
wines generally include the dry
and sweet styles. The famous
fortified wines are:
Port wine
Madeira
Sherry

Fortified Wines
Fortified wine is a wine to which the spirits of
the distilled beverages like brandy are added.
In order to increase the alcohol content of the
wine the spirits are added before the
fermentation process is complete. This kills the
yeast leaving the residual sugar behind. The
spirits change the profile of the flavour thus
producing a very distinctive and unique wine.
Thus the end product wine will have both the
sweet and strong characteristic.
Many varieties of the fortified wines are

Different varieties of fortified wines are:
Madeira wine
Marsala wine
Port wine
Sherry
Vermouth
Wines doux naturals
Low-end fortified wines

Table Wines
Tables wines are also called as
"Dry Wines." This is the wine
that is mostly produced in
most the regions in the
world. The famous table
wines are:
Dry white wine
Rose wine
Dry red wine

Table Wines
Wines that have a very low volume of alcohol
content is said to be table wine. Generally to the
wine terminology the table wine can take two
different meanings one can be the wine style
and the other is the quality level.
Table wines are generally served along with food
hence they get the name table wine. Table
wines are the most famous and only wine that is
found in the dinner table all over the world.
Table wines are generally pretty and are within
your means. It is easily reachable if your are at
the right age to purchase alcohol.

Popular table wines are:
Cabernet Sauvignon
Merlot
Chardonnay
Adams Apple
Muscat
Port
Pinot Noir
Kaskaskia Concord
Double Decker Red
Elderberry

What makes dessert
wine sweet?
Dessert wines of the past were often sweet
because they are not fermented completely.
The main reason for the sweetness of the
dessert wine is the naturally occurring glucose
and fructose in the grapes which will be
increased if the grapes are allowed to ripen for
a long time in the vineyard.
France and Italy are the most famous producers
of dessert wines.

How does wine get its
colour?
The most recognizable
wine characteristic is
the wine colour. Wine
colour is also an
element that affects the
wine tasting since
many heavy wines
mostly have deeper
colour. Tastevin a
shallow cup is an
accessory that is used

The colour of the wine
mainly depends on the
grape variety. This is
because the colour
pigments are present in
the grape of the skin
and not in the juice.
The colour also
depends on the
winification method
and the amount of time
during which the skin is
allowed to have contact

Australian Rubired is a good example of mixing
more varieties of grapes to get the required
colour.
Red grape juice can also get the white colour if
they are quickly pressed and the grape juice is
not allowed to have contact with the skin. The
colour also depends on the acid presence in the
wine. The colour of the wine is altered when the
wine is allowed to aged. During the aging
process due to different reaction between the
molecules there rises a browning effect in the
wine which turns the wine from red colour to

The stability of the wine colour is
increased by the presence of
complex mixtures like
anthocyanins with procyanidins.
Main colors of wine are:
Red
White (light coloured wine)
Rose (pinkish in colour)
Yellow (or straw colour
Orange wine (white wine which has some time in
contact with the skin)
Others:
Burgundy (colour), a shade of purplish red

Wine storage
The quality of wine can be affected if it is not
stored properly. As time goes the wine
changes its colour, aroma becomes stronger
and then flavour acquires its own character. If
not stored properly the wine will not realize its
full potential, no matter how good or great its
growing capability is. Some might think that
cool spot in the garage and basement is ideal
for wine storage but only some of these places
have the wine storage capacity.
Temperature around 13 deg c or 55 deg F is

Wines prepared now-a-days are meant to be
consumed with in a year of purchase. They are
smooth and are ready to drink as they reach their
stable state. Today's wine is prepared for
immediate consumption. Before the youth and
freshness integral, most wines of the world are
consumed when they are young.
To attain their maturity better quality wines need 4
years of decaying period. But white wines within
2-3 years from the date of vintage are at their
best level. This is because white wines need no
time for maturing. As soon as champagne is
brought out of the cell it can be consumed. Long
term or short term storage period depends on the
type of wine you tend to store.

Conditions that affect
wine storage
Wine storage is affected by many factors. Listed below
are most important factors that affect the wine
storage:
Temperature
To store the wine for a long period its temperature
should be maintained properly. Wines stored for a
week or months can also be affected by the
temperature under which it is stored.
Wines are stored in the temperature between 45º -
60º F; while the optimal temperature range is 50º to
55º F. wines are stored in caves where the
underground temperature is 13 C (55º F).
Blush, rose and dry white wines are best at 46 deg -

Vibration
Ensure that you store the wine bottle such that
when you try to take a particular bottle you
need not move others. Wine should remain in
the stored place until it is opened. Make sure
that there is no incessant vibration from other
machinery or heavy traffic. Since vibration can
disturb the symmetry and common growth of
the wine. Storage locker should be built to
allow proper air movement and to reduce
vibration. Anti-vibration mats can be used to

Humidity
Storage of wine becomes dangerous when
appropriate humidity is used. The corks can
dry out or crack and allow more air to flow
inside the bottle when the humidity is
maintained as low as possible. Moulds will
develop damaging the cork as well as the
labels when the humidity is maintained at the
high level.
For most wines the humidity is maintained at
70% which is enough to keep the cork in

Darkness
Tannins in the wine are oxidized causing damage to
the wine when UV rays reach them. Even dark
coloured bottles do not offer much shield from the
UV rays. So, dark place is only suitable for wine
storage. Incandescent or sodium vapour lamps can
be used instead of fluorescent lighting.
Clean air
The environment that is free from smells and debris is
essential for storing wine. To prevent from
mildewed whiff good ventilation is needed. Wines
get contaminated when unrelated smells enter
through the cork. For the wines to mature, choose a

Wine Coolers
Wine coolers are used to store wine bottles and
chill them to the right temperature. It is also
called wine refrigerator. Regular refrigerator
are suitable for storing wine. Since, it may be
too cool or constant opening of the door cause
a fluctuation in the wine temperature.
Temperature that is essential for the integrity
of the wine is maintained by the cooler. Along
with the some refrigerator units the wine
cabinets is fixed. Wine cooler maintains a
temperature of about 55º to 58º F and about

The wine cooler is an equipment that may refer
to:
Small table top used to chill a single bottle.
These coolers are useful particularly in the
warmer climates to serve the wine at the right
serving temperature. These coolers are
suitable for white, rose and sparkling wines.
Large ones in the refrigerator style used to store
dozens of bottles. This model is used by the
people who are accessible to the wine
basement. These units allow the user to select

Wine Production
Wine Production was first seen 6,000 years ago.
But it wasn’t until 1857 that Pasteur correctly
described the science behind fermentation and
Wine Production.
Because crushed grapes contain all that is needed
to create wine, ancient wine producers simply
allowed nature to take its course. As time went
on, people realized that by intervening at
certain times, they could make a wine with
more predictable characteristics.

Red & White Wine Production
One of the first things they realized was that red
wine production required that the grapes be
fermented in contact with their skins. This
gives the wine colour and body. In
contrast, most white wine production does not
occur in contact with the grape skins. Whites
are valued for their fresh fruit
characteristics, and skin contact would impart
unwanted bitter tannins.
Sparking Wine Production
Sparkling wine production is a complex process

Fortified Wine Production
Fortified wines have a spirit added to them which is
usually Brandy. Fortified wine production can make
either sweet or dry wines. If the spirit is added
during fermentation, some residual sugar will
remain in the wine and a Port will result. If the
spirit is added at the end of fermentation, a dry
Sherry will be made.
Sweet Wine Production
There are a number of sweet styles made in
California using a many different Wine Production
techniques. Grapes affected by botrytis cinerea or
“noble rot” make deeply concentrated wines with
high residual sugar. Another technique vintners

Steps Involved:
Harvest
Deciding on a harvesting date for White Wine
Production depends on the varietal and the style of
wine. Some grapes are more acidic than others and
need more time on the vine for sugar development.
Other varietals are vinified into lower alcohol wines
and do not need the same amount of sugar during
fermentation. No matter what the grape
type, balance is critical.
Destemming and Crushing White Grapes
Destemming and crushing white grapes is optional in
the White Wine Production process. Some wineries
treat white varietals in the same way that they treat

Pressing
Whether they are destemmed and crushed or
not, pressing white grapes is a very gentle process
that must be done carefully. If the grape bunches
are left intact during this process, it is known as
whole cluster pressing. This White Wine Production
technique minimizes the amount of malic acid and
tannins in the must.
Adding to Fermentation Containers
After pressing, the winemaker has another decision.
What type of fermentation containers will be used?
The style of the wine will dictate which container will

Clarification
The next step in White Wine Production is clarification.
The must can be cooled for a period of time to
remove excessive sediment. Fining agents can also
be added at this time, which will remove the natural
yeast.
Selecting Yeast Type
Once the wine is in its container and has been
clarified, the winemaker adds a selected yeast type
that has been cultivated in the lab. This gives
him/her more control over the rest of the White
Wine Production process.
White Wine Alcoholic Fermentation

Sulfur Dioxide Addition
After the grapes are pressed and the must is moved to
the fermentation containers, sulfur dioxide is
immediately added to prevent oxidation and
spoilage. White wines generally require less sulfur
than red wines.
Barrel Aging
Barrel aging white wine only works for certain
varietals, notably Chardonnay and Pinot Blanc. Some
other white grapes are aged in barrels, but most rely
on their fresh, fruity forward characteristics.

White Wine Malolactic Fermentation

One of the most important stylistic decisions a
winemaker has is whether or not he/she will
allow white wine malolactic fermentation.
This process converts sharper malic acid to
softer lactic acid. Because tart acidity frames
most white wines, the majority of white
wines skip this part of the White Wine
Production process. Barrel aging and
malolactic fermentation often go hand in
hand.
White wines that undergo barrel aging and
malolactic fermentation are often allowed to

Racking
White wines that are not malolactically fermented
undergo racking immediately after alcoholic
fermentation is complete. Wines aged sur lies are
racked after they have been aged sufficiently. No
matter when racking is done, the sediments are
allowed to settle at the bottom of the container. The
wine is then siphoned off of the top and separated
from the sediment.
Clarification & Bottling
After racking is complete, white wines can be further
clarified using a number of White Wine Production
methods. These include filtration, fining, cold

Steps Involved
As opposed to other wine types, the main distinction in
Red Wine Production is that the skins are allowed to
macerate in the must for some period of time. This
is what gives red wine its colour, tannins, and allows
the best to age for many years.
Destemming & Crushing Red Grapes
Immediately after arriving at the winery, the process
of destemming and crushing red grapes begins. The
resulting liquid is called the must and consists of
skins, seeds and juice. It is important that as many
stems as possible are removed, as they contain
abrasive, unpleasant tannins. This is the first step in
the Red Wine Production process.

Adding Sulfur Dioxide and Yeast
The next step in the Red Wine Production process is
Sulfur dioxide addition. This will prevent the must
from becoming discolored or oxidized. It also
destroys bacteria and other microorganisms.
Although some winemakers use the naturally
present yeast on grape skins for fermentation, it is
far more common to add a yeast type that has been
cultured in the lab. This will give the winemaker
more predictable results. If cultured yeast are
added, the natural yeast must first be neutralized.
Alcoholic Fermentation
Once the yeast is added, alcoholic fermentation

Maceration
In addition to the alcohol created by
fermentation, pigments and tannins are also
imparted into the must from skin contact. This
part of the Red Wine Production process is
called maceration, and often lasts longer than
fermentation. A cap will form as released
carbon dioxide pushes solids to the top of the
fermentation container. Many winemakers
extract additional pigments and tannins from
the skins by either punching down or pumping
over the cap. Some wineries have tanks called

Pressing
When the winemaker feels that enough
maceration has occurred, the must is moved
from its fermentation containers for pressing. A
variety of methods can be used, but basket
pressing is the most common for high quality
Red Wine Production. Wines that will undergo
oak treatment are moved to barrels at this
point.
Malolactic Fermentation
Red wine malolactic fermentation is a critical part
of the Red Wine Production process. While it is

Racking
After malolactic fermentation and any barrel aging are
complete, the wine is removed from its container
through a process called racking. Clear wine is
racked from the top of the container to separate it
from the remaining solids. The debris that remains at
the bottom of the fermentation container is often
used as fertilizer in the vineyard.
Clarification
After racking, most red wines undergo additional
clarification. Different methods are used, with some
being much more invasive than others. Regardless of
which clarification method is used, sulfur dioxide is
added to the wine again at this point to kill any
harmful microorganisms. This is typically the last
step of Red Wine Production before bottling.
Bottling and Labeling

Sweet Wine Production
Botrytis Cinerea
Botrytis cinerea is a fungus that saps moisture from
the grapes, leaving them with a higher concentration
of sugar and acidity. Welcomed and sometimes even
encouraged in the vineyard, it is a scourge to other
fruits. It is most famously used to make
Sauternes, and Chateau d’Yquem is the best
producer. Several producers in California also use
this Sweet Wine Production process to make
impressive Botrytis cinerea wines.
Late Harvest
If grapes are left on the vine past the normal harvest
time, they will develop more concentrated sugars

Passito
Passito is made with grapes that have been semi-dried
and turned into raisins. Passito has a significant
amount of residual sugar and very concentrated
flavours. It has traditionally been made in Tuscany
and Umbria, where it is highly valued. Tuscany is
also the home of this Sweet Wine Production
process.
Sussreserve
Some quality sweet wines are made by adding some
unfermented grapes juice to a fermented wine. In
Germany, the addition of this juice is called
sussreserve or “sweet reserve.” The sugar in the

Fortified Wine
Production
As made them particularly important before
refrigeration, as they could be shipped large
distances and retain their quality. The British
played a major role in this trade.
Port Production
Port is a sweet fortified wine that is made when
Brandy is added before fermentation is
complete. During this type of Fortified Wine
Production, the alcohol kills the yeast cells and
stops fermentation before all of the sugar has
been converted. Port is made in the Douro

Sherry Production
Sherry is a dry fortified wine that is produced in the town
of Jerez, Spain. Unlike Port, it is made when Brandy is
added to a wine after fermentation is complete. Sherry
can have residual sugar, but it is added after
fermentation and fortification. It is made with a very
unique type of Fortified Wine Production.
Marsala Production
Marsala is a fortified wine made on the island of Sicily.
Like many fortified wines, the British were
indispensable in importing and distributing Marsala.
John Woodhouse is credited with introducing the wine
and Fortified Wine Production technique to the
international market.
Madiera Production
Madeira is from the Madeira Islands off the coast of

Steps Involved
The Champagne region of France produces
much of the famous sparkling wines of the
world. The tradition varietals used in Sparkling
Wine Production are Pinot
Noir, Chardonnay, and Pinot Meunier.
Harvest
The harvest of grapes used in Sparkling Wine
Production is usually earlier than it is for
grapes that will be made into still wine. This
ensures that acidity is higher and the sugars
are lower. The result is the light, low alcohol
wine that is made during the first

Pressing
Grapes used for Sparkling Wine Production often
skip the destemming and crushing process.
Instead, pressing occurs immediately when the
grapes arrive at the winery. A pneumatic press
is usually used to extract the juice because it is
delicate and agitates the skins as little as
possible.
First Fermentation
After the grapes are pressed, they undergo their
first fermentation. This produces a still white
wine with low alcohol and high acidity. Most

Blending
Blending of sparkling wine is an extremely
important, labor intensive process. Depending on
whether they are making a vintage or non vintage
wine, vintners are able to blend separate lots from
different parts of the vineyard or wine from previous
years. This is a very difficult part of the Sparkling
Wine Production process that requires considerable
experience as well as an exceptionally refined
palate.
Most sparkling wines are not made entirely from one
particular vintage. A quantity of wine from past

Bottling & Liqueur de Triage Addition
After blending is complete, it is time for bottling.
After the necessary ingredients are added, the
bottles are capped. The critical ingredient is
the liqueur de triage. This is a combination of
yeast and sugar that has been dissolved in
wine. After they are capped, the bottles are
laid on their side in a cool, temperature-
controlled space.

Second Fermentation
As they rest, a second fermentation takes place in the
bottle. Because the carbon dioxide is trapped in the
bottle, the wine becomes carbonated. The part of
the Sparkling Wine Production process rarely takes
longer than two weeks and increases the alcohol to
around 12%.
Aging
Many producers age sparkling wine in the bottle sur lie
after the second fermentation is complete. Contact
with the dead yeast cells imparts a smooth, creamy
character into the wine. High quality sparkling wines
that have been aged for a long time have very small

Riddling
After the sparkling wine has been aged on its lees for
a sufficient amount of time, it is riddled. Riddling
involves working the dead yeast cells to the neck of
the bottle. Veuve Clicquot is credited with greatly
improving this part of the Sparkling Wine Production
process.
Disgorgement
During disgorgement, the wine is cooled to the point
that a bit of liquid freezes around the dead yeast
cells in the neck of the bottle. The goal is to lose as
little wine and carbonation as possible, but also
remove all of the sediment.

Inserting Corks and Labeling
At this point, it is time for inserting corks
and adding the capsules and wire cages
that secure them. Sparkling wine corks
start as cylinders but are changed to their
familiar shape by a very tight fit and high
pressure. The wine labels are then
added, completing the sparkling wine
production process.

Wine Chemistry
Wine chemistry explains the
flavour, balance, colour, stability that was once only
possible through subjective description.
Understanding the principles of wine chemistry will
open your eyes to a new level of wine appreciation.
The Chemical Components of Wine
Wine chemistry can be as simple or complex as you
want. There is always another level of depth, from
the chemical components of wine in taste
perception, to the balance of various phenols, acids
and sugars. This balance is:
> Sweet Taste (sugars + alcohols) <= => Acid Taste
(acids) + Bitter Taste (phenols)
Phenols

Acidity
Flavanoids and non-flavanoids are wine chemicals that have
a profound impact on quality, colour and flavour. These
molecules are largely influenced by acidity, and interact
with acids to form complicated, yet important molecules.
Acidity may be the most important aspect of wine
chemistry.
Alcohol & Sugar
The majority of these acids are produced naturally by the
vines, but their relative levels are adjusted based on a
multitude of factors. One of them is the alcohol
content, which is an indication of the sugar in wine. Sugar
is converted to alcohol by fermentation; thus the sugars
present and their relative concentrations in the grapes are

Wine

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