When you read chapter 6 and the controversy (pages 226-232), you l.docx

When you read chapter 6 and the controversy (pages 226-232),
you learned about the importance of protein, protein need and
quality, and ways to combine foods to get all of the essential
amino acids.
Answer the following questions:
1. Of the positive health aspects of vegetarian diets, discuss
which one is the most compelling for you? (3 points)
2. Of the positive health aspects of a meat eater's diet, discuss
one of the life cycle stages and benefit of animal protein. (3
points)
3. Review Tables C6-1 and C6-2 (pg. 227). If you were to
become a vegetarian, what kind would you be and why? If you
already are a vegetarian, please share with us what kind and
why you chose to be a vegetarian. (6 points)
4. Most of us will not choose to become vegetarians, but many
of us would benefit from eating less meat. Identify two ways
you could alter your diet so that you eat less animal protein. (2
points)
Nutrition: Concepts & Controversies, 13th edition, Sizer &
Whitney
The Proteins and Amino Acids
Chapter 6
Whitney
Learning ObjectivesDescribe why some amino acids are

essential, non-essential, or conditionally essential to the human
body, and state the outcome should any one of them be lacking
from the diet.Describe the digestion of protein and the
absorption and transport of amino acids in the body.List the
roles that various proteins and amino acids can play in the body,
and describe the influence of carbohydrate on amino acid
metabolism.Discuss the concept of nitrogen balance, and
compute the amount of protein needed for a healthy college
student.
Whitney
Learning ObjectivesDiscuss potential physical problems from an
eating plan that is too low or too high in protein.Identify
protein-rich foods, and list some extra advantages associated
with legumes.Summarize the health advantages and nutrition red
flags of vegetarian diets, and develop a lacto-ovo vegetarian
eating pattern that meets all nutrient requirements for a given
individual.
Whitney
ProteinOf prime importanceWorking proteinsEnzymes,
antibodies, transport vehicles, hormonesStructural
proteinsMuscle tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments (bone to
bone), hair, material of nails
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The Structure of ProteinsDifference from carbohydrates and
fatsAmino acidsCarbon atom with amine group and acid
groupSide chainEssential amino acidsConditionally
essentialRecyclingPriority system
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Essential Amino AcidsThe body cannot make these amino
acidsWithout them, the body cannot make the proteins it needs
to do this workWe must eat these foods that provide the
essential amino acids
Non-essential amino acidsCan be synthesized by the body
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Amino Acids
ESSENTIAL
AAHistidineIsoleucineLeucineLysineMethioninePhenylalanineT
hreonineTryptophanValine
NON-ESSENTIAL AAAlanineArginineAsparagineAspartic
acidCysteineGlutamic
acidGlutamineGlycineProlineSerineTyrosine
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Conditionally Essential Amino Acid An amino acids that is
normally non-essential Under special circumstances, when the

need for it exceeds that body’s ability to produce it, it must be
normally makes tyrosine from phenylalanineIf the diet fails to
supply enough phenylalanine, or if the body cannot make the
conversion (as in the case of phenylketonuria, PKU), then
tyrosine becomes a conditionally essential amino acid
Whitney
Recycling Amino AcidsThe body can break down proteins and
reuse those amino acidsBody can now build the protein
molecules it needs Cells can use amino acids for
energyDiscarding the nitrogen atoms as wasteProvides access to
an emergency fund of amino acids in times of fuel, glucose, or
protein deprivationThe body employs a priority system in
selecting the tissue proteins to dismantleUsed first are the small
proteins of the blood and muscleThen the body may be forced to
use as structural protein of the heart and other organs
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Amino Acids Important in Nutrition
Whitney
How Do Amino Acids Build Proteins?Peptide bondsLink amino
acidsAmine group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of
the other amino acidStrands of amino acids do not remain
straightCoilsFoldsSide chain electrical charge – attracts
waterNo charge (neutral) – repels waterMay need a vitamin or

mineral to activate itIron - hemoglobin
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Different Amino Acids Join Together
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A Variety of ProteinsGlobular proteins are water
solubleProteins of bloodSome proteins form hollow ballsCan
carry and store materials in their interiorSome proteins are more
than 10x as long as they are wideProteins of tendonsInsoluble in
water and very strongSome proteins are composed of more than
a single amino acid chainNutrients and gene expression
Whitney
ExamplesCollagenA protein from which connective tissues are
madeScars, tendons, ligaments, and the foundations of bones
and teethActs somewhat like glue between cellsInsulinHelps
regulate blood sugarEnzymes- a protein catalystsA catalyst is a
substance that facilitates a chemical reaction without itself
being alteredHemoglobinComposed of 4 protein strandsLarge,
globular protein; packed into red blood cells, carries
oxygenEach strand holds an iron atom

Whitney
The Coiling and Folding of a Protein Molecule
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Nutrients Influence Genetic ExpressionCells monitor nutrient
concentrations in the fluids surrounding themPancreasWhen
blood glucose is overabundant, synthesizes insulinResults in a
lowering of blood glucose concentrationHemoglobinLow iron
=> immature red blood cells respond by reducing hemoglobin
synthesisAbundant iron => stimulates hemoglobin synthesis by
immature red blood cells
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The Structure of Hemoglobin
Whitney
Normal Red Blood Cells and Sickle Cells
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Protein Synthesis

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Denaturation of ProteinsChange in shape of the proteinFirst step
in its destructionDenaturing agentsHeat, acids, bases,
alcoholStomach – hydrochloric acidCooking - heatPeptide
bonds can now be broken
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Salts of Heavy MetalsMany well-known poisons are salts of
heavy metals such as mercury and silverThese denature proteins
whenever they touch themCommon first-aid antidote for
swallowing a heavy-metal poisonDrink milk
The poison acts on the protein in the milk rather than on body
protein
Vomiting can latter expel the milk-poison combination
Whitney
Protein DigestionStomachAcid helps to denatures (uncoils) the
protein’s tangled strands so that molecules of the stomach’s
protein-digesting enzyme (pepsin) can attack the peptide
bondsSmall IntestineReceives a few are single amino acidsMost
are polypeptides10+ amino acids bonded together

Whitney
DigestionSmall IntestineBicarbonate from the pancreas
neutralizes the acid from stomachProtein-digesting enzymes
Pancreastrypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypolypeptidaseSmall
intestine –peptidase –continues breaking down protein until
nearly all that is left are dipeptides, tripeptides, or single amino
acids
Whitney
A Dipeptide and Tripeptide
Whitney
How Protein in Food Becomes Amino Acids in the Body
Whitney
Amino Acid AbsorptionSingle amino acids are
absorbedEnzymes (peptidase) on their surfaces that split most
tri- and dipeptides into single amino acidsCells of the small
intestinePosses separate sites for absorbing different types of
amino acidsAmino acids may compete for the same absorption
sitesThus, when a large dose of any single amino acid is
ingested the absorption of other amino acids of the same general
type may be limited

Whitney
© 2006 Thomson-Wadsworth
Misleading and False ClaimsDon’t be mislead by advertisers
urging, for example“Take enzyme A to help digest your
food.”“Don’t eat food containing enzyme C, which will digest
cells in your body.”Even the stomach’s digestive enzymes are
denatured and absorbed when their jobs are throughAnother
false claimPredigested proteins (amino acid supplements) are
“easy to digest” and can therefore protect the digestive system
from “overworking”The healthy digestive system handles whole
proteins better than predigested ones
© 2006 Thomson-Wadsworth
Whitney
The Importance of ProteinAmino acids must be continually
availableBuilding of new proteinsAmino acids are needed each
dayProtein turnover
Whitney
Roles of Body Proteins
Regulation of gene expression
Providing structure and movement
Muscle tissue
Other structural proteins
Building enzymes, hormones, & other compounds
Tyrosine => thyroxine (thyroid hormone)

Tryptophan => seratonin (neurotransmitter) and niacin (vitamin)
Whitney
Enzyme Action
Whitney
Amino Acid Sequence of Human Insulin
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Building antibodies - immunity
Transporting substancesHemoglobin and lipoproteins
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The Roles of Body Proteins
Maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance
Albumin
Edema
Whitney

Maintaining acid-base balance
Acidosis and alkalosis
Buffers keep a solutions acidity or alkalinity constant
Blood clotting
Providing energy and glucose
Whitney
Protein EnergyWill be used for energy if it has to4
kcal/gramWhen used for energy loses is amino group
(NH2)Amino either used elsewhere or turned into urea by the
liverUrea sent to kidney for excretion (urine)Fragments remain,
C, H, O2 – can be used to build CHO and fats
Whitney
Amino Acids to GlucoseAmino acids can be converted to
glucoseCan maintain blood glucose levelsCan serve the glucose
needs of the brain Amino acids can be converted to fatNo
storage compound for protein
Whitney
Fate of an Amino AcidUsed to build proteinConverted to other
small nitrogen containing compounds such as niacin (a B
vitamin)Converted to other amino acidsStripped of nitrogen,
amino acids can beConverted to glucoseBurned as fuelStored as
fat

Whitney
The Macronutrients
For energyCHO offers energyFats offer concentrated
energyProteins offer energy plus nitrogen
In storageGlucose stored as glycogenFat stored as
triglyceridesProtein not stored – available only as active
working molecular and structural components of tissue
Whitney
Three Different Energy Sources
Whitney
Activity: Practice Calculations1. A food Item contains 5
grams of carbohydrate, 2 grams of fat and 3 grams of protein.
How many calories does this product yield? ___________
2. A food contains 30 grams of CHO and 9 grams of fat, 20
grams of protein. How many calories does this product yield?
__________
Whitney
Answer 15 grams of CHO x 4 kcal/gram = 20 kcal2 grams of fat
x 9 kcal/gram = 18 kcal3 grams of protein x 4 kcal/gram = 12
kcal
Total = 50 kcal

Whitney
Answer 230 grams of CHO x 4 kcal/gram = 120 kcal9 grams of
fat x 9 kcal/gram = 81 kcal20 grams of protein x 4 kcal/gram =
80 kcal
Total = 281 kcal
Whitney
Protein and Amino Acid SupplementsProtein supplementsDo not
improve performanceNot effective for weight lossAmino acid
supplementsBody designed to work with whole proteinsNo safe
level of amino acid supplementationHow do you gain
muscle?Think Fitness!
Whitney
People Most Likely to Be Harmed by Amino Acid Supplements
Whitney
How Much Protein Do People Really Need?DRIAdults: 0.8
grams per kg of body weightMore athletic: 1.0-1.2 grams/kg
body weightAdult women: 46 grams/dayAdult males: 56
grams/dayAMDR: 10-35% of kcal from proteinUSDA Food
Guide MyPlate: HW due by Oct. 2, see Assignments tab)

Whitney
How Much Protein?Body’s healthMalnutritionInfectionOther
nutrients and energyFull array of macronutrients and
micronutrientsQuality Varied diet
Whitney
Nitrogen BalanceNitrogen excreted as compared to nitrogen
eatenLevels in healthy adultsVariation in nitrogen
balancePositive balanceExamplesNegative balanceExamples
Whitney
Nitrogen Balance
Whitney
Protein QualityHigh-quality proteinsEnough of all essential
amino acidsLimiting amino acidsComplementary
proteinsMutual supplementationProtein digestibilityProtein
qualityAnimal proteinsLegumes
Whitney
Complementary Protein Combinations

Whitney
Protein DigestibilitySome proteins are more digestible than
othersEggs vs. oatsPerspective on quality proteinsMeeting
protein needs is not a problem for most people in the US, even
if we were to eat no animal products at allNeed to pay attention
to mutual supplementationVaried, adequate in kcal, nutrient
denseMalnutrition, limited protein => need to asses
Whitney
Too little protein?World’s leading form of malnutritionProtein
combined with energy deficienciesProtein-energy malnutrition
(PEM)Most widespread form of malnutrition in the worldTwo
forms
Marasmus
Kwashiorkor
Whitney
Protein Deficiency
MarasmusCommon in children 6-18 mo.Children fed
weak cereal, low quality proteinWizened old personMuscle
wastingLittle body fat for insulationHemoglobin,
antibodiesDysentery – diarrheaMight progress to pt of no return
Whitney

Protein DeficiencyKwashiorkor – Ghanian – the evil spirit that
infects the first child after the second child is bornWeaning of
babies from high-quality breastmilkFluid balance is
diminishedEdema and fatty liverRisk of infection – liver cannot
filter toxinsPEM at home
Whitney
Protein ExcessOverconsumption of protein-rich foodsNo health
benefits, possible health risksU.S. protein intakes,
sufficientDiets suggesting 65% protein unwarrantedHeart
diseaseSaturated fatProtein may raise levels of
homocysteineKidney diseaseAdult bone loss -
osteoporosisCancer of colon and rectum from well-cooked red
meat and highly processed meatsLow-gluten diet
Whitney
Getting Enough but Not Too Much ProteinProtein-rich
foodsProtein is critical to nutritionDisplacement of other
necessary foodsAdvantages of legumesProteinVitamin and
mineral sourceSoybeansTofu
Whitney
Top Contributors of Protein to the U.S. Diet

Whitney
A Legume
Protein rich foodsThe advantages of legumesKidney bean,
soybean, green peas, lentil, black-eyed peas, lima beansOne cup
of cooked legumes contain about 30% of the DV for both
protein and ironTextured proteins fall shortTofu – calcium set
Whitney
Orecchiette with
broccoli rabe and tomatoes
Olive oil
Breadcrumbs
Coarse salt
Anchovy fillets
Garlic cloves
Capers
Cherry tomatoes
Red-pepper flakes
Broccoli rabe
Orecchiete pasta
WHERE DO THESE FOODS FIT ON MyPlate?
SEE NEXT SLIDE
Whitney

Whitney
Vegetarian and Meat-Containing Diets: What Are the Benefits
and Pitfalls?
Controversy 6
Whitney
Introduction Affluent countriesDisease riskBenefits of
vegetarian dietsVegetarian lifestyleCategorizes by foods they
choose to eat
Whitney
Terms Used to Describe Vegetarian Diets
Whitney
Positive Health Aspects of Vegetarian DietsOther health
behaviors associated with being vegetarianObesity Heart
diseaseBlood lipids HypertensionCancer Other health
benefitsDiabetes, osteoporosis, diverticular disease
Whitney
Positive Health Aspects of the Meat Eater’s DietCritical times

in lifeEnergy, B12, vitamin D, calcium, iron, omega 3,
proteinPregnancy and infancyChildhoodAdolescenceAging
Whitney
Choosing to be Vegetarian
Reasons include:A belief that we should not kill animals to eat
their meatMany people don’t want to endorse the inhumane
treatment of livestockSome believe we should eat less meat for
health reasonsSome believe we should eat less meat for
environmental reasonsProduction of meat protein requires a
much greater input of resources than does an equal amount of
vegetable proteinSome fear contracting diseasesSuch as food
poisoning
Whitney
Planning a Vegetarian DietChoosing within the food
groupsProtein foods groupOils groupMilk productsConvenience
foods
Whitney
Filling the Vegetarian MyPlate
Whitney

Planning a Vegetarian DietVegetarian food patternsEnsure
adequate intakes ProteinIronZincCalciumVitamin B12Vitamin
DOmega-3 fatty acids
Whitney
My Vegetarian Food Pyramid
HSD 240 – ONLINE
Chapter 6: The Proteins and Amino Acids
Protein
· Of prime importance
· Working proteins -- enzymes, antibodies, transport vehicles,
hormones
· Structural proteins -- muscle tendons (muscle to bone),
ligaments (bone to bone), hair, material of nails
Structure of Proteins
· Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen AND nitrogen
· The nitrogen atoms give the name amino (nitrogen containing)
to amino acids
· Amino acids are the building blocks of protein
· The amino acids in a strand of protein are different from on
another – can contain 20 different kinds of amino acids
Amino Acids

· All amino acids have a chemical backbone consisting of single
carbon atoms with both an amine group (the amine group) and
an acid group (carboxyl group)
· The differences in amino acids depends on the chemical side
chain that is attached to the center carbon of the backbone
· It is the side chain that gives identity and chemical nature to
each amino acid
· The side chains makes the amino acids differ in size, shape,
and electrical charge
· There are 20 amino acids; the body can make most of them
from fragments of carbohydrate or fat to make the backbone,
and nitrogen from other sources to make the amine group
Essential Amino Acids
· The body cannot make these amino acids
· Without them, the body cannot make the proteins it needs to
do its work
· Therefore, we must eat the foods that provide these essential
amino acids
· Phenylalanine, an essential amino acids
· Phenylalanine ( tyrosine (a non-essential amino acid)
· If the enzyme needed to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine is
absent – condition called PKU
· Phenylalanine builds up in the blood and this results in a
decrease in IQ in infants

Building Protein
· Amino acids are connected by a peptide bond – formed
between the amine group and the acid group of the next amino
acid
· Proteins take on different shapes depending on their charges
· If side chain electrically charged – proteins are attracted to
water
· If side chain are neutral – repelled by water; tuck themselves
away from body fluids
· Several strands of protein may cluster together in a
functioning unit
· Some proteins need a vitamin or mineral to activate it
· The different shapes of protein allow them to perform
different tasks in the body
· Enzymes – act on other substances to change them chemically;
they are proteins
· Hemoglobin – a globular protein that carries oxygen in the red
blood cells
· No restriction on length of amino aids – they can make up
thousands of different proteins
· The amino acids that make up a protein molecule are
specified by hereditary; for each protein there is a proper amino
acid sequence; if a wrong amino acid is inherited, the result
could be disastrous to health e.g. sickle cell disease
Denaturation of Protein

· Proteins shape can be changed by heat, acids, bases, and
alcohol
· Denaturation = change in shape
· Denaturation of protein is the first step in its destruction
· During digestion of protein, the stomach acid opens up the
proteins structure
· Once the structure is open, digestion can break the peptide
bonds
The Digestion of Protein
Stomach
· Where protein digestion begins
· Acids (HCl) in the stomach uncoils (denatures) protein into
strands
· Stomach enzymes (pepsin) then begin to break the chemical
(peptide) bonds into amino acids
· Protein ----------------polypeptides
--------------tripeptides
--------------dipeptides
--------------single amino acids
--------------few whole proteins

Small Intestine
· Acid from the stomach is neutralized by alkaline juice
(bicarbonate) secreted by the pancreas
· Protein digesting enzymes from the pancreas (trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase) and intestines (peptidase)
continue to break peptide bonds between tripeptides and
dipeptides
· Intestinal cells absorb amino acids and transfer amino acids
into the bloodstream
· Bloodstream transports amino acids to all the body’s cells
· Protein synthesis occurs in the cells – DNA, mRNA, tRNA –
gene expression
The Roles of Protein in the Body
1. Regulation of gene expression
2. Providing structure and movement
3. Building enzymes, hormones and other compounds
4. Building antibodies
5. Transporting substances
6. Maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance
7. Maintaining acid-base balance
8. Blood clotting
9. Provide energy and glucose
Protein energy

· Will be used for energy if it has to
· 1 gram of protein yields 4 kcal
· When used for energy it loses its amine
· Amine group either used elsewhere or turned into urea by the
liver (deamination)
· Urea sent to the kidney for excretion in the form of urine
· Fragments that remain – C, H, O2 – can be used to build CHO
and fats
· Amino acids can be converted to glucose
· Amino acids can be converted to fat, and fats will be stored
· So, if need be, protein can help maintain a steady blood
glucose and also serve the glucose needs for the brain
For EnergyIn Storage
Carbohydrates offer energy
Glucose is stored as glycogen
Fats offer concentrated energy
Fat is stored as triglycerides
Proteins offer energy plus nitrogen
Protein is not stored – available ONLY as active working
molecular and structural components of tissue
Summary
Amino acids in a cell can be
· Used to build proteins

· Converted to other small nitrogen-containing compounds such
as vitamins or niacin
· Converted to other amino acids
Stripped of their nitrogen, amino acids can be
· Converted to glucose
· Burned as fuel
· Stored as fat
CONSUMER CORNER: Evaluating Protein and Amino Acid
Supplements
How much protein do we need? Table 6-3
DRI
Adults – 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight
The more athletic adult – 1.0-1.2 grams/kg of body weight
Women – 46 grams per day
Men – 56 grams per day
AMDR 10-35% of kcal from protein
USDA Food Guide Pyramid (MyPyramid)
Other factors to consider:
· The Body’s Health
· Malnutrition and infection increase the body’s need for protein
· Other Nutrients and Energy

· Need a full array of macronutrients and micronutrients
· Protein Quality
· Part of a normal fixed diet
Nitrogen balance
· We need enough protein to maintain nitrogen balance – the
amount of nitrogen consumed being equal to the amount of
nitrogen excreted
· Adults need to maintain equilibrium
· Infants, children, pregnant and lactating women, body
builders, are in positive nitrogen balance – retaining more
nitrogen than they are excreting
· Surgery, space travel, starvation, results in negative nitrogen
balance – muscle tissue being broken down and lost
What Foods Provide High QualityProtein?
· Depends on its amino acid content
· High –quality protein (formerly “complete protein”) – proteins
that provide all of the essential amino acids
· Animal proteins, eggs
· Milk , yogurt, cheese
· Most soybean products
· If the diet fails to provide enough of the essential amino acids
· Internal proteins are broken down to liberate the needed
essential amino acid
· Conserve the essential amino acid by limiting the synthesis of

protein
· Limiting Amino Acid
· An essential amino acid that is present in dietary protein in an
insufficient amount, thereby limiting the body’s ability to build
protein
· Complementary Protein: eating two different foods where
essential amino acids are lacking (or low) in one are provided in
the other and vice versa
· Two proteins do not need to be eaten together as long as the
diet provides enough energy and total protein from a variety of
sources
· Mutual supplementation
· Legumes – foods of the pea, bean and lentil family that are
nitrogen-fixing; their seeds are rich in protein
· Protein Digestibility
· Some proteins are more digestible than others
· Oats vs. eggs
· Perspective on protein quality
· Meeting protein needs not a problem for most people in the US
even if they were to eat no animal products at all
· Need to pay attention to mutual supplementation
· Varied, adequate in calories, nutrient dense
· What about where food energy is limited (where malnutrition
exists) or protein limited
· Fufu – low-protein staple food of the cassava root

Protein Deficiency and Excess
What happens when people consume too little protein
· Deficiency in protein and energy can result in protein-energy
malnutrition (PEM), the most widespread form of malnutrition
in the world
· Marasmus
· 6-18 months of age
· Children fed weak cereal drink, low calorie, low protein
quality
· Child looks like a wizened old person
· Muscle wasting
· Little body fat for insulation
· Insufficient protein for hemoglobin, antibodies
· Dysentery – infection of the digestive tract – diarrhea
· Might progress to a point of no return
· Kwashiorkor – Ghanian name for “the evil spirit that infects
the first child when the second child is born”
· Breastmilk – high quality protein
· When baby is weaned, low quality protein follows
· Some symptoms resemble marasmus minus the severe wasting
· Edema in belly and legs
· Fatty liver – lack of transport proteins
· Liver needs to filter toxins

· PEM at home
Is it possible to consume too much protein?
· Overconsumption of protein offers no benefits and may pose
some risks
· US protein intakes – most consume sufficient amounts of
protein; high-protein diets suggesting 65% of calories for
weight loss not warranted
· Heart Disease
· Saturated fat from animal protein and milk, yogurt , cheese
(full fat varieties)
· Homocysteine and heart disease; high protein might raise the
level of this amino acid and increase the risk of heart disease
· Kidney disease- protein diets
· Adult bone loss - osteoporosis
· Cancer
· Colon and rectum from well-cooked red meats and highly
processed meats
· Is a Low-Gluten Diet Best for Health?
· Gluten and celiac disease
Food Feature: Getting Enough but Not Too Much Protein
· Legumes
· Textured vegetable protein
· Tofu – curd made from soybeans

Controversy 6: Vegetarian and Meat Consuming Diets
Vegetarians -- Table C6-1
· People who consciously choose not to eat animal some or all
products
· Fruitarian
· Lacto-ovo vegetarians
· Lacto-vegetarians
· Ovo-vegetarian
· Vegan
· Partial vegetarians
· Pesco-vegetarian
Positive health effects – reduced risk of
· Obesity, heart disease, blood pressure, cancer, diabetes,
osteoporosis, diverticular disease
Positive aspects of a meat eater’s diet
· Energy, B12, vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, , omega 3, and
protein for all stages of the lifecycle
Planning a Vegetarian Diet
Vegetarian Food Guide Pyramid - In what way do the food
groups differ? See page 226
PAGE
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