Once teachers understand what is involved
in comprehending and how the factors of
reader, text, and context interact to create
meaning, they can more easily teach their
students to be effective comprehenders.
This document summarizes the author's journey in developing an inquiry stance in their literacy classroom over the course of a semester. The author reflects on how readings on theorists like Dewey, Rosenblatt, Freire, and hooks have shaped their understanding of inquiry and critical literacy. The author discusses wanting to move beyond just reflection to engaging in praxis through critically examining their own teaching practices using action research. The author aims to create a learning environment focused on student questions where all voices are valued and that challenges dominant narratives through questioning.
The book reviews So Each May Learn: Integrating Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences by Harvey Silver, Richard Strong, and Matthew Perini. It summarizes the key points of the book, including how it combines Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences with Carl Jung's four dimensions of personality and learning styles. The book shows teachers how to integrate these concepts into their classrooms to improve student learning through varied instructional techniques. It also profiles the authors and their experience in education and curriculum development.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document summarizes a study that examined the emotional dimensions of transformative learning processes in novice teachers. The study involved 100 novice teachers writing narratives about critical incidents from their teaching practicums. The narratives were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively to identify transformative processes and turning points in developing professional epistemologies. A first quantitative analysis found that most narratives focused on relationships with students, with few focusing on relationships with expert teachers or personal and professional beliefs. A qualitative analysis then examined narratives through triangulation to understand the intersection of epistemic, psychological, and socio-linguistic perspectives and how they changed to construct professional identities. The analysis aimed to provide insight into the emotions involved in transforming frames of reference during practicum experiences
This document discusses creating a literate environment for early readers. It emphasizes the importance of getting to know literacy learners through non-cognitive and cognitive assessments, selecting engaging texts matched to student skills and interests, and using interactive, critical, and response perspectives in literacy lessons. The interactive perspective focuses on fluent comprehension, the critical perspective on evaluating texts, and the response perspective on forming personal reactions. Together these help develop well-rounded readers.
teori konstruktivisme terbagi menjadi dua menurut piaget yaitu teori konstruktivisme individual dan menurut vygotsky konstruktivisme sosial, teori vygotsky kemudian berkembang karena dalam pembelajaran siswa membutuhkan interaksi sosial yang dipengaruhi lingkungannya dalam mengembangkan pengetahuannya.
This document outlines Lana Caster's comprehensive behavior management and social-emotional learning plan as a high school special education teacher. The plan emphasizes making students feel welcome, safe, and challenged. It focuses on developing students' self-awareness, social skills, cultural competence, and collaboration skills to help them transition beyond secondary school. The classroom is designed to promote movement and comfort. Rules and consequences are clearly defined. Collaboration with students, families, and other staff is a priority to ensure student needs are met.
The document discusses the importance of understanding students' reading comprehension processes in order to identify challenges and implement effective instructional practices. It summarizes studies that observed how middle and high school students in Colombia constructed meaning individually and in groups. The studies found that meaning-making is a social process influenced by students' backgrounds and contexts. Teachers should focus on generating environments where students can grow individually and socially, rather than solely emphasizing test performance.
This document summarizes the author's journey in developing an inquiry stance in their literacy classroom over the course of a semester. The author reflects on how readings on theorists like Dewey, Rosenblatt, Freire, and hooks have shaped their understanding of inquiry and critical literacy. The author discusses wanting to move beyond just reflection to engaging in praxis through critically examining their own teaching practices using action research. The author aims to create a learning environment focused on student questions where all voices are valued and that challenges dominant narratives through questioning.
The book reviews So Each May Learn: Integrating Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences by Harvey Silver, Richard Strong, and Matthew Perini. It summarizes the key points of the book, including how it combines Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences with Carl Jung's four dimensions of personality and learning styles. The book shows teachers how to integrate these concepts into their classrooms to improve student learning through varied instructional techniques. It also profiles the authors and their experience in education and curriculum development.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document summarizes a study that examined the emotional dimensions of transformative learning processes in novice teachers. The study involved 100 novice teachers writing narratives about critical incidents from their teaching practicums. The narratives were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively to identify transformative processes and turning points in developing professional epistemologies. A first quantitative analysis found that most narratives focused on relationships with students, with few focusing on relationships with expert teachers or personal and professional beliefs. A qualitative analysis then examined narratives through triangulation to understand the intersection of epistemic, psychological, and socio-linguistic perspectives and how they changed to construct professional identities. The analysis aimed to provide insight into the emotions involved in transforming frames of reference during practicum experiences
This document discusses creating a literate environment for early readers. It emphasizes the importance of getting to know literacy learners through non-cognitive and cognitive assessments, selecting engaging texts matched to student skills and interests, and using interactive, critical, and response perspectives in literacy lessons. The interactive perspective focuses on fluent comprehension, the critical perspective on evaluating texts, and the response perspective on forming personal reactions. Together these help develop well-rounded readers.
teori konstruktivisme terbagi menjadi dua menurut piaget yaitu teori konstruktivisme individual dan menurut vygotsky konstruktivisme sosial, teori vygotsky kemudian berkembang karena dalam pembelajaran siswa membutuhkan interaksi sosial yang dipengaruhi lingkungannya dalam mengembangkan pengetahuannya.
This document outlines Lana Caster's comprehensive behavior management and social-emotional learning plan as a high school special education teacher. The plan emphasizes making students feel welcome, safe, and challenged. It focuses on developing students' self-awareness, social skills, cultural competence, and collaboration skills to help them transition beyond secondary school. The classroom is designed to promote movement and comfort. Rules and consequences are clearly defined. Collaboration with students, families, and other staff is a priority to ensure student needs are met.
The document discusses the importance of understanding students' reading comprehension processes in order to identify challenges and implement effective instructional practices. It summarizes studies that observed how middle and high school students in Colombia constructed meaning individually and in groups. The studies found that meaning-making is a social process influenced by students' backgrounds and contexts. Teachers should focus on generating environments where students can grow individually and socially, rather than solely emphasizing test performance.
- There are several approaches to teaching beginning readers, including teaching the alphabet, developing phonemic awareness, and using a five-step decoding system.
- Effective programs provide opportunities for children to expand their oral and written language skills, read aloud daily, learn sound-letter relationships, develop decoding strategies, write, build vocabulary, and learn comprehension strategies.
- The goal is for children to understand the building blocks of language and reading in order to become independent and proficient readers.
The International Baccalaureate (IB) MYP provides a flexible framework for students aged 11-16 that meets national standards while developing inquisitive, knowledgeable and caring young people. The MYP emphasizes contextual learning, intercultural understanding and reflection through its five subject groups and core components of approaches to learning, community and service, health and social education, and the personal project.
This document discusses several theories and approaches related to educational technology and teaching and learning. It describes behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism as the three main theoretical frameworks that have been present in educational technology literature. It provides details on behaviorist learning theory and theorists like BF Skinner. It also discusses cognitive learning theories and constructivist teaching methods that emphasize problem-solving and social learning. Specific technologies like tutorials, simulations, and cooperative/collaborative software are described in terms of how they can support behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist approaches to instruction.
- The document discusses the assumptions of andragogy, which are that adult learners are self-directed, bring experience to learning, are ready to learn, are problem-centered, and are motivated internally. It analyzes how these assumptions apply to online learning environments.
- Specifically, it notes that online courses should allow learners to identify their own goals and activities while still providing structure and guidance from instructors. Courses should also foster collaboration and communication between learners.
- Challenges to applying the assumptions, like some learners lacking self-direction skills or resources, are also addressed. The document advocates a balanced approach between learner independence and instructor support.
The document discusses designing a lesson plan for faculty at a community college to help shift from a lecture-focused teaching style to one centered around developing higher-level thinking skills in students. The lesson plan will introduce Bloom's Taxonomy and have faculty design a revised syllabus that incorporates activities emphasizing higher-order thinking. The goal is to model critical thinking for students and help faculty move past solely lecturing and memorization of facts. Attachments provide a content analysis of topics to be covered and learning objectives for the lesson with measurable criteria.
Teachers used to rely heavily on standardized tests to monitor students' reading progress, but these tests are not accurate indicators of what individual students can do as readers. A better approach is to use authentic assessments like observations, interviews, samples of student work, and conferences to evaluate different aspects of reading development. These include comprehending text, processing words and cues, fluency, use of reading strategies, and personal perceptions of reading. Monitoring reading processes through various authentic assessments helps teachers understand students' strengths and needs, and informs effective reading instruction.
This document discusses the technique of anchoring in education. It begins by defining anchoring as a technique in Neuro-Linguistic Programming that involves associating desired mental states with stimuli to help manage emotions. In education, anchoring situates learning within an authentic context to engage students in problem-solving. Anchored instruction presents problems through video to immerse students and help with comprehension. The document then discusses several theories that support anchored learning, such as situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship. It provides examples of how anchoring can be used in the classroom through activities and video problems for students to solve. Overall, the document advocates for anchoring instruction as an active, engaging approach to learning that situates knowledge within a meaningful
The document discusses the process and benefits of reading. It describes reading as a complex cognitive process involving decoding symbols to derive meaning through interaction between the text and reader. There are three main theories of reading comprehension: schema theory involving prior knowledge, mental model theory creating a story in one's head, and proposition theory constructing main ideas. The benefits of reading include mental stimulation, stress reduction, knowledge gain, vocabulary expansion, memory improvement, analytical thinking, focus, better writing skills, tranquility, and free entertainment. Overall, reading provides a variety of cognitive benefits and is an efficient way to learn.
1) Teaching reading across different subject areas requires using culturally responsive pedagogy to make content more relevant and engaging for students, especially in urban schools.
2) Successful reading strategies for content areas include prereading activities to build background knowledge, reading strategies like making predictions and summarizing, and after reading activities like discussion and applying information to real world examples.
3) For reading instruction to be effective across subjects, teachers must see themselves as teachers of reading and use culturally relevant materials, strategies, and connections to help students comprehend complex texts and transfer reading skills between content areas.
The document summarizes a study that examined the relationships between psychological constructs in Garrison's model of self-directed learning, including self-management, self-monitoring, and motivation. 119 undergraduate students completed a questionnaire measuring these constructs. Results showed the constructs are interrelated and motivation mediates the relationship between self-management and self-monitoring. Self-management and self-monitoring significantly predicted academic achievement over two semesters, with self-management being the strongest predictor. Motivation significantly predicted achievement in the second semester only. The implications for self-directed learning and academic achievement are discussed.
The document discusses the need and function of teaching advanced methods of teaching. It defines teaching as a process that usually occurs in the classroom where a teacher conveys information to students. Teaching is needed to provide knowledge, pass on information, teach skills, change attitudes, modify behavior, and give life experiences to students. Effective teaching requires preparation, classroom interaction, and addressing students directly. Teaching also occurs outside the classroom through informal interactions.
The document discusses characteristics of 21st century learners and learning theories. It provides three key characteristics of 21st century learners: 1) They prefer active, hands-on learning and see teachers as coaches; 2) They learn content in a networked, multitasking way and through interdisciplinary projects; 3) They use and share information from multiple technology-based formats. The document then compares learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism and discusses their principles, instructional processes, roles of teachers and students. Finally, it outlines eight principles of effective instruction including assessing prior knowledge, considering individual differences, stating objectives, developing metacognitive skills, providing social interaction, incorporating realistic contexts, engaging relevant
The document discusses reading comprehension strategies that proficient readers use to understand text. It outlines several key strategies:
1. Prior knowledge helps readers make connections between the text and their own experiences and background knowledge.
2. Self-monitoring allows readers to check their understanding as they read and use strategies like re-reading when comprehension breaks down.
3. Making predictions, asking questions, visualizing, summarizing, inferring, connecting, and synthesizing new information are all active strategies good readers employ to understand text.
4. Teaching these strategies explicitly is important, but the goal is for students to combine multiple strategies flexibly based on what they are reading.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
The document discusses different perspectives and practices for literacy instruction in the classroom. It describes using assessment to understand students' literacy development and determine reading levels. Classroom assessments help identify strengths and weaknesses to guide instruction. The document also discusses selecting texts that engage students and promote comprehension, including a variety of linguistic, narrative, and informational texts. Interactive instruction is described to teach reading strategies and metacognition. The critical perspective is meant to develop critical thinking and value different opinions.
Banking model of education in teacher centered class-a critical assessmentAlexander Decker
This document discusses Paulo Freire's criticism of the "banking model" of education, where teachers deposit knowledge into students viewed as empty vessels. It provides context on Freire's work and defines key aspects of the banking model. Specifically:
1) Freire viewed the banking model as treating students as empty vessels to be filled by all-knowing teachers, denying students' creativity and critical thinking.
2) According to Freire, the banking model reflects societies of oppression by establishing hierarchies between teachers and students.
3) Freire argued the banking model denies students' human potential by reducing them to passive objects rather than active participants in the learning process.
This document discusses theories of learning and their implications for teaching. It covers behaviorism and how it has influenced concepts like learning objectives and outcomes. It also discusses cognitive psychology, constructivism, and humanistic perspectives on learning. The document examines different views of how students learn and various theories that seek to explain the learning process. Overall, it provides an overview of the major theories of learning and how they can inform teaching practices.
1) John sees a new heaven, new earth, and New Jerusalem descending from heaven, prepared as a bride for her husband. God will dwell with his people and wipe away every tear.
2) The holy city is described with great detail, including its massive size, beautiful jeweled foundations and walls, and open gates welcoming the redeemed.
3) The nations and kings will bring their glory into the city, which is illuminated by God's glory and has no night, being eternal fellowship with God.
El documento resume varias noticias políticas de México. Se anuncia que el gobierno federal clausurará media docena de clínicas médicas no autorizadas. La Comisión de Justicia del Senado aprobó por unanimidad a Arely Gómez como nueva procuradora general. También se informa sobre la detención del líder criminal Servando Gómez Martínez.
O documento discute a concepção construtivista da aprendizagem de acordo com diferentes autores. Ele explica que na visão construtivista 1) os alunos constroem ativamente o conhecimento com base em suas experiências e conhecimentos prévios, 2) fatores afetivos e sociais influenciam a motivação e a aprendizagem, e 3) é papel do professor mediar a construção do conhecimento pelos alunos.
Este documento presenta los principales pasos del diagnóstico realizado durante una consultoría. Explica las fuentes de información, los métodos de obtención y análisis de datos, así como el diagnóstico integral de las diferentes áreas operativas de una organización. El objetivo principal es replantear el problema, definir los hechos necesarios para su análisis, e informar periódicamente al cliente sobre los hallazgos para garantizar su participación activa.
- There are several approaches to teaching beginning readers, including teaching the alphabet, developing phonemic awareness, and using a five-step decoding system.
- Effective programs provide opportunities for children to expand their oral and written language skills, read aloud daily, learn sound-letter relationships, develop decoding strategies, write, build vocabulary, and learn comprehension strategies.
- The goal is for children to understand the building blocks of language and reading in order to become independent and proficient readers.
The International Baccalaureate (IB) MYP provides a flexible framework for students aged 11-16 that meets national standards while developing inquisitive, knowledgeable and caring young people. The MYP emphasizes contextual learning, intercultural understanding and reflection through its five subject groups and core components of approaches to learning, community and service, health and social education, and the personal project.
This document discusses several theories and approaches related to educational technology and teaching and learning. It describes behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism as the three main theoretical frameworks that have been present in educational technology literature. It provides details on behaviorist learning theory and theorists like BF Skinner. It also discusses cognitive learning theories and constructivist teaching methods that emphasize problem-solving and social learning. Specific technologies like tutorials, simulations, and cooperative/collaborative software are described in terms of how they can support behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist approaches to instruction.
- The document discusses the assumptions of andragogy, which are that adult learners are self-directed, bring experience to learning, are ready to learn, are problem-centered, and are motivated internally. It analyzes how these assumptions apply to online learning environments.
- Specifically, it notes that online courses should allow learners to identify their own goals and activities while still providing structure and guidance from instructors. Courses should also foster collaboration and communication between learners.
- Challenges to applying the assumptions, like some learners lacking self-direction skills or resources, are also addressed. The document advocates a balanced approach between learner independence and instructor support.
The document discusses designing a lesson plan for faculty at a community college to help shift from a lecture-focused teaching style to one centered around developing higher-level thinking skills in students. The lesson plan will introduce Bloom's Taxonomy and have faculty design a revised syllabus that incorporates activities emphasizing higher-order thinking. The goal is to model critical thinking for students and help faculty move past solely lecturing and memorization of facts. Attachments provide a content analysis of topics to be covered and learning objectives for the lesson with measurable criteria.
Teachers used to rely heavily on standardized tests to monitor students' reading progress, but these tests are not accurate indicators of what individual students can do as readers. A better approach is to use authentic assessments like observations, interviews, samples of student work, and conferences to evaluate different aspects of reading development. These include comprehending text, processing words and cues, fluency, use of reading strategies, and personal perceptions of reading. Monitoring reading processes through various authentic assessments helps teachers understand students' strengths and needs, and informs effective reading instruction.
This document discusses the technique of anchoring in education. It begins by defining anchoring as a technique in Neuro-Linguistic Programming that involves associating desired mental states with stimuli to help manage emotions. In education, anchoring situates learning within an authentic context to engage students in problem-solving. Anchored instruction presents problems through video to immerse students and help with comprehension. The document then discusses several theories that support anchored learning, such as situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship. It provides examples of how anchoring can be used in the classroom through activities and video problems for students to solve. Overall, the document advocates for anchoring instruction as an active, engaging approach to learning that situates knowledge within a meaningful
The document discusses the process and benefits of reading. It describes reading as a complex cognitive process involving decoding symbols to derive meaning through interaction between the text and reader. There are three main theories of reading comprehension: schema theory involving prior knowledge, mental model theory creating a story in one's head, and proposition theory constructing main ideas. The benefits of reading include mental stimulation, stress reduction, knowledge gain, vocabulary expansion, memory improvement, analytical thinking, focus, better writing skills, tranquility, and free entertainment. Overall, reading provides a variety of cognitive benefits and is an efficient way to learn.
1) Teaching reading across different subject areas requires using culturally responsive pedagogy to make content more relevant and engaging for students, especially in urban schools.
2) Successful reading strategies for content areas include prereading activities to build background knowledge, reading strategies like making predictions and summarizing, and after reading activities like discussion and applying information to real world examples.
3) For reading instruction to be effective across subjects, teachers must see themselves as teachers of reading and use culturally relevant materials, strategies, and connections to help students comprehend complex texts and transfer reading skills between content areas.
The document summarizes a study that examined the relationships between psychological constructs in Garrison's model of self-directed learning, including self-management, self-monitoring, and motivation. 119 undergraduate students completed a questionnaire measuring these constructs. Results showed the constructs are interrelated and motivation mediates the relationship between self-management and self-monitoring. Self-management and self-monitoring significantly predicted academic achievement over two semesters, with self-management being the strongest predictor. Motivation significantly predicted achievement in the second semester only. The implications for self-directed learning and academic achievement are discussed.
The document discusses the need and function of teaching advanced methods of teaching. It defines teaching as a process that usually occurs in the classroom where a teacher conveys information to students. Teaching is needed to provide knowledge, pass on information, teach skills, change attitudes, modify behavior, and give life experiences to students. Effective teaching requires preparation, classroom interaction, and addressing students directly. Teaching also occurs outside the classroom through informal interactions.
The document discusses characteristics of 21st century learners and learning theories. It provides three key characteristics of 21st century learners: 1) They prefer active, hands-on learning and see teachers as coaches; 2) They learn content in a networked, multitasking way and through interdisciplinary projects; 3) They use and share information from multiple technology-based formats. The document then compares learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism and discusses their principles, instructional processes, roles of teachers and students. Finally, it outlines eight principles of effective instruction including assessing prior knowledge, considering individual differences, stating objectives, developing metacognitive skills, providing social interaction, incorporating realistic contexts, engaging relevant
The document discusses reading comprehension strategies that proficient readers use to understand text. It outlines several key strategies:
1. Prior knowledge helps readers make connections between the text and their own experiences and background knowledge.
2. Self-monitoring allows readers to check their understanding as they read and use strategies like re-reading when comprehension breaks down.
3. Making predictions, asking questions, visualizing, summarizing, inferring, connecting, and synthesizing new information are all active strategies good readers employ to understand text.
4. Teaching these strategies explicitly is important, but the goal is for students to combine multiple strategies flexibly based on what they are reading.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
The document discusses different perspectives and practices for literacy instruction in the classroom. It describes using assessment to understand students' literacy development and determine reading levels. Classroom assessments help identify strengths and weaknesses to guide instruction. The document also discusses selecting texts that engage students and promote comprehension, including a variety of linguistic, narrative, and informational texts. Interactive instruction is described to teach reading strategies and metacognition. The critical perspective is meant to develop critical thinking and value different opinions.
Banking model of education in teacher centered class-a critical assessmentAlexander Decker
This document discusses Paulo Freire's criticism of the "banking model" of education, where teachers deposit knowledge into students viewed as empty vessels. It provides context on Freire's work and defines key aspects of the banking model. Specifically:
1) Freire viewed the banking model as treating students as empty vessels to be filled by all-knowing teachers, denying students' creativity and critical thinking.
2) According to Freire, the banking model reflects societies of oppression by establishing hierarchies between teachers and students.
3) Freire argued the banking model denies students' human potential by reducing them to passive objects rather than active participants in the learning process.
This document discusses theories of learning and their implications for teaching. It covers behaviorism and how it has influenced concepts like learning objectives and outcomes. It also discusses cognitive psychology, constructivism, and humanistic perspectives on learning. The document examines different views of how students learn and various theories that seek to explain the learning process. Overall, it provides an overview of the major theories of learning and how they can inform teaching practices.
1) John sees a new heaven, new earth, and New Jerusalem descending from heaven, prepared as a bride for her husband. God will dwell with his people and wipe away every tear.
2) The holy city is described with great detail, including its massive size, beautiful jeweled foundations and walls, and open gates welcoming the redeemed.
3) The nations and kings will bring their glory into the city, which is illuminated by God's glory and has no night, being eternal fellowship with God.
El documento resume varias noticias políticas de México. Se anuncia que el gobierno federal clausurará media docena de clínicas médicas no autorizadas. La Comisión de Justicia del Senado aprobó por unanimidad a Arely Gómez como nueva procuradora general. También se informa sobre la detención del líder criminal Servando Gómez Martínez.
O documento discute a concepção construtivista da aprendizagem de acordo com diferentes autores. Ele explica que na visão construtivista 1) os alunos constroem ativamente o conhecimento com base em suas experiências e conhecimentos prévios, 2) fatores afetivos e sociais influenciam a motivação e a aprendizagem, e 3) é papel do professor mediar a construção do conhecimento pelos alunos.
Este documento presenta los principales pasos del diagnóstico realizado durante una consultoría. Explica las fuentes de información, los métodos de obtención y análisis de datos, así como el diagnóstico integral de las diferentes áreas operativas de una organización. El objetivo principal es replantear el problema, definir los hechos necesarios para su análisis, e informar periódicamente al cliente sobre los hallazgos para garantizar su participación activa.
Highlights of the third quarter of 2012. Net sales amounted to SEK 27,171m (25,650) and income for the period was SEK 985m (825), or SEK 3.43 (2.90) per share. Net sales improved by 5.9%, of which 4.6% was organic growth, 5.1% acquisitions and –3.8% changes in exchange rates.
El documento describe los pasos para implementar un sistema de gestión de relaciones con clientes (CRM). Define CRM como una estrategia centrada en el cliente que combina personas, procesos y tecnología para comprender mejor a los clientes. Luego, detalla 7 pasos clave para implementar un CRM: 1) definir objetivos y visión, 2) establecer indicadores para medir resultados, 3) designar un líder de proyecto y equipo, 4) identificar herramientas tecnológicas necesarias, 5) realizar pruebas piloto, 6) cre
El documento describe las diferencias fundamentales entre la realidad a nivel macroscópico y microscópico. A nivel macroscópico, podemos observar objetos con forma, posición y tamaño bien definidos que siguen las leyes de la mecánica newtoniana. Sin embargo, a nivel microscópico, las partículas elementales como electrones y protones no tienen posiciones y tamaños precisos, sino que se comportan más como ondas probabilísticas debido al principio de incertidumbre. Las fuerzas entre partículas a este n
O documento resume e analisa os filmes indicados pelo vestibular da UPE, divididos em três grupos: 1) filmes que retratam o Brasil e a América Latina, como Caramuru e Carlota Joaquina; 2) adaptações de obras literárias, como O Nome da Rosa e A Hora da Estrela; 3) filmes que valorizam a literatura, como Sociedade dos Poetas Mortos e Meia-Noite em Paris. O texto discute os temas, personagens e períodos históricos abordados em cada filme, bem
The third Industry-Wide Web Summit will bring together home furnishings retailers, manufacturers, and suppliers to brainstorm new online solutions, work through conflicts, and address misconceptions about selling furniture online. The agenda includes sessions on implementing email marketing and social media, incorporating web-based marketing, creating an engaging website, and understanding online furniture shoppers. Attendees will also participate in a roundtable discussion with industry experts. The goal is to help businesses struggling with their online strategy and show that furniture can be successfully sold online.
This document discusses improving reading comprehension for ESL learners online. It notes that second language readers face more challenges than first language readers due to limited linguistic knowledge and differences in cultural/social knowledge. The document reviews theories on top-down and bottom-up reading processes and the interactive approach. It also discusses strategies for teaching reading comprehension, including activating prior knowledge, allowing for sustained silent reading, and using visual representations and group discussions after reading.
Teaching Reading Report, Text Structure and ReadabilityGeraldGGerald
This document discusses several factors that affect reading comprehension, including text organization and structure, readability, and the role of teachers. It notes that proficient readers actively use text structure to organize information, while struggling readers do not. Text structure refers to how information is organized, such as main ideas and details. Teaching students to recognize common text structures like compare/contrast can improve comprehension. Readability considers word difficulty and sentence length. The document argues that every teacher is responsible for teaching reading skills relevant to their content area by modeling reading strategies and ensuring students understand the purpose and style of different texts.
Good readers are more strategic than poor readers and use multiple techniques before, during, and after reading for comprehension. Students with learning disabilities often struggle with reading comprehension due to issues with decoding, fluency, and being inactive learners. However, their comprehension can improve with direct instruction of strategies like monitoring background knowledge, summarizing, and self-questioning. For older students with decoding difficulties, teachers can provide explicit instruction in decoding multisyllabic words and teaching Greek and Latin roots to facilitate reading.
This document provides an analysis of literacy instruction for emergent and beginning readers in pre-K through 3rd grade. It discusses assessing students' cognitive and noncognitive abilities, selecting appropriate texts, and creating a literacy-rich environment. Sample lessons are described for an emergent reader focusing on phonemic awareness, vocabulary and cause/effect, and for a beginning reader using fiction and non-fiction texts about animals. Reflection emphasizes differences in emergent and beginning literacy instruction and the importance of foundational skills for future success.
The document discusses the importance of teaching reading strategies to improve student comprehension. It describes a technique called Self-Explanation Reading Training (SERT) that was shown to improve comprehension, especially for low-knowledge students. SERT trains students to self-explain texts using six reading strategies: comprehension monitoring, paraphrasing, elaboration, logic, predictions, and bridging inferences. A study found that students who received SERT training generated more effective self-explanations and had better comprehension than students who only self-explained without strategy training. SERT particularly helped low-knowledge students by encouraging them to use logic and general knowledge to fill gaps in their domain knowledge.
The document discusses expert reading strategies that allow readers to actively monitor and improve their comprehension. These strategies include activating prior knowledge, summarizing, monitoring comprehension and clarifying misunderstandings, visualizing content, questioning, inferring, and interacting with the text based on difficulty and personal skills. Teaching these strategies can help both expert and struggling readers. The document also discusses how writing about a text can improve reading performance and develop literacy skills. For older students, teaching reading and writing together helps develop more knowledge.
The document discusses several topics related to reading in a second language including:
1. Bottom-up and top-down models of the reading process where bottom-up involves processing letters and words in order, and top-down uses background knowledge to get meaning from a text.
2. Effective means for building reading fluency like extensive reading, word recognition exercises, and re-reading activities. Extensive reading provides repeated exposure to vocabulary.
3. Skilled readers need mastery of 95% of words in a text for comfortable reading. Context alone is a low-yield strategy for guessing meanings compared to knowing words directly.
4. University L2 readers need knowledge of 10,000 words to understand
- Reading is a complex process that requires comprehension and the use of various strategies. It is best developed when taught together with other language skills like writing, listening, and speaking.
- There are different approaches to teaching reading, including bottom-up (focusing on individual words/sounds), top-down (using background knowledge to understand), and interactive (combining bottom-up and top-down). The interactive approach is considered the most effective.
- To teach reading successfully, teachers must understand the reading process, teach comprehension strategies, use interactive techniques, and create purposeful reading experiences for students. Both intensive and extensive reading practices should be incorporated into instruction.
The document discusses strategies for teachers to help students better interact with and understand different types of texts. It recommends using reader response techniques during read-alouds, such as asking students questions about the text and sharing their own thoughts. It also suggests increasing students' exposure to informational texts and explicitly teaching comprehension strategies for different text structures. Overall, the goal is to make reading a more interactive process where students question and analyze what they read rather than just answering comprehension questions.
The passage describes a bet made between a rich man named Haptom and his servant Arha, where Arha agrees to stand naked on a mountain overnight without fire to stay warm in exchange for a farm if he survives. With help from a wise old man, Arha watches a fire in the village below to stay warm and survives the night, but Haptom refuses to pay, leading to a dispute resolved when the old man proves his point with a feast.
This document provides an overview of readings and activities from an education course. It summarizes key points from chapters on reading comprehension strategies and rethinking the English curriculum. It outlines guidelines for reforming the English curriculum to focus on universal themes rather than individual texts, include a range of difficulty levels and genres, and build students' reading and writing skills. Methods like the gradual release of responsibility model and reading apprenticeship theory are also summarized. Finally, students are assigned a literacy narrative writing activity.
This document discusses various theories of reading instruction. It describes early theories from Thorndike, Gray, and Goodman that viewed reading as a developmental process involving word perception, comprehension, reaction, and synthesis. Later psycholinguistic theories proposed reading involves using graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic cueing systems simultaneously. The interactive and transactional theories of the late 20th century proposed reading as an interactive process where the reader interacts with text and prior knowledge. The document also discusses principles of balanced reading instruction incorporating skills, strategies, literature, and writing.
This document discusses receptive skills in English language teaching, focusing on reading and listening. It addresses key issues in teaching reading such as top-down and bottom-up reading strategies, the influence of cultural schemas, and challenges caused by insufficient linguistic ability or unfamiliar cultural contexts in texts. The document also discusses problems teaching reading and proposes solutions such as pre-reading tasks, supplementary materials, and mixed-ability group work to support weaker readers.
This document discusses creating a literacy-rich environment for young learners. It covers four main topics: 1) Getting to know literacy learners by understanding their cognitive skills, backgrounds, and interests; 2) Selecting texts that vary in content and difficulty; 3) Using interactive lessons to develop reading strategies and comprehension; and 4) Encouraging critical and responsive perspectives by having students make connections to texts and evaluate different viewpoints. The goal is to help students become engaged, strategic readers.
This document discusses effective literacy instruction strategies for elementary students. It emphasizes the importance of teachers getting to know their students' individual interests, abilities, and backgrounds in order to select appropriate texts and incorporate interactive, responsive, and critical reading perspectives. The document also presents a matrix for analyzing texts based on linguistic, informational, semiotic, and narrative elements, as well as a second matrix to determine readability levels. Colleagues and parents provided positive feedback and requested additional guidance on applying the literacy strategies.
Thank you for sharing your presentation on literacy instruction. I gained valuable insights into how to effectively assess students' literacy skills and select appropriate texts. The multi-faceted approach of using both cognitive and noncognitive assessments to deeply understand each student is highly effective. Choosing texts based on students' interests and abilities and incorporating different instructional perspectives helps engage students and strengthen their literacy. This information will certainly help me improve my own literacy practices. You seem dedicated to helping all students progress. Please let me know if I can support you by volunteering in the classroom or providing resources for families.
This document discusses effective strategies for teaching literacy to pre-K-3 students. It emphasizes the importance of creating a print-rich environment and differentiating instruction based on student needs and developmental stages. The educator must understand literacy frameworks, conduct assessments, and select appropriate texts. Lessons should link reading and writing, build vocabulary, and scaffold learning to develop emergent and beginning literacy skills. Different strategies like read-alouds, modeling, and engaging digital texts can support literacy development when tailored to individual students.
This document summarizes a literacy lesson presented by Avril Cogle at Walden University. It discusses getting to know literacy learners through cognitive and non-cognitive assessments. It also covers selecting appropriate texts for students based on their interests, needs, and reading levels. The lesson focuses on teaching word recognition and comprehension strategies interactively using the book "A Camping Spree with Mr. Magee". Students make predictions, discuss vocabulary, and answer comprehension questions. For the critical response perspective, an interactive read aloud of "Thea the Yellow Tomato" is used to model evaluation and critical thinking strategies.
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The study
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2. What every teacher needs to know about comprehension 273
characteristics that are distinctly applied with each
text and situation (Butcher & Kintsch, 2003;
Fletcher, 1994; Narvaez, 2002). The most impor-
tant of these characteristics is likely the reader’s
world knowledge (Fletcher, 1994). The more back-
ground knowledge a reader has that connects with
the text being read, the more likely the reader will
be able to make sense of what is being read
(Butcher & Kintsch, 2003; Schallert & Martin,
2003). The process of connecting known informa-
tion to new information takes place through a series
of networkable connections known as schema
(Anderson & Pearson, 1984; Narvaez, 2002). In
schema theory, individuals organize their world
knowledge into categories and systems that make
retrieval easier. When a key word or concept is en-
countered, readers are able to access this informa-
tion system, pulling forth the ideas that will help
them make connections with the text so they can
create meaning. Schema theory involves the stor-
age of various kinds of information in long-term
memory. Because long-term memory appears to
have infinite capacity (Pressley, 2003), it is likely
that readers have many ideas stored in long-term
memory. When a key word or concept is presented
to the reader (through a title, heading, or someone
who has recommended the text), some of this
stored information is brought forward and tem-
porarily placed into short-term memory so that the
reader can return to it quickly as he or she reads.
Short-term memory has limited capacity, and of-
ten the information pulled from long-term memo-
ry prior to or during reading is only available for a
short time and then is placed back in long-term
memory. Short-term memory shifts and juggles in-
formation, using what is immediately pertinent and
allowing less pertinent information to slip back into
long-term memory (Schallert & Martin, 2003).
The amount and depth of a reader’s world
knowledge vary as do other individual characteris-
tics. Readers vary in the skills, knowledge, cogni-
tive development, culture, and purpose they bring
to a text (Narvaez, 2002). Skills include such things
as basic language ability, decoding skills, and high-
er level thinking skills. Knowledge includes back-
ground knowledge about content and text and
relates to the available schema a reader has for a
particular text. A reader’s cognitive development
causes that reader to evaluate text in different
ways—for example, to make moral judgments.
Comprehension is affected by a reader’s culture,
based on the degree to which it matches with the
writer’s culture or the culture espoused in the text.
Readers also read in particular ways depending on
the purpose for reading. Another individual differ-
ence that exists in readers is motivation. Motivation
can influence the interest, purpose, emotion, or per-
sistence with which a reader engages with text
(Butcher & Kintsch, 2003; Schallert & Martin,
2003). More motivated readers are likely to apply
more strategies and work harder at building mean-
ing. Less motivated readers are not as likely to work
as hard, and the meaning they create will not be as
powerful as if they were highly motivated.
Teachers support readers
If readers have all these individual differences,
how do teachers best support elementary-age read-
ers to become competent comprehenders? They
teach decoding skills, help students build fluency,
build and activate background knowledge, teach
vocabulary words, motivate students, and engage
them in personal responses to text.
Teach decoding skills. In order to comprehend,
readers must be able to read the words. Some level
of automatic decoding must be present so that
short-term memory can work on comprehending,
not on decoding, words. Teachers help students get
to this level of automatic decoding by providing in-
struction in phonemic awareness and phonics at all
grade levels. If students put too much mental ener-
gy into sounding out the words, they will have less
mental energy left to think about the meaning.
While teachers in the primary grades work with
phonemic awareness and phonics, teachers in the
intermediate grades support students’continued de-
velopment of automatic decoding through spelling,
vocabulary, and high-frequency word activities.
Help students build fluency. As word reading be-
comes automatic, students become fluent and can
focus on comprehension (Rasinski, 2003). Teachers
help students become more fluent by engaging them
in repeated readings for real purposes (like perform-
ances and Readers Theatre). Teachers also model
fluent reading by reading aloud to students daily so
that they realize what fluent reading sounds like.
3. Some research indicates that reading aloud to stu-
dents is the single most effective way to increase
comprehension (see Morrow & Gambrell, 2000, for
a review of this literature).
Build and activate prior knowledge. Background
knowledge is an important factor for creating mean-
ing, and teachers should help students activate prior
knowledge before reading so that information con-
nected with concepts or topics in the text is more
easily accessible during reading (Keene &
Zimmermann, 1997; Miller, 2002). If students do
not have adequate background knowledge, teachers
can help students build the appropriate knowledge.
Duke (2003) suggested that one way to add to world
knowledge is to use informational books with all stu-
dents, particularly very young students. By using
information books, students build world knowledge
so that they will have the appropriate information to
activate at a later time. Teachers also support stu-
dents’ acquisition of world knowledge by establish-
ing and maintaining a rich, literate environment, full
of texts that provide students with numerous oppor-
tunities to learn content in a wide variety of topics.
Another way teachers help students build back-
ground knowledge is to create visual or graphic or-
ganizers that help students to see not only new
concepts but also how previously known concepts
are related and connected to the new ones (Keene
& Zimmermann, 1997; Miller, 2002). Teachers
teach students how to make text-to-text, text-to-
self, and text-to-world connections so that readers
can more easily comprehend the texts they read.
Reading aloud and teacher modeling show stu-
dents how to activate schema and make connec-
tions. For example, a first-grade teacher read aloud
from Ira Says Goodbye (Waber, 1991). She began
the lesson by thinking aloud about the title and
cover of the book. “Oh I see that the author is
Bernard Waber and the title is Ira Says Goodbye. I
think this book is about the same Ira as in Ira
Sleeps Over (Waber, 1973). I can activate my
schema from that book. I am making a text-to-text
connection. I remember that....” She continued
modeling for her students how to activate schema
and make connections that helped her make mean-
ing from this text. As she read the book to her stu-
dents, she stopped occasionally to model and think
aloud how she activated her own schema to make
connections.
Teach vocabulary words. If there are too many
words that a reader does not know, he or she will
have to spend too much mental energy figuring out
the unknown word(s) and will not be able to un-
derstand the passage as a whole. Teachers help stu-
dents learn important vocabulary words prior to
reading difficult or unfamiliar texts. When teaching
vocabulary words, teachers make sure that the se-
lected words are necessary for making meaning
with the text students will be reading and that they
help students connect the new words to something
they already know. Simply using the word lists sup-
plied in textbooks does not necessarily accomplish
this task (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000). Many teach-
ers consider the backgrounds and knowledge levels
of their students and the text the students will be
engaging in and then select a small number of
words or ideas that are important for understanding
the text. Once teachers have decided on the appro-
priate vocabulary words to use, students must ac-
tively engage with the words—use them in written
and spoken language—in order for the words to be-
come a part of the students’reading and writing vo-
cabularies. For example, asking students to create
graphic organizers that show relationships among
new words and common and known words helps
them assimilate new vocabulary. Asking students to
look up long lists of unrelated, unknown words is
unlikely to help students access the text more ap-
propriately or to increase personal vocabularies.
Motivate students. Many individual reader fac-
tors (e.g., cognitive development, culture) are not
within a teacher’s control. However, teachers can
motivate students by providing them with interest-
ing texts, allowing them choices in reading and
writing, and helping students set authentic purpos-
es for reading (e.g., generating reports, writing let-
ters, demonstrating some new ability or skill;
Pressley & Hilden, 2002). Many teachers actively
seek out students’ interests so that they can select
texts, topics, themes, and units that will more like-
ly engage students. Teachers also provide and pro-
mote authentic purposes for engaging in reading
and writing.Authentic literacy events are those that
replicate or reflect reading and writing purposes
and texts that occur in the world outside of schools.
Some teachers do this by providing pen pals, us-
ing students’authentic questions for in-depth study,
The Reading Teacher Vol. 58, No. 3 November 2004274
4. responding to community needs, or having students
solve problems.
Engage students in personal responses to text.
Teachers encourage students to read both efferently
and aesthetically (Rosenblatt, 1978). Researchers
(McMahon, Raphael, Goatley, & Pardo, 1997)
building on the ideas of Rosenblatt developed a
literature-based approach to teaching reading com-
prehension through the Book Club program. In this
instructional approach students read authentic liter-
ature; write personal, critical, and creative respons-
es; and talk about books with their classmates
(Pardo, 2002). Teachers help students learn and ap-
ply comprehension strategies while reading,
through writing, and during student-led discussion
groups called Book Clubs, where students explore
the individual meanings that have emerged as they
engage with the text over a period of time. While
this program initially focused on the intermediate
grades, many teachers have found that students in
first and second grades are successful comprehen-
ders when they read and engage in Book Clubs
(Grattan, 1997; Raphael, Florio-Ruane, & George,
2001; Salna, 2001).
The text
Understanding the reader is one important
piece of the comprehension puzzle, but features of
the text also influence the transaction where com-
prehension happens. The structure of the text—its
genre, vocabulary, language, even the specific word
choices—works to make each text unique. Some
would even argue that it is at the word or micro-
structure level that meaning begins (Butcher &
Kintsch, 2003). How well the text is written,
whether it follows the conventions of its genre or
structure, and the language or dialect it is written in
are all factors of the text. The content of a specific
text, the difficulty or readability of it, and even the
type font and size are factors of a text that can in-
fluence a reader’s interaction. These features col-
lectively are referred to as “surface features,” and
studies have shown that the quality of the text at the
surface level is important for readers to be able to
make meaning effectively (Tracey & Morrow,
2002).
The author’s intent in writing the text can in-
fluence how a reader interacts with that text, par-
ticularly if this intent is made known through a
foreword, back-cover biography, or knowledgeable
other (as in the case of teachers in schools). Some
texts are promoted as carrying a certain message
or theme by those who have encountered the book
previously (Rosenblatt, 1978). The inherent mes-
sage that some texts carry with them, often related
to the author’s intent, is referred to as gist and has
been defined as “what people remember…the main
ideas in the text” (Pressley, 1998, p. 46). Gist is fre-
quently assessed through basal workbooks and
standardized reading tests; therefore, the author’s
intent is a key feature of text.
Teachers support texts
Because certain features make some texts more
easily comprehensible, teachers help young readers
understand those features so they can comprehend
effectively. Teachers teach text structures, model
appropriate text selection, and provide regular in-
dependent reading time.
Teach text structures. Because features of the
text are beyond a teacher’s control, teachers select
texts that have an obvious structure. They teach a
variety of narrative genres and some expository
text structures. With narrative works teachers help
students understand basic story grammar, including
the literary elements that are common across narra-
tive pieces, such as plot, characters, and setting.
They teach specific elements that make each genre
unique (e.g., talking animals in folk tales). By do-
ing this, students will be able to access a schema
for a certain narrative genre when they begin to
read a new text and can begin to make text-to-text
connections for a particular story genre, which will
help them more easily make meaning. Likewise,
teachers share some common expository text struc-
tures with students, such as sequence, description,
comparison, and cause and effect. Teachers discuss
the idea of “inconsiderate texts” (Armbruster,
1984) with students and show them how to use
cues when reading nonfiction (such as reading
tables, charts, graphs, and the captions under pic-
tures; using bold print and italics to determine big
or important ideas). Inconsiderate texts do not
What every teacher needs to know about comprehension 275
5. adhere strictly to one structure, but might be a com-
bination of several structures. Many textbooks have
a varied and mixed set of structures, and teachers
can address specific features and demands of infor-
mational text so that students are more likely to
engage in informational text with a repertoire of
strategies and schema to help them construct mean-
ing (Duke, 2003).
Model appropriate text selection. Teachers teach
students how to select appropriate texts by showing
them what features to consider. Some teachers use
the Goldilocks approach (Tompkins, 2003), while
others suggest that teachers level books and tell stu-
dents which level books they may select (Fountas
& Pinnell, 1996). In the Goldilocks approach, read-
ers look for books that are not too hard or too easy,
but just right. Just-right books are those that look
interesting, have mostly decodable words, have
been read aloud previously, are written by a famil-
iar author, or will be read with a support person
nearby (Tompkins, 2003). Teachers have a wide va-
riety of genres and levels of books available for stu-
dents to select for independent reading, and they
support students throughout the year with appro-
priate book selection.
Provide regular independent reading time.
Teachers can make sure they provide students with
time to read independently every day. Reading be-
comes better with practice, and comprehending be-
comes better with more reading practice (Pressley,
2003). Many teachers use programs such as DEAR
(Drop Everything And Read) or SSR (Sustained
Silent Reading) to ensure that students read inde-
pendently every day.
Teachers create and support
a sociocultural context
Reading takes place somewhere between a
specific reader and a specific text. A sociocultural
influence likely permeates any reading activity
(Kucer, 2001; Schallert & Martin, 2003).
Depending on the place, the situation, and the pur-
pose for reading, the reader and the text interact in
ways that are unique for that specific context. The
same reading at another time or in a different place
might result in a different meaning. The context
also involves the activity that occurs around the
transaction. If a teacher assigns his or her students
to read a certain text for a specific reason, the trans-
action that occurs will be based on this context. If
students are asked to discuss a text, generate ques-
tions from it, or come up with a big idea, these
kinds of activities form a context within which the
reader and text interact for a specific reason, one
that is unlikely to occur in exactly the same manner
ever again. Teachers create contexts and learning
opportunities that will support the construction of
meaning. Environments that value reading and
writing, that contain a wide variety of texts, that
allow students to take risks, and that find time for
reading aloud and reading independently are con-
texts that effectively promote the construction of
meaning (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997; Miller,
2002; Pardo, 2002).
The transaction
As we consider the reader’s individual and
unique differences, the characteristics of the con-
text, and the features of the text, we are left to won-
der exactly what happens when these three come
together. At the most basic level microstructures
(words, propositions) are being decoded and rep-
resented by mental images (Butcher & Kintsch,
2003). This is most likely happening quickly, au-
tomatically, and in short-term memory. These men-
tal images are calling forth ideas and information
stored in long-term memory to assist the reader in
building a series of connections between represen-
tations (van den Broek, 1994). These connections
occur between the reader and the text and between
different parts of the text. This representation is
fine-tuned by the reader as more information is en-
countered in the text and more connections are
made. Readers exit the transaction maintaining a
mental representation or gist of the text.
How do these connections lead to mental rep-
resentations? One way is through making infer-
ences. A reader is quite intentional as he or she
engages with the text, asking, “What is it I’m look-
ing at here?” Readers are searching for coherence
and for a chain of related events that can lead them
to infer or make meaning. As readers continue
moving through the text, they continue to build in-
ferences, drawing from long-term memory specific
The Reading Teacher Vol. 58, No. 3 November 2004276
6. ideas that seem to create coherence and answer the
question posed earlier, “What is it I’m looking at
here?” As this answer emerges, meaning is real-
ized. Inferencing is most likely done automatical-
ly and is one of the most important processes that
occur during comprehension (Butcher & Kintsch,
2003; van den Broek, 1994).
The mental representation needs to make sense
to the reader as it emerges; therefore, readers mon-
itor the emerging meaning as they read, using
metacognitive and fix-up strategies, sometimes dis-
carding ideas in the text if they do not add to the co-
herence that the reader is trying to build (Pressley
& Afflerbach, 1995). If the reader’s background
knowledge or personal experiences agree with the
text, the reader assimilates this new information
and creates new meaning. If, however, the reader’s
background knowledge and personal experiences
do not agree with the new information presented
in the text, readers either adjust the information to
make it fit (accommodation), or they reject that in-
formation and maintain their previous understand-
ing (Kucer, 2001). Readers apply a variety of
strategies throughout this process to support their
construction of meaning such as summarizing,
clarifying, questioning, visualizing, predicting, and
organizing. It is through the application of these
strategies at various moments throughout the in-
teraction that meaning emerges.
Teachers support transaction
At this point, it seems fairly obvious that com-
prehension occurs in the transaction between a
reader and a text within a sociocultural context.
That makes the transaction crucial to comprehen-
sion and the teacher’s role within this transaction
very important. Teachers provide explicit instruc-
tion of useful comprehension strategies, teach stu-
dents to monitor and repair, use multiple strategy
approaches, scaffold support, and make reading
and writing connections visible to students.
Provide explicit instruction of useful comprehen-
sion strategies. Good readers use strategies to sup-
port their understanding of text. Teachers help
students become good readers by teaching them how
to use the strategies of monitoring, predicting, in-
ferring, questioning, connecting, summarizing, visu-
alizing, and organizing (Keene & Zimmermann,
1997; Miller, 2002; Pardo, 2002). Teachers are ex-
plicit and direct in explaining what these strategies
are and why good readers use them (Duffy, 2002;
Pressley & McCormick, 1995). They model the
strategies (often by thinking aloud) for the students
and provide them with numerous opportunities to
practice and apply the strategies. In order for strate-
gies to transfer so that students use them on their
own or in assessment situations, contexts need to
remain similar. Therefore, teachers use texts and
classroom structures that are easily maintained for
teaching, practicing and applying independently, and
assessing. Teachers help students think metacogni-
tively about strategies, considering when and where
to apply each strategy, how to use it, and the impact
it can have. In addition, teachers occasionally pro-
vide students with difficult text. If students en-
counter only texts that they can read easily, there will
be no reason to practice and apply strategies. It is
when readers encounter challenging texts that they
put strategies to use (Kucer, 2001).
Teach students to monitor and repair. Knowing
what is understood and not understood while read-
ing and then applying the appropriate strategy to
repair meaning are vital for comprehension to oc-
cur. Good readers monitor while reading to see if
things make sense, and they use strategies to re-
pair the meaning when things stop making sense
(Duke, 2003; Pressley & Hilden, 2002). While
some studies support that monitoring is important
(Baker, 2002; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995), other
studies indicate that readers often mismonitor
(Baker, 1989; Baker & Brown, 1984; Kinnunen,
Vauras, & Niemi, 1998). Readers have been found
to both over- and underestimate their comprehen-
sion of text. So, while monitoring is important and
good readers seem to monitor successfully, effec-
tive teachers realize that mismonitoring can affect
meaning for less able students, and they provide
additional support as needed so that all readers
comprehend text successfully.
Use multiple strategy approaches. Researchers
have found that teaching multiple strategies simul-
taneously may be particularly powerful (Trabasso
& Bouchard, 2002; National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development, 2000; Pressley,
2000).
What every teacher needs to know about comprehension 277
7. There is very strong empirical, scientific evidence that
the instruction of more than one strategy in a natural
context leads to the acquisition and use of reading
comprehension strategies and transfer to standardized
comprehension tests. Multiple strategy instruction fa-
cilitates comprehension as evidenced by performance
on tasks that involve memory, summarizing, and iden-
tification of main ideas. (Trabasso & Bouchard, 2002,
p. 184)
Perhaps the most frequently used multiple
strategies approach is transactional strategy instruc-
tion (TSI), created and studied by Pressley and col-
leagues (Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, & Schuder,
1996; Gaskins, Anderson, Pressley, Cunicelli, &
Satlow, 1993). TSI teachers encourage readers to
make sense of text by using strategies that allow
them to make connections between text content and
prior knowledge. Teachers and students work in
small reading groups to collaboratively make mean-
ing using several teacher-identified strategies.
Teachers model and explain the strategies, coach
students in their use, and help students use them
flexibly. Throughout the instruction, students are
taught to think about the usefulness of each strate-
gy and to become metacognitive about their own
reading processes.
Scaffold support. When teaching strategies to
elementary-age students, teachers gradually release
responsibility for comprehending to students. An
effective model that has been used by some teach-
ers is the Gradual Release of Responsibility model
(Pearson & Gallagher, 1983). In this model, teach-
ers take all the responsibility for applying a newly
introduced strategy by modeling, thinking aloud,
demonstrating, and creating meaning. As time
passes and students have more exposure to and
practice with using the strategy, teachers scaffold
students by creating activities within students’
Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978)
and slowly withdrawing more and more responsi-
bility. Teachers work collaboratively with the stu-
dents and the strategy, giving and taking as much as
necessary to create meaning. Eventually, students
take on more and more responsibility as they be-
come more confident, knowledgeable, and capable.
Finally, students are able to work independently.
Teachers and students do not always progress in a
linear way, but often slip back and forth between
more and less responsibility depending on the task,
the text, and the strategy. While adaptations may be
made with students of different ages, teachers use
this model with students in all elementary grades.
Make reading/writing connections visible.
Teachers help students see that reading and writ-
ing are parallel processes and that becoming good
writers can help them become good readers (Kucer,
2001). Composing a text can be thought of as writ-
ing something that people will understand. Writing
can bring understanding about a certain topic to the
writer, who will have to be clear about the topic he
or she is writing about. Meaning matters in com-
prehending, and becoming a clear writer is all
about how the reader will make meaning of the text
that is being created. Recalling the earlier discus-
sion of authentic purposes is important here as
well; students will likely become engaged with the
task of writing if asked to write for authentic and
important purposes.
Closing comments
Comprehending is a complicated process, as
we have discovered and explored in this article.
Yet it is one of the most important skills for stu-
dents to develop if they are to become successful
and productive adults. Comprehension instruction
in schools, beginning in kindergarten, is therefore
crucial. Teachers use their knowledge and under-
standings of how one learns to comprehend to
inform classroom practices so they can most ef-
fectively help readers develop the abilities to com-
prehend text. It is hoped that the discussion in this
article can open a dialogue with teachers and
teacher educators toward this end.
Pardo is a doctoral candidate in Teaching,
Curriculum, & Educational Policy at Michigan
State University (118 #36 Erickson Hall, East
Lansing, MI 48824, USA). E-mail
pardolau@msu.edu.
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