This document discusses water quality management for aquaculture production systems. It covers several key physio-chemical properties of water including temperature, turbidity, salinity, alkalinity, pH, hardness, and dissolved oxygen. For each property, the document discusses the optimal ranges for different fish species as well as how the properties can affect fish and shellfish health, growth, and survival. Treatment methods to adjust the properties when outside the optimal ranges are also provided.
The transfer of fish seed from the hatchery or place of collection to the rearing pond is called transport of fish seed. The seed fish include fry and fingerlings.
The transfer of fish seed from the hatchery or place of collection to the rearing pond is called transport of fish seed. The seed fish include fry and fingerlings.
Introduction
Fish Health Management GOALS
Principles of fish health management
Factors affecting fish health
Common symptoms of diseases
General preventive measures
Proper Health Management through Manipulating the disease triangle
Conclusion
References
Carps form the mainstay of aquaculture in India contributing over 85% of the total aquaculture production There are 61,259 species of vertebrates recognized world; over 30,700 are fish species of which 8,411 ore fresh water while 11,650 are marine. In India 2,163 spp. are fin fishes have been recorded from upland cold water (157; 7.26%) warm water of the plain (54; 20.99%), Brackish water (182; 8.41%) and marine environment (1,370; 63.43%). Some of these species are cultured at commercial level which covering a lot varieties of fin fishes The three Indian major carps, namely Catla (Catla catla), Rohu (Labeo rohita) and Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigal) contribute the bulk of production to the extent of 75 to85 percent of the total fresh water fish production, the three exotic carp such as Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and Common carp (Cyprinus carpio ), Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella )form the second important group to incorporate several other medium and minor carp and into the carp poly culture system several method were used because of their region specific consumer preference and higher market demand.
History
Carp culture in India was restricted only to a homestead backyard pond activity in west Bengal and Odisha until late 1950 s with seed from riverine sources as the only input resulting low level of production the technological breakthrough breeding of carp through hypophysation in 1957 freshwater aquaculture of the country the country till 1984 virtually laid the foundation of scientific carp farming in the country.
Important characteristics of Indian major carps:-
Indian major carp grow fast and can reproduce even in artificial ponds. They feed upon phytoplankton, zooplankton, decaying organic matter, aquatic plant etc. stomach is absent in the alimentary canal of the major carps. Three types of Indian major carps are cultured in
Nutritional requirement of cultivable fin fish: larvae, juveniles and adultsDebiprasad1997
Fish is among the healthiest foods on the planet. It is loaded with important nutrients, such as protein and vitamin D. Fish is also the world's best source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are incredibly important for human body and brain.
Manufactured feeds are an important part of modern commercial aquaculture, providing the balanced nutrition needed by farmed fish.
In the development of modern aquaculture, starting in the 1970s, fishmeal and fish oil were key components of the feeds for these species. They are combined with other ingredients such as vegetable proteins, cereal grains, vitamins and minerals and formed into feed pellets.
The global supply of fish meal and fish oil is finite and fully utilized. Alternative or nontraditional feedstuffs may differ in terms of taste, smell, texture, and color, as well as nutrient composition, from the traditional feedstuffs, which are produced largely from the natural prey of the fish being raised. Alternative feedstuffs may also contain compounds and antinutritional factors that affect digestive or sensory physiology.
Another important area of fish nutrition for the next 20 years will be larval fish nutrition. Currently, the cost and difficulty of rearing a great number of species from the first feeding to the juvenile stage are the most severe bottlenecks to the development of aquaculture production of nontraditional species.
Seed production of giant freshwater prawn fisheries pptAshish sahu
Giant freshwater prawn seed production starts in Andaman - INDIA - A scientist and his team of the Division of Fisheries Science, Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI), Port Blair, have initiated research on breeding and larval rearing of Giant Freshwater Prawn (M Rosenbergii) under controlled conditions at the CARI farm complex.
Introduction
Fish Health Management GOALS
Principles of fish health management
Factors affecting fish health
Common symptoms of diseases
General preventive measures
Proper Health Management through Manipulating the disease triangle
Conclusion
References
Carps form the mainstay of aquaculture in India contributing over 85% of the total aquaculture production There are 61,259 species of vertebrates recognized world; over 30,700 are fish species of which 8,411 ore fresh water while 11,650 are marine. In India 2,163 spp. are fin fishes have been recorded from upland cold water (157; 7.26%) warm water of the plain (54; 20.99%), Brackish water (182; 8.41%) and marine environment (1,370; 63.43%). Some of these species are cultured at commercial level which covering a lot varieties of fin fishes The three Indian major carps, namely Catla (Catla catla), Rohu (Labeo rohita) and Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigal) contribute the bulk of production to the extent of 75 to85 percent of the total fresh water fish production, the three exotic carp such as Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and Common carp (Cyprinus carpio ), Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella )form the second important group to incorporate several other medium and minor carp and into the carp poly culture system several method were used because of their region specific consumer preference and higher market demand.
History
Carp culture in India was restricted only to a homestead backyard pond activity in west Bengal and Odisha until late 1950 s with seed from riverine sources as the only input resulting low level of production the technological breakthrough breeding of carp through hypophysation in 1957 freshwater aquaculture of the country the country till 1984 virtually laid the foundation of scientific carp farming in the country.
Important characteristics of Indian major carps:-
Indian major carp grow fast and can reproduce even in artificial ponds. They feed upon phytoplankton, zooplankton, decaying organic matter, aquatic plant etc. stomach is absent in the alimentary canal of the major carps. Three types of Indian major carps are cultured in
Nutritional requirement of cultivable fin fish: larvae, juveniles and adultsDebiprasad1997
Fish is among the healthiest foods on the planet. It is loaded with important nutrients, such as protein and vitamin D. Fish is also the world's best source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are incredibly important for human body and brain.
Manufactured feeds are an important part of modern commercial aquaculture, providing the balanced nutrition needed by farmed fish.
In the development of modern aquaculture, starting in the 1970s, fishmeal and fish oil were key components of the feeds for these species. They are combined with other ingredients such as vegetable proteins, cereal grains, vitamins and minerals and formed into feed pellets.
The global supply of fish meal and fish oil is finite and fully utilized. Alternative or nontraditional feedstuffs may differ in terms of taste, smell, texture, and color, as well as nutrient composition, from the traditional feedstuffs, which are produced largely from the natural prey of the fish being raised. Alternative feedstuffs may also contain compounds and antinutritional factors that affect digestive or sensory physiology.
Another important area of fish nutrition for the next 20 years will be larval fish nutrition. Currently, the cost and difficulty of rearing a great number of species from the first feeding to the juvenile stage are the most severe bottlenecks to the development of aquaculture production of nontraditional species.
Seed production of giant freshwater prawn fisheries pptAshish sahu
Giant freshwater prawn seed production starts in Andaman - INDIA - A scientist and his team of the Division of Fisheries Science, Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI), Port Blair, have initiated research on breeding and larval rearing of Giant Freshwater Prawn (M Rosenbergii) under controlled conditions at the CARI farm complex.
Implementing and learning from nutrition-sensitive fish agri-food systems, e....WorldFish
Worldfish: Nutrition Sensitive Fish Agri-Food Systems Workshop, presented by Absalom Sakala, Principal Environment Management Officer, Ministry of Water Development, Sanitation and Environmental Protection
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Water quality management in aquaculture production system aqc 601
1. Water quality management in Aquaculture
production system
DEPARTMENT OF AQUACULTURE
Dr. M.G.R FISHERIES COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE
TAMIL NADU Dr. J. JAYALALITHAA FISHERIES UNIVERSITY
PONNERI- 601 204
P.YUVARAJAN
Ph. D Scholar
AQC 601 – Advanced Aquaculture Production system
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2. Introduction
• Water is a most important element
• Poor water quality
• Affect fish and shellfish health through impairment of development and
growth
• Degrade the quality of the product by tainting its flavor
• Accumulation of high concentrations of toxic substances which could en-
danger human health.
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3. • Selection of source water = Decide the efficient production
• Freshwater aquaculture = Groundwater sources (springs and wells) =
Maintain a constant temperature and Free of biological nuisances = less
contaminated than surface water sources.
• Salt or brackish water aquaculture = source water should be away from
any generator of pollution, such as industries, tainted river mouths, or
agricultural areas (Lawson, 1995)
• Fish and Shellfish Health = Very sensitive to water quality.
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4. Physio chemical properties
Temperature, turbidity, salinity, alkalinity, acidity,
hardness, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, total
gas pressure, nitrogen compounds, hydrogen
sulfide are the basic physio-chemical properties
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5. Temperature
• Water temperature affects a multitude of important processes
such as
• Physiological processes in fish such as respiration rates, feeding,
metabolism, growth, behavior, reproduction
• Rates of detoxification and bioaccumulation
• Dissolved oxygen level in water such as the solubility of oxygen
• Rate of oxidation of organic matter.
• Solubility of fertilizers can be affected by temperature (Lawson 1995).
• Site selection = Ambient temperature
• Species selection = According to available water temperature.
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7. Species Temperature (°C) Reference
Brook trout 7-13 Piper et al. (1992)
Brown trout 12-14 Petit (1990)
Brown trout 9-16 Piper et al. (1982)
Rainbow trout 14-15 Petit (1990)
Rainbow trout 10-16 Piper et al. (1982)
Atlantic salmon 15 Petit (1990)
Chinook salmon 10-14 Piper et al. (1982)
Coho salmon 9-14 Piper et al. (1982)
Sockeye salmon 15 Petit (1990)
Sole 15 Petit (1990)
Turbot 19 Petit (1990)
Plaice 15 Petit (1990)
European eel 22-26 Petit (1990)
Japanese eel 24-28 Petit (1990)
Species
Temperature
(°C)
Reference
Common carp 25-30 Petit (1990)
Mullet 28 Petit (1990)
Tilapia 28-30 Petit (1990)
Channel catfish 27-29
Tucker and Robinson
(1990)
Channel catfish 21-29 Piper et al. (1982)
Channel catfish
hatcheries
78-82°F Boyd (1990)
Striped bass 13-23 Piper et al. (1982)
Red swamp
crawfish
18-22 Romaire (1985)
P. vannamei 28-30 Clifford 1994
Freshwater prawn 30 Romaire (1985)
Brine shrimp 20-30 Romaire (1985)
Brown shrimp 22-30 Romaire (1985)
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8. Turbidity
• Measure of light penetration in water.
• Turbid conditions = Dissolved and suspended solids (clay and
microorganisms such as phytoplankton).
• Pond turbidity
• Sediment resuspension
• Biological activity
• Addition of manure and feed
• Erosion of the pond slopes.
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9. • Turbid waters
• Gill damage and fish stress.
• Clog filters
• Affect the light
• Oxygen levels reduced due to photo-synthesis inhibition.
• Phytoplankton dependent feeder may affected
• Turbidity = Avoid the growth of undesirable rooted plants.
• Channel catfish = More tolerant with their fingerlings and adults
surviving long-term exposures to 100,000 mg l-1 with behavioral
changes occurring above 20,000 mg l-1 (Tucker and Robinson
1990).
• Salmonid culture = < 30 mg 1-1, < 80 mg l-1 and < 25 mg l-1
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10. Treatment
• Colloids or very small suspended particles =Electrolytes such as
alum.
• While alum is very effective but, reduce the alkalinity and pH. Lime
can be added to counteract these effects.
• Suspended clay = Organics such as barnyard manure, cottonseed
meal, or superphosphate.
Effect Suspended solids
concentration
No harmful effects on fisheries 25 mg I-1
Acceptable range 25-80 mg I-1
Detrimental to fisheries 80 mg I-1
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11. Salinity
• Salinity is a measure of the total concentration of dissolved ions (ppt)
• Freshwater = High concentrations of carbonate, silicic acid, calcium,
magnesium and sodium (Stumm and Morgan, 1981)
• Salinity of seawater varies = Proximity to the coastline, rainfall, rivers,
and other discharges
• Chloride and sodium ions contribute most significantly with sulfate,
magnesium, calcium, potassium, and bicarbonate ions contributing to a
lesser degree (Stumm and Morgan 1981, 567).
• Salinity is immensely important to fish which must maintain the
concentration of dissolved salts in their bodies at a fairly constant level
through the process of osmoregulation
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12. Species Salinity (PPT) Comments Reference
Salmon > 24 Optimum Black 1991
Trout < 20>
Survival and
growth decrease
above 20%
McKay and Gjerde
(1985)
Grass carp <10-14
Upper salinity
tolerance
Maceina and
Shineman (1979)
Tilapia aurea
and Tilapia
nilotica
0-10 Optimum salinity Stickney (1986)
Red hybrid
tilapia
< 17 Lawson (1995)
Channel catfish
11-14 Can survive
Perry and Avault
(1970)
> 6-8 Growth is poor
0.5-3.0 Optimal salinity
<0.5
Can still grow
well
Boyd (1990)<3
Optimal for egg
and fry
0.1-8.0%
Optimal for
hatcheries
Species Salinity (PPT) Comments Reference
Freshwater
prawn
12.0%
Eggs and larval
stage Tansakul (1983)
M. rosenbergii <0.5% Postlarval stages
Brackish water
prawn
15-25% Optimum
10-35% Acceptable range
P. vannamei 15-25% Optimum Clifford (1994)
General
Guidelines
< 0.5% Optimal
Lawson (1995)
<2%
Can survive at
<7% but growth
poor
Marine fish
33-34% Optimum
30-40% Acceptable range
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13. Alkalinity
• Alkalinity is a measure of the acid neutralizing capacity of a water.
• Alkalinity in natural freshwater systems ranges from 5 mg l-1 to 500 mg
l-1. Sea water has a mean total alkalinity of 116 mg l-1 (Lawson, 1995)
• There are no direct effects of alkalinity on fish and shellfish,
• Alkalinity protects the organism from major changes in pH.
• The metabolism and respiration of fish and micro-organisms = produce
wastes and by-products which can change pH.
• Biological processes can change alkalinity itself by producing or
consuming acids or bases
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14. • Alkalinity is too low (less than 20 mg l-1), the water may not
contain sufficient carbon dioxide (CO2) or dissolved carbonates for
photosynthesis to occur, thus restricting phytoplankton growth
(Lawson, 1995)
Total alkalinity
(mg/l)
Effect Reference
15-20 Phytoplankton production low Boyd (1974)
<30 Poorly buffered against rapid
pH changes
Meade (1989),
Tucker and Robinson (1990)
20-400 Sufficient for most aquaculture
purposes
Meade (1989)
>100 or 150 Desirable Meade (1989)
Tucker and Robinson (1990)
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15. pH
• The pH of water is its hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]).
= - log[H+]
• Natural waters range between pH 5 and pH 10 while seawater is
maintained near pH 8.3.
• For most species, a pH between 6.5 and 9 is ideal. Below pH 6.5
species experience slow growth (Lloyd 1992, 64).
• Lower pH
• Species ability to maintain its salt balance is affected (Lloyd, 1992)
• Reproduction ceases.
• Species die when pH <4 and >11 (Lawson, 1995)
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16. • Reduces the amount of dissolved inorganic phosphorous and carbon
dioxide available for phytoplankton photosynthesis.
• Metals toxic to fish and shellfish can be leached out of the soil.
• Treated by using lime (Boyd 1981).
• High pH
• Toxic form of ammonia becomes more prevalent.
• In addition phosphate, which is commonly added as a fertilizer, can
rapidly precipitate at high pH (Boyd 1990
• Alum can be used to treat high pH waters.
• High pH problem is due to excess phytoplankton photosynthesis in waters
with high alkalinity and low calcium hardness, gypsum can be added as a
source of calcium.
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17. Hardness (Calcium and Magnesium)
• Total hardness is a measure of the concentration of all metal
cations with the exception of the alkali metals.
• Calcium and magnesium are the most common cations
contributing to hardness in fresh water systems.
• To a much lesser extent, hardness also includes other divalent ions
such as iron (Fe2+) and barium (Ba2+).
• Water is classified with respect to
its hardness and softness.
Water classification Concentration (CaCo3 per liter)
Soft 0-75 mg
Moderate 75-150 mg
Hard 150-300 mg
Very hard > 300 mg
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18. Calcium
• Necessary for bone and exoskeleton formation and for osmoregulation.
• Crustaceans absorb calcium = when molting,
• The water is too soft
• Cease to molt
• Bone deformities
• Reduced growth rates
• Calcium reduces the toxicity of metals, ammonia, and the hydrogen ion.
• Higher ion concentration in hard waters
• Suspended soil particles settle faster in hard waters than soft waters.
• Alkalinity is high and calcium is low = Photosynthesis may increase the
pH to levels that are toxic to fish (Boyd, 1990)
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19. • The most productive waters for fish culture have roughly equal
magnitudes of total hardness and total alkalinity.
• Hardness averages 6,600 mg l-1 in ocean water and therefore is not
a problem in seawater or brackish water systems (Lawson, 1995)
• Insufficient hardness is easily overcome.
• Calcium hardness can be raised by adding agricultural gypsum or calcium
chloride.
• Gypsum is preferable because it costs less, is more readily available, and
does not affect alkalinity.
• Its disadvantages = Variable purity of agricultural gypsum (70-98
percent) and its slow reaction rate relative to calcium chloride
(Boyd 1990)
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20. Species
Total hardness (mg
/l)
Comment Reference
Hatchling silver carp 300-500 Optimum Boyd (1990)
Channel catfish
hatchery
>20 Optimum Boyd (1990)
Trout hatchery 10-400 Suggested Piper et al. (1982)
Warm water hatchery 50-400 Suggested Piper et al.(1982)
Freshwater
crustaceans
>50 Some species need more Boyd (1990)
Freshwater crayfish >100 For optimum production
DelaBretonne et al.
(1969)
General guideline 20-300 Hardness = alkalinity
Boyd and Walley
(1975) Romaire (1985)
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21. Dissolved oxygen
• Sources of dissolved oxygen are photosynthesis and reaeration
from the atmosphere
• Oxygen-consuming processes such as respiration from microbial
life, fish, and plants, and the degradation of organic matter by
microorganisms (biological oxygen demand)
• Influenced by temperature
• The type of fish, life stage, feeding practices, level of activity and
dissolved oxygen concentration also influence the respiration rate.
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22. Species DO (mg/l) Comment Reference
Channel catfish
< 0.5 (fingerlings)
Survive short
exposure
Lawson (1995)
0.5 (adults)
Survive short
exposure
Lawson (1995)
2.0-3.0
Adults survive, eggs
die
Lawson (1995)
<5.0
Feed poorly, grow
slowly
Lawson (1995)
< 6.0 (hatchery) Boyd (1990)
Red swamp
crawfish
< 1.0 (juveniles)
Survive short
exposure
Avault et al. (1974)
<2.0 Adults crawl out Lawson (1995)
Penaeid shrimp
species
low DO Like freshwater fish Boyd 1990
0.7-1.4 Lethal concentration Lawson (1995)
P. vannamei 6.0-10.0 Optimum Clifford (1994)
General guideline > 5.0-6.0 Lawson (1995)
Species DO (mg/l) Comment Reference
Tilapia
>5.0 Preferred Lloyd (1992)
3.0-4.0 Tolerable
Trout
10.0 Normal at 15°C Lloyd (1992)
5.0 Limit for acclimation
Marine fish >6.0 Minimum
Huguenln and Colt
(1989)
Cold water fish >6.0 Minimum Lawson (1995)
Salmon
>8.5 Optimal Black (1991)
100% saturation
Warm water
crustaceans
>5
Can only survive
lower DO for a few
hours
Lloyd (1992)
Eel
>5 Preferred Lloyd (1992)
3.0-4.0 Tolerable
Carp
>5.0 Preferred Lloyd (1992)
3.0-4.0 Tolerable
Warm water fish
>5.0 Recommended
Lawson (1995)
>1.5 Live for several days
>1.0
Live for several
hours
<0.3 Lethal concentration yuvarajandono@gmail.com
23. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Measure of the amount of organic compounds that can be
biologically oxidized by microorganisms in water
• BOD is the potential for it to deplete oxygen
• Higher BOD promotes the microbial growth at high temperatures. This
can lead to the depletion of
• Treatment are potassium permanganate and aeration.
• Potassium permanganate chemically oxidizes organic matter, thus
reducing the BOD. But not suitable for production system.
• Most effective method = Aeration
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24. Carbon dioxide
• Source = Diffusion from the atmosphere, fish respiration, and the
biological oxidation of organic compounds
• Surface water sources can have high levels of CO2 = Respiration
high rates.
• CO2 conc are too high = Fish blood CO2 increased
• Impairing the ability of their hemoglobin to carry oxygen,
• Respiratory distress
(Bohr- Root effect).
Aquaculture type Free CO2 (mg /l) Comment
Hatchery 0 Ideal
Trout <10
Warm water <15
Channel catfish
hatchery
<10 Ideal
Finfish <10-15 Maximum
Trout 9-10 Toxic effects
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25. Treatment
• Either calcium hydroxide, also known as salked or hydrated lyme,
or sodium carbonate may be added to reduce high levels of carbon
dioxide. However, calcium hydroxide is cheaper and more widely
available (Boyd, 1990).
• Sodium carbonate is safer because, unlike calcium hydroxide, it is
not caustic and will not cause a substantial rise in pH
• Vigorous mixing and aeration is also a good method for removing
excess carbon dioxide
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26. Ammonia
• Initial product of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic wastes
and respiration, and may indicate the presence of decomposing
urea, feces, and organics.
• High conc of ammonia = Increase the ammonia concentration and
pH in fish blood
• Gill damage,
• Reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
• Increase the oxygen demand of tissues
• Damage red blood cells
• Affect osmoregulation (Lawson 1995
• The toxicity of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN which is equal to
NH4
+ + NH3) depends on what fraction of the total is unionized,
since this is the more toxic form. (Boyd 1990)
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27. • Ionized and unionized ammonia - equilibrium - depending on pH,
temperature and salinity.
• Ammonia toxicity can be influenced by temperature and salinity.
• In general warm water fish are more tolerant to ammonia than
cold water fish, and freshwater fish are more tolerant to ammonia
than marine fish (Lawson, 1995).
• In brackish water shrimp farms, zeolites are known to be added to
control ammonia concentrations.
• Zeolites have been shown to be technically effective in freshwater
(Briggs and Funge-Smith, 1996).
• Other options include using aeration to oxidize the ammonia to
nitrate (nitrification) or to adjust the pH and use air stripping to
volatilize the ammonia
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28. Factors Effect
Temperature Controls ratio of toxic NH3 and NH4
Increasing temperature increases ammonia toxicity
pH Controls ratio of toxic NH3 and NH4
Increasing pH increases ammonia toxicity
DO Low Do increases ammonia toxicity
Plants
Photosynthesis Increases DO
Reduces CO2; increases pH of water
Respiration Reduces DO
Increases CO2; decreases pH of water
Gill surface
Co2 Excreation Increased respiration increases CO2 excretion; reduces pH of
water
Increased CO2 in incoming water lessens pH reduction
Acclimation
Environmental
ammonia
May increase detoxification capability may be linked with
protein content of food
Species
Ammonia (mg/l
of NH3)
Comment Reference
M. rosenbergii 0.09
Reduced growth
rates
Boyd (1990)
Penaeid shrimp 0.45
50% growth
reduction
Boyd (1990)
P. monodon <0.13 Safe concentration
Boyd (1990)
P. vannamei
<0.1
0.1-1.0 mg/l TAN
Optimum
Optimum
Clifford (1994)
Freshwater fish
<0.05
< 1.0 mg/l TAN
Safe concentration
Lawson (1995
)
Channel catfish
hatchery
<0.05 Optimum Boyd (1990)
Salmonid
hatchery
<0.0125 Upper limit Piper et at. (1982)
Salmonids <0.02 EU1979
Marine fish <0.01 Safe concentration
Huguenin and Colt
(1989)
General
guidelines
<1.0 mg/l TAN Permissible level Meade (1989)
0.1 Max tolerable level Pillay (1992)
<0.012 Permissible level Boyd (1990)
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29. Species
Ammonia (mg/l
of NH3)
Comment Reference
M. rosenbergii 0.09
Reduced growth
rates
Boyd (1990)
Penaeid shrimp 0.45
50% growth
reduction
Boyd (1990)
P. monodon <0.13 Safe concentration
Boyd (1990)
P. vannamei
<0.1
0.1-1.0 mg/l TAN
Optimum
Optimum
Clifford (1994)
Freshwater fish
<0.05
< 1.0 mg/l TAN
Safe concentration
Lawson (1995
)
Channel catfish
hatchery
<0.05 Optimum Boyd (1990)
Salmonid
hatchery
<0.0125 Upper limit Piper et at. (1982)
Salmonids <0.02 EU1979
Marine fish <0.01 Safe concentration
Huguenin and Colt
(1989)
General
guidelines
<1.0 mg/l TAN Permissible level Meade (1989)
0.1 Max tolerable level Pillay (1992)
<0.012 Permissible level Boyd (1990)
<0.02 Permissible level Meade (1989) yuvarajandono@gmail.com
30. Nitrite
• Nitrite is formed primarily as an intermediary in the conversion of
ammonia to nitrate, a process known as nitrification.
• High nitrite concentrations deactivate hemoglobin in the blood of
fish thus causing hypoxia. This condition is referred to as brown
blood disease. A similar effect is found in crustaceans
• Nitrite toxicity reduced by ions such as calcium, chloride, bromide
and bicarbonate. As a result, it is rarely a problem in saltwater and
brackish water.
• Treatment = Aeration can be used to promote the nitrification
process
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31. Species or water Conc Comment Ref
Hard freshwater <0.1 Pillay (1992)
Soft water <0.1 Meade (1989)
Fresh water fish <0.5 Hatcheris Swann (1993)
Brakish water
shrimp
<4.1 Boyd (1990)
P. monodon <4.1 Post larval growout Boyd (1990)
P. vannamei <1.0 Optimum Clifford (1994)
Salmonid <0.01
<0.1
Soft water
Hard water
Pillay (1992)
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32. Nitrate
• Nitrate is the least toxic of the major inorganic nitrogen
compounds.
• High levels of nitrate can affect osmoregulation and oxygen
transport
Species Conc (mg / l) Comment Reference
Carp <80 Optimum
Svobodova et
al. (1993)
Trout <20 Optimum
Svobodova et
al. (1993)
P.
vannamei
0.4-0.8 Optimum
Clifford
(1994)
Freshwater
hatchery
<3 Optimum
Piper et al.
(1982)
General
<3
<100
Permissible
Meade (1989)
Pillay (1992)
High nitrate levels
Eutrophication,
excessive growth of algae
and aquatic plants –
negative impact on culture
species
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33. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
• Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacteria under oxygen
starved (anoxic) conditions.
• It is very toxic to fish
• Even extremely low concentrations of hydrogen sulfide cause
hypoxia and are deadly or extremely harmful to fish.
• Concentrations as little as 0.05 mg l-1 have caused death after only
a brief exposure and concentrations less than 0.01 mg l-1 have
inhibited reproduction
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34. Treatment
• Oxidation with potassium permanganate or dilution through water
exchange are the best methods of hydrogen sulfide removal.
• Prevented by vigorous aeration and circulation to eliminate anaerobic
zones (Lawson, 1995).
• As a method of hydrogen sulfide removal, some companies in Asia are
selling photosynthetic bacterial additives which claim to convert hydrogen
sulfide to sulfate (Boyd, 1990)
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