This document discusses various sources and characteristics of wastewater from the textile industry. It describes the manufacturing processes for cotton, wool, rayon, synthetic fibers, silk and jute and identifies the specific steps that generate wastewater, such as desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing and printing. The wastewater streams contain various pollutants including starch, fats, waxes, grease, dyes, chemicals and suspended solids. If untreated, the wastewater poses environmental and health risks to surrounding communities.

1. Daffodil International University
Textile Engineering Department
1
Personal Details of Student
Faculty of Engineering
Family Name Md. Shahiduzzaman Given Name (s) Shuvo
ID 111-23-2350 Email shahid23-2350 @diu.edu.bd
Assignment Details
As s ignment Title
Waste Water From Textile Industry
(Characteristics & Source)
Course Code TE-416
Course Title Textile & Environment
Submitted To Prof. Dr. S.M. Mahbub Ul Haque Majumder, Dean
Submission Date 19.08.2014
Md. Shahiduzzaman Shuvo

2. Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 COTTON TEXTILE WASTES .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 RAW MATERIAL .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 SPINNING, WEAVING AND SIZING (OR SLASHING)....................................................................... 6
2.1.4 DESIZING ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.5 CAUSTIC KIERING (OR SCOURING) .............................................................................................................. 7
2.1.6 CHEMICKING OR BLEACHING ............................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.7 SCOURING ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.8 MERCERIZING .............................................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.9 SOURING ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 WOOLLEN MILL WASTES .......................................................................................................................................13
2.2.1 THE MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS ........................................................................................................13
2.3 RAYON MILL WASTES ..............................................................................................................................................16
2.3.1 VARIOUS STEPS IN MANUFACTURING ....................................................................................................17
2.3.2 SOURCES OF WASTE WATER ..........................................................................................................................18
2.4 SYNTHETIC FIBRE WASTES .................................................................................................................................19
2.4.1 CELLULOSE ACETATE ............................................................................................................................................20
2.4.2 NYLON.............................................................................................................................................................................20
2.4.3 POLYESTER ...................................................................................................................................................................20
2.4.4 ACRYLICS AND MODACRYLICS .......................................................................................................................21
2.4.5 SYNTHETIC FIBER WASTE WATER TREATMENT ..............................................................................21
2.5 SILK AND JUTE MANUFACTURING WASTES ............................................................................................22
2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE WASTEWATER ............................................................................23
3. CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................................................................25
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................................................26
2

3. 3
1. Introduction
Industrialization of the textile industry and use of a large variety of chemical
treatments and dyes has resulted in a public health threat created by pollution. 17
-20% of industrial freshwater pollution is caused by textile dyeing and treatment.
Estimations state that 10-15% of total dyestuffs (equivalent to 280,000 tons of
dyestuffs) used during the manufacturing of textile products is released into the
environment worldwide annually.
The main release of pollution during manufacturing occurs during the dyeing and
finishing processes and is released by the manufacturer into their local waterways.
The waste-water produced is not always biodegradable and often poses severe
environmental and health hazards to the community they operate within.
There are a wide range of mostly organic compounds of complex structure used in
the textile dyeing and finishing process. In regards to waste-water, dyestuffs may
be classified into two groups; those that don’t undergo chemical reactions (acid,
basic, direct, disperse, pigment, and solvent), and those that do (reactive, vat,
Sulphur, azoic). Of these the processes involving reactive chemistry use chemicals
that independently are non-toxic, but react with the other chemicals used in
manufacturing to create a third substance which is toxic. This reaction can occur
during various stages in the product lifecycle, and can vary greatly dependent not
only on the dye compound created, but also on factors such as the fiber choice,
fabric structure, or machinery used. “Composite textile waste-water is
characterized mainly by measurements of biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD),
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) suspended solids (SS), and dissolved solids (DS).
[1]

4. 4
2. Description
This Assignment deals with waste waters generated in the processing of
cotton, wool, rayon, semi -synthetics, synthetics, silk and Jute. Raw materials used
in the manufacturing process are subjected to various physical, chemical and
biological changes aimed at removing the natural impurities from the raw material,
separating the cleaned portion and modifying its physical and chemical structure to
get the desired end product.
These natural impurities, along with the chemicals and other cleansing agents used
in the process, find their way into the waste water streams and contribute to their
polluting characteristics. The ease or difficulty with which these waste waters are
treated depends mainly on the nature of the impurities, their concentration, their
degradability and amenability to various treatment processes. Methods of disposal
of the treated wastes are determined by local conditions and requirements of the
pollution control authorities, in addition to the factors mentioned earlier. In
general, textile industry offers good opportunities for effective treatment of its
waste’ water, recovery of valuable chemicals and by-products from the wastes, and
recycle and reuse of water used in the manufacturing process.
[2]

5. 5
2.1 Cotton Textile Wastes
2.1.1 Raw Material
Raw cotton, as obtained from the cotton bush, is pure cellulose, containing
Impurities such as waxes, gums, pectin, leaves, soil and cotton seed. It is picked
from the fields, the seeds are removed by ginning, and the resulting balls of cotton
are pressed into bales and sent to the mills for further processing. The
manufacturing process starts with the removal of loose dirt, cleaning the fibers
and opening them for easy alignment. This step facilitates the operation of
spinning. The cotton, thus converted into yarn, is then woven into raw cloth, known
as gray goods. Impurities is picked from the fields, the seeds are removed by
ginning, and the resulting balls of cotton are pressed into bales and sent to the
mills for further processing. The manufacturing process starts with the removal of
loose dirt, cleaning the fibers and opening them for easy alignment. This step
facilitates the operation of spinning. The cotton, thus converted into yarn, is then
woven into raw cloth, known as gray goods, Impurities sticking firmly to the cotton
fabric are then removed by a number of chemical processes. The fabric is then
subjected to bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing and printing. Mills where gray goods
are manufactured are called spinning and weaving’ mills. Further treatment of the
grey goods is done in the ‘process house’. Mills, which start with raw cotton and end
up with finished cloth, are known as ‘composite’ mills.

6. 6
2.1.2 Manufacturing Process
Figure 2.1
2.1.3 Spinning, Weaving and Sizing (or Slashing)
This is a dry process and requires the use of water only for maintaining relative
humidity in the spinning and weaving section in the range 70%—75%. The cotton
balls are spun into yarn and subjected to sizing (or Slashing). This reduces the
chances of the yarn breaking during the weaving process. The sizing agent usually
used in starch or caboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or suitable
mixture of these compounds. The agent, especially starch, is applied to the cloth in
the form of a paste. The woven cloth is called ‘gray goods’ and is ‘singed’, i.e. Passed
quickly between two rows of burning gas flames in order to burn the ‘fuzz’, or tiny
ends of cotton protruding from the surface of the cloth.
It is then dipped into a tank containing water to prevent it from catching fire.
Thereafter, it is sent to the process house for further treatment. Waste products
of spinning and weaving consist mainly of loose dirt accompanying the raw cotton
and cotton dust or ‘willow’ dust, which is pure cellulose. The loose dirt is disposed
of with other solid waste from the mill, while the cotton dust is-

7. 7
(i) Burned as fuel in the mill’s boiler, or
(ii) Sold to outside parties as filling material in quilts. A better use of the cotton
dust is to digest it with cow dung under anaerobic conditions for the production of
methane gas (1, 2, 3), which can be used within the mill’s canteen or for singeing
operations. The cotton dust can also be composted aerobically or anaerobically to
give a manure of good quality [4, 5, 6]. Another waste product in the spinning and
weaving operations is the starch paste, which may be present in the waste water
stream if the vessel in which the paste is prepared is washed with water. This adds
considerably to the BOD of the waste water, because starch is a
Biodegradable substance. This BOD load can be easily reduced by first scraping
dry the vessel containing the starch paste, recovering the paste and then washing
the vessel with minimum quantity of water.
2.1.4 Desizing
This is done in order to remove the excess sizing agent sticking to the cloth. The
desizing compound used may be either the enzyme diastase, or a mineral acid. The
cloth is washed after desizing. This is another source of waste water. Water
consumption in this (and in almost all washing operations in the textile mill) can be
considerably reduced by following the practice of ‘countercurrent’ washing. i.e.
pass the cloth to be washed through a series of tanks containing water which
overflows from the last tank in the series of tanks into the next tank, and so on, so
that the water travels through this system in a direction opposite to that of the
cloth. The cleansing power of the water is thus fully used.
2.1.5 Caustic Kiering (or Scouring)
This is done either under pressure or at atmospheric pressure. The Kier is a tall
vessel in which the gray goods are stacked. Chemicals, viz. caustic soda (NaOH),
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), low. BOD detergent and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3 are
added and the cloth is subjected to high temperature by infecting steam into the
kier. Waxes, gums and pectin, which are firmly sticking to the cotton fibre, are
completely removed by this operation. The cloth is removed from the kier and is
washed thoroughly to remove the impurities and the chemicals. The waste water
from the kier has high pH, dark chocolate brown color and a frothy appearance.
This waste stream should be treated separately and then mixed with the other

8. waste water streams for further treatment.
8
2.1.6 Chemicking or Bleaching
The pale yellow colour of the kiered cloth is removed by using a bleaching agent
such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or hydrogen peroxide (H202), followed by
water wash. This step facilitates dyeing and printing operations.
2.1.7 Scouring
The bleached cloth is treated with a dilute acid and washed thoroughly to ensure
complete removal of all alkaline chemicals used in the earlier manufacturing
operations.
2.1.8 Mercerizing
This operation gives lustre to the cloth and increases its affinity for the dye. It
consists of washing the cloth with caustic soda solution of 25%—30% strength.
The caustic soda solution becomes weak with repeated use. When its strength is
reduced, the spent caustic is removed from the mercerizing bath and sent to
caustic recovery section, where either dialysis or multiple effect evaporation is
done to separate the water from the caustic solution and build up its
concentration. The recovered caustic is then ‘topped up’ to the required strength
and is reused. The mercerized cloth is washed with jets of water. This wash water
is also collected and sent to the caustic recovery section.
2.1.9 Souring
The mercerized cloth is washed first with dilute acid to remove traces of caustic
soda and the salt resulting from the reaction between the caustic soda and the
dilute acid is removed by a water wash. The cloth is now ready for dyeing, printing
and finishing operations.

9. 2.1.10 Dyeing and Printing
The bleached cloth is coloured with dyes of various types, and printed with various
designs, depending on market demand. The wash waters from these operations are
highly variable, depending on the type of dyes, dye chemicals and printing
chemicals used. Dyeing and printing chemicals are designed to impart ‘fast’ colour
and ‘non-fading’ designs to the cloth. As a result, waste waters produced in these
sections are difficult to treat, especially from the point of view of color removal
and reduction of oxygen demand. Thorough washing of the dyed and printed cloth
is done before it is dried Folded and stored.
9
[3]
General characteristics of waste water streams from various sections are given in
Table:
Chemical Process Possible pollutants in the
waste water
Nature of the waste
water
1. Desizing Starch (퐶6퐻10푂5) n,
glucose (퐶6퐻12푂6), CMC,
PVA, resin, fats, wax.
High BOD
(35.5% of total)
2. Scouring NaOH, wax, grease,
Na2CO3, fragment of
cloth
Strong alkaline, weak
color, high BOD (30% of
the total)
3. Bleaching Hypochlorite/H2O2, Cl2,
NaOH, acids
Alkaline (5% BOD)
4. Mercerising NaOH Strongly alkaline (low
BOD, less than 1%)
5. Dyeing Various dyes, salts, alkali,
soap/detergent
Strongly colored (Fairly
BOD, 6% of the total)
6. Printing Colors, Starch, gums, oils,
china clay, mordants,
acids/alkalis, different
metallic salts.
Highly colored oily
appearance (BOD, 6-10%
of the total)
7. Finishing Traces of starch, tallow
& different finishing
agents.
Low BOD (2-4% of the
total)
[4]

10. Another survey report collected from Indian Textile Journal:
10
Figure 2.2

11. 11
[5]
Figure 2.3

12. Effect of impurities or effect of effluents on Environments:
Name of impurities Effects
Bacteria Diseases
Algae, Protozoa, Fungi Diseases, Odor, color, turbidity
퐶푎푟푏표푛푎푡푒푠
퐵푖푐푎푟푏표푛푎푡푒푠
푆푢푙푝ℎ푎푡푒푠
퐶ℎ푙표푟푖푑푒푠
퐶푎푟푏표푛푎푡푒푠
퐵푖푐푎푟푏표푛푎푡푒푠
푆푢푙푝ℎ푎푡푒푠
퐹푙푢표푟푖푑푒푠
퐶ℎ푙표푟푖푑푒푠
12
Clay & colloids
Salts of Ca & Mg {
Hardness, alkalinity, taste,
corrosiveness, scale formation
Hardness, alkalinity, taste,
corrosiveness, scale formation
Hardness, taste
Hardness, taste, corrosiveness
Salts of Na
{
Alkalinity
Alkalinity
Foaming & scaling
Tooth-decay
Taste
Iron oxides Taste, red water hardness,
corrosiveness
Manganese Black or brown water
Vegetable Dyes Color, acidity
Gases
{
푂푥푦푔푒푛
퐶푂2
퐻2푆
푁푖푡푟표푔푒푛}
Corrosive to metals.
Acidity, corrosive to metals.
Odor, acidity, corrosive to metals
Child diseases, algal growth
[6]

13. 13
2.2 WOOLLEN MILL WASTES
Woolen fibre, unlike cotton (which is a fibre of vegetable origin), is a fibre of
animal origin. Wool, as removed from the sheep’s back, contains considerable
quantities of dirt, grass, burrs picked up during grazing, excreta. The dried
perspiration of the sheep called ‘suint’, and the wool grease discharged from the
animal’s glands, which protects its skin during growth. Grease wool may contain as
little as 30% fibre and 70% foreign matter, which must be removed before the
fibre can be used in textile manufacture. The sheep’s perspiration consists largely
of potash salts and water-soluble organic acids. The wool fat, or ‘yolk’, which is
impure lanolin, is insoluble in water, but soluble in certain organic solvents.
For every 100 kg of finished wool, 250 kg of raw wool has to be processed.
In extreme cases, raw wool may contain as little as 30% fiber, 70% foreign matter,
of which 45% is grease. Contribution of wastes comes from the operations of
scouring, carbonizing, dusting, bleaching, dyeing and finishing operations.
2.2.1 The manufacturing operations
1. Grading: The raw wool is graded according to its quality.
2. Dusting: Impurities are removed by mechanical means by subjecting raw wool
to a dusting/opening operation. Whereby the wool is opened up and is ready
for the scouring process. Considerable dirt, amounting to 5%—15% of the
total impurities, is removed in this step and is disposed of in a dry condition.
3. Desuinting/Scouring: Desuinting is done by washing the wool in water at a
temperature 50°—55°C. Scouring with alkali, soap and soda ash follows this.
This step contributes from 55% to 75% of the total BOD load and removes
almost all natural and acquired impurities from the wool fibre. Water used
ranges 7000 to 10,000 liters per 100 kg wool fibre.
4. Drying: Passing it through a series of driers dries the scoured wool.

14. 5. Carbonization: It is a process in which hot concentrated Sulphuric acid is
used to convert the vegetable matter in the wool into loose, charred
particles, which are mechanically crushed and then taken out of the wool in a
machine called ‘duster’. This step produces some solid waste but little liquid
waste.
6. Dyeing: During this process, a hot dye solution is generally circulated by
pumps through the wool, which is packed in a removable metal basket
suspended in a kettle. Waste water generated by dyeing is highly colored
and contains many toxic substances. BOD contribution from this stream is
1%—6% of the total BOD load.
7. Oiling: The traditional oiling agent used is olive oil. It is mixed with water
and sprayed on the wool. Oiling increases cohesion of the fibers and aids in
spinning operation. The amount of oil used varies from 1% to 11% of the
weight of wool. All of this oil is removed from the woven cloth later in the
finishing operation. The percentage contribution of BOD from this waste
varies with the type of oil used.
8. Spinning and weaving: The wool fibres are spun and loosely woven into cloth.
9. Fulling: The loosely woven wool from the loom is shrunk into tight, closely woven
cloth. There are two common methods of fulling, viz. alkali fulling and acid fulling.
In alkali fulling, soap or synthetic detergent, soda ash and sequestering agents are
used. In acid fulling, the fabric is impregnated with an aqueous solution of
Sulphuric acid, hydrogen peroxide and small amounts of metallic catalysts such as
chromium, copper and cobalt. The temperature of water used ranges from 330 to
38°C. Acid fulling is always followed by alkali fulling.
10. Washing: The cloth is washed to remove all chemicals used in the earlier
operations. Two soaping’s, two warm water (38°—44°C) washes and a cold rinse are
given. It is estimated [241 that from 10% to 25% of the weight of the filled cloth
is composed of process chemicals which contribute from 20% to 35% of the total
BOD. Water consumed ranges between 35,000 and 85,000 litres per 100 kg of wool
14

15. fabric. The above operations are indicated in the process flow diagram Fig. 6.2.
Table 6.5 gives the average analysis of waste water samples collected from the
second bowl of a scouring train. Numerical figures in the table are average values
of 12 batches of samples.
The most obnoxious waste stream from woolen cloth manufacture is the wool
scouring waste. It must be adequately treated, useful by-products recovered from
it. The treated (or partially treated) effluent recycled to the appropriate
department and the balance flow discharged to the municipal sewer (if one is
available and the waste water treatment plant is designed to take the additional
organic and hydraulic load).
Methods of Treatment of Wool Scouring Wastes
The following methods are used to treat the scouring wastes of wool:
15
1. Hypochlorite process
2. Acid cracking process
3. Anaerobic treatment
Figure 2.4

16. 4. Calcium chloride plus carbon dioxide process
16
5. Solvent degreasing process
2.3 RAYON MILL WASTES
Rayon also known as ‘artificial silk’, is a form of regenerated cellulose. The idea of
producing artificial silk was put forward as early as 1665. Extruding certain
solutions through fine holes and producing filaments was suggested by a silk
manufacturer. A patent for producing artificial silk from nitrocellulose was issued
in 1883. Seven years later, another patent was taken out for cuprammonium
process of producing rayon. Similarly, it was observed that alkaline cellulose
reacted with carbon bisulphide to form a viscous solution, which was termed
‘viscose’. From that time onwards, the viscose process has found favor with rayon
manufacturers.
The first unit for manufacturing rayon was established in India in 1935 with
Japanese assistance. Today, most of the production is done using the viscose
process. Rayon yarn bas many uses, such as manufacture of fashion fabrics, hosiery
items, knitted goods interwoven with cotton, silk, wool, linen, making ribbons,
braids and tyre cord.
Manufacture of rayon consists of steps involving separation of pure cellulose from
the raw material such as wood and cotton linters. Converting the pure cellulose into
alkaline cellulose, which is made to react with carbon bisulphide under controlled
conditions to form cellulose xanthate and converting this compound into filaments
by squirting it into a bath containing zinc sulphate, sodium sulphate, Sulphuric acid,
glucose and water. The filaments so formed are spun into yarn, bleached and/or
dyed as per market demand.
Chemicals used in the manufacture of rayon include sodium hydroxide, carbon
bisulphide, zinc sulphate, sodium sulphate, and Sulphuric acid, glucose, bleaching
and dyeing agents.

17. 17
2.3.1 Various steps in manufacturing
1. Steeping: Sheets of cellulose are soaked in 18% sodium hydroxide for a period
from 2 to 4 hrs. At room temperature, in order to convert cellulose into alkali
cellulose.
2. Pressing: The soaked sheets are then pressed in order to remove the extra
solution of sodium hydroxide. This solution is either reused or is sent to caustic
recovery plant
3. Shredding: A water-jacketed shredder or a kneading machine converts the
sheets into loose, bread crumb-Like material in 3—4 hrs. At room temperature.
4. Ageing or maturation: The Alkali cellulose is stored in covered bins for 2—3 days
at room temperature. During this period, oxygen is absorbed and DE polymerization
of alkali cellulose takes place. By suitable regulation of temperature and time of
ageing, a desired viscosity of the material is obtained.
5. Churning: At the end of the ageing period, the alkali cellulose is transferred to a
tank in which carbon bisulphide is added to convert alkali cellulose into cellulose
xanthate. This tank is rotated at 2—3 rpm and is maintained at 30°C, because this
reaction is exothermic in nature. During churning, the cream colored liquid changes
to orange-red or brown-red color. Time of residence in the churning tank is from
3—6 hrs.
6. Production of viscose: This is achieved by thoroughly mixing cellulose xanthate
with a 6.5% solution of sodium hydroxide and water. The reaction requires 3—6
hrs. to go to completion at a temperature between 15°C and 17°C.
7. Ripening of viscose: This is done at a temperature 15°C—20°C for 4—5 days.
During this period, the viscose is filtered and DE aerated to free it from fibres
and air bubbles, which can interfere with the spinning process. In addition, water
free from hardness is required here, because the presence of hardness-causing
salts can also affect the spinning process. Filtration is done by passing viscose in
upward direction through cotton wool in order to avoid air bubbles entering the
solution during filtration. The filtered viscose is stored in tanks under vacuum for
at least 24 hours prior to spinning.

18. 8. Spinning: Conversion of viscose into filament is done in the spinning bath, which
contains a mixture of zinc sulphate, sodium sulphate. Sulphuric acid, glucose and
water. The viscose is squirted into the bath through a rapidly rotating, perforated
disc. Contact between the viscose and the contents of the spinning bath results in
the formation of rayon thread.
9. Finishing: The thread is wound on spools and thoroughly washed with water to
remove all chemicals used in the earlier steps of manufacture. Removal of Sulphur
is done by the treatment of the threads with a solution of sodium Sulphide heated
to 45°C. The next step is to wash the threads in water.
Bleaching is done with 0.05—0.1% solution of sodium hypochlorite.
The last step involves drying. Polishing and finishing.
18
2.3.2 Sources of Waste Water
The first source of waste water is the viscose, which may be drained if it does not
meet the quality requirements. This can impose a heavy load on the waste water
treatment facility. The next source is the caustic recovery plant, which may use
dialysis or multiple effect evaporation for recovering sodium hydroxide from the
waste water generated in the process of pressing. The spinning bath produces
waste water containing sodium sulphate, zinc sulphate, glucose, Sulphur. Washing
of the spools also produces similar type of waste. In addition, spills, leakages in
pipes and conveying systems and floor washings contribute to the waste water
streams. Finishing oils used for conditioning the yarn and giving it lustre also find
their way into the waste water streams. Waste water from toilets and canteens in
the factory premises are similar to domestic sewage.
Among the pollutants mentioned above, zinc is an important pollutant due to its
toxic property and its recovery potential. But it is also observed that zinc is
strongly and permanently adsorbed on silt present in the receiving stream; this can
reduce the toxic effect of zinc on the aquatic organisms. Another pollutant is the
large quantity of fine fibres which may be present in the waste water. They settle
down to the bottom of the receiving stream and destroy bottom-feeding
organisms. They can also cause fish kills by suffocating the aquatic organisms.

19. An average composition of raw waste from a rayon manufacturing plant is the
following:
pH: 10.4. 5-day BOD: 700 mg/l. Suspended solids: 68 mg/l
Sulphates: 47 mg/l (after desulphurization).
Another study of the pollution of a receiving body of water near Mumbai revealed
the following composition of raw waste water from a rayon mill:
pH: 2.8—10.7, BOD (37°C): 60—140 mg/l, Chlorides: 30—234 mg/l,
Sulphates: 40—1125 mg/l, Suspended solids: 60—150 mg/l.
Total solids: 655—1600 mg/l.
19
2.4 SYNTHETIC FIBRE WASTES
In this category are included cellulose acetate, nylon, polyester, acrylics and mod
acrylics. Synthetic fibres can be converted into synthetic fabric in one of the two
following ways:
1. Continuous filaments are used to manufacture 100% synthetic fabrics.
2. Staple yarns are used to produce fabrics that are blends of man-made fibres or
man-made fibres and natural fibres. Synthetic fibres differ from other fibres o
animal and vegetable origin in absorbing little moisture. This leads to the formation
of static electricity during production. This difficulty is overcome by using
antistatic agents such as polyvinyl alcohol. Styrene-based resins, polyalkylene
glycols, gelatin, polyacrylic acid and polyvinyl acetate. They also serve as lubricants
and sizing agents. They become a source of pollution when they are removed from
the fabric during scouring. The manufacture of synthetic fibres can be controlled
well. Therefore, natural chemical impurities are relatively absent in these fibres.

20. Manufacture of various Synthetic fibres is briefly described in the following
section.
20
2.4.1 Cellulose Acetate
The usual procedure consists of desizing, scour and dye bath or scour and bleach
bath and two rinsing’s. The antistatic compounds are solubilized by diastatic or
proteolytic enzymes before scouring with synthetic detergents. Dyeing is done by
using disperse dyes, disperse developed dyes, acid and Naphthol dyes. Disperse
dyes have low solubility in water and are applied as fine dispersion. Sulphonated oil,
aliphatic esters and softeners are applied to each dye at the rate of 0.02 kg per kg
of fiber. The dye solution penetrates the fiber. Rinses following dyeing remove the
swelling agent and the fibre contracts, trapping the dye in its body. Bleaching, if
required, is done with peroxide or chlorine.
Wastes from the scour and dye baths average 50 kg BOD per 1000 kg of fabric.
The volume of water required to process 1 kg of cloth averages 75 litres.
2.4.2 Nylon
Finishing of nylon is done by scouring with soap and soda ash, rinsing, dyeing and
rinsing. Nylon fibres can be dyed by every class of dye. Unlike other synthetic
fibres, nylon fibres dissolve to the extent of about 1% when processed. When
nylon is used in blended fabrics, the choice of the dye depends on the other fibre.
Sulphonated oils are used as dispersants in nylon dyeing. They contribute almost all
the process BOD, which amounts to about 15 kg per 1000 kg of cloth dyed [39].
2.4.3 Polyester
Polyester fiber finishing is done by scouring, rinsing, dyeing and second scouring.
Conventional dyeing is done from room temperature to boiling temperature, but dye
carriers such as ortho-phenylphenol, biphenyl, benzyl alcohol, methyl naphthalene
and chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) have to be used. When dyeing is done at room
temperature, from 0.06 kg to 0.4 kg of carrier has to be used per kg of fiber. The
scour waste averages 500—800 mg/l, BOD, of which about 90% is contributed by
the antistatic compounds used for lubrication and sizing.

21. 21
2.4.4 Acrylics and Modacrylics
These two types differ from each other in their physical and chemical properties,
but both are subjected to the same finishing techniques. They are dyed using acid
dyes with cationic dyeing assistants and basic dyes with anionic dyeing assistants.
The amount of carrier used ranges from 0.02 to 0.1 kg per kg of fibre dyed. Acid
dye baths average 5.3 kg BOD per 1000 kg of fabric, the entire load coming from
the dye carriers.
2.4.5 Synthetic Fiber Waste Water Treatment
As a rule, treatment of waste water from synthetic fiber manufacture should be
similar to that provided for treatment of several chemicals. This is so because the
raw materials used are pure compounds and contain very little impurities, which
would be present in the industrial effluents. As already mentioned, nylon
decomposes to a small extent and is, therefore, present in the waste water, along
with process chemicals used in the manufacturing process. They contribute to the
BOD in the waste water. Use of low BOD chemicals can reduce the pollution
potential of these waste water to a certain extent. The greatest pollution load is
contributed by the dyeing process of polyester and acrylic fibres. In addition,
odor, toxicity and high BOD are generated. But the suspended solids in the waste
water are small. Therefore, it is possible to omit screens from the treatment train,
which may consist of equalization, followed by chemical precipitation and biological
treatment. Chemical precipitation is done to remove the toxic chemicals in the
waste water before it is subjected to biological treatment.

22. The removal efficiencies of various treatment processes are given in Table:
Treatment Method Percent removal efficiency of
BOD Susp. Solids TDS
Screening 0-5 5-20 0
Sedimentation 5-15 15-60 0
Chemical ppt. 25-60 30-90 0-50
Trickling filter 40-85 80-90 0-30
Activated sludge 70-95 85-95 0-40
Lagoon 30-80 30-80 0-40
Aerated lagoon 50-95 50-95 0-40
Reduction of pollution due to these waste waters can be achieved if economical
methods of recovering process chemicals for reuse are devised.
2.5 SILK AND JUTE MANUFACTURING WASTES
Silk occupied an important position in the textile industry in the past, till new and
improved synthetic and semi-synthetic fibres such as rayon, nylon, and cellulose
acetate were produced. They have largely replaced silk as a fabric material.
Raw material for the production of silk yarn comes from the cocoons woven by
silkworms around their bodies. These worms feed on the leaves of mulberry tree.
The cocoons are plucked from the trees and subjected to boiling in soft water to
separate the raw silk fibre. The dead worm and its shell form the solid waste,
while the hot water, which has extracted the natural gum sericin and various soap
22

23. solutions used for washing the fibre, constitute the liquid waste. The soaps are
often supplemented with sodium carbonate, sodium silicate and sodium phosphate.
The waste water is brown in colour, jelly-like, soapy and putrid. The average
composition of the waste water is: total soda—4000 mg/l, of which 75%
The COD: BOD ratio ranges between 2.5 and 2.9.
A composite mill in India, which manufactures silk cloth, starting from the
silkworm and ending in finished goods, generates raw waste with the composition:
Raw Waste Characteristics
pH value 6.0-7.0
Total suspended solids 700-800
BOD 1800-2000
COD 2800-3000
Total dissolved solids 2500
Oil & Grease Nil
Total Kjedahl Nitrogen 80-100
Ammoniacal nitrogen Nil
Temperature 35-36º C
23
[7]
2.6 Environmental effects of the Wastewater
I. The greatest environmental concern with dyes is their absorption and
reflection of sunlight entering the water. Light absorption diminishes
photosynthetic activity of algae and seriously influence on the food chain.
Dyes can remain in the environment for an extended period of time, because
of high thermal and photo stability. For instance, the half-life of hydrolyzed
Reactive Blue 19 is about 46 years at pH 7 and 25 °C.
[8]

24. II. The colloidal and suspended impurities cause turbidity in the receiving
24
waters.
III. The oil present interferes with the oxygenation of the receiving water
streams.
IV. The dissolved minerals increase the salinity of the water, thus rendering it
unfit for irrigation.
V. The toxic chemicals such ad Cr, aniline, sulphides, etc. destroy fish and
other microbial organisms responsible for self-purification of water
streams.
VI. The immediate oxygen demand due to the impurities such as starch,
sulphides, nitrites, etc. depletes the dissolved oxygen content and adversely
affects the aquatic life.
VII. The dissolved solids form incrustations on the surface of the sewers.
VIII. The dissolved impurities present cause corrosion in the metallic parts of the
sewage treatment plants.
[9]

25. 3. Conclusion
It has become utterly necessary to reduce the pollutants emitted by the textile
industry. Contamination of the air, water, and land by textile industries and its raw
material manufacturing units has become a serious threat to the environment. It
has endangered the life of human beings and various other species on Earth. Global
warming is a direct result of the pollutants released by such industries. It also
causes harmful diseases and health issues in people getting exposed to the
pollutants in the long run.
The use of organic raw material can help in fighting the emission of pollutants by
the textile units. Organic cotton is especially beneficial as the production of
cotton asks for the maximum amount of pesticides and fertilizers. Besides, the
waste generated from textile manufacturing plants should be processed in a
manner that it is free from toxic chemicals before it is disposed. Environment
friendly methods of cultivation and manufacture should be resorted to.
25
[10]

26. 26
References