This document describes a study that developed a finite element model (FEM) to more accurately model transmission towers. The FEM considers factors like member continuity, asymmetric member properties, geometric and material nonlinearities, and eccentric connections. The FEM is first verified using experimental test results. Then, the FEM is used to analyze the effects of connection rigidity on transmission tower behavior. Three models are considered - fully rigid connections, in-plane pin connections, and fully pin connections. Results show connection rigidity significantly impacts ultimate load capacity, with fully rigid connections having the highest capacity. Failure occurs due to main brace bending.
Analysis of Behaviour of U-Girder Bridge DecksIDES Editor
The concept of U-shaped bridge girder is now being
increasingly adopted in urban metro rail projects and for
replacing old bridges where there is a constraint on vertical
clearance. These bridge decks are commonly designed in
practice using simplified methods that assume beam action of
the webs in the longitudinal direction and similar flexural
action of the deck slab in the transverse direction. However,
such assumptions can lead to errors. This paper attempts to
assess the extent of error in the simplified analysis, by
comparing the results with a more rigorous three-dimensional
finite element analysis (3DFEA). A typical prototype railway
bridge girder has been taken as a case study. The results of
the 3DFEA, in terms of load-deflection plots, have been
validated by field testing.
Effectiveness Evaluation of Seismic Protection Devices for Bridges in the PB...Franco Bontempi
Seismic protection measures for bridges can be used both for obtaining acceptable performances from new structures that for retrofitting existing ones. With the modern design philosophy based on probabilistic Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering (PBEE) approaches, the engineers are allowed to investigate different design solutions in terms of vulnerability assessment. However, if probabilistic PBEE approaches are nowadays well established and widely studied also for bridges, the topic of using the PBEE frameworks for the evaluation of the effectiveness of seismic protection devices for bridges is not extensively treated in literature.
The first objective of this work is to deal with the problem of assessing the earthquake performance of an highway bridge equipped with different bearing device: the
elastomeric bearings (ERB) and the friction pendulum systems (FPS). The second purpose is to evaluate the efficiency of a structure-dependent IM in case of isolated system. The examined structure is an highway bridge with concrete piers and steel truss deck. A FE model of the bridge is developed by using nonlinear beam-column elements with fiber section and the devices are modeled by specific elements implementing their
nonlinear behavior. The effectiveness of the different retrofitting strategies has been carried out in terms of damage probability. Choosing the example of slight damage, and referring to the curvature ductility as EDP, the probability of damage during a period of 50 years is: 23% for the structure without isolation, 7% for the structure equipped with ERB, and 3% for the structure equipped with FPS isolation.
Study of Structural Behaviour of Gravity Dam with Various Features of Gallery...IDES Editor
The size and shape of opening in dam causes the
stress concentration, it also causes the stress variation in the
rest of the dam cross section. The gravity method of the analysis
does not consider the size of opening and the elastic property
of dam material. Thus the objective of study is comprises of
the Finite Element Method which considers the size of
opening, elastic property of material, and stress distribution
because of geometric discontinuity in cross section of dam.
Stress concentration inside the dam increases with the opening
in dam which results in the failure of dam. Hence it is
necessary to analyses large opening inside the dam. By making
the percentage area of opening constant and varying size and
shape of opening the analysis is carried out. For this purpose
a section of Koyna Dam is considered. Dam is defined as a
plane strain element in FEM, based on geometry and loading
condition. Thus this available information specified our path
of approach to carry out 2D plane strain analysis. The results
obtained are then compared mutually to get most efficient
way of providing large opening in the gravity dam.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal,
Analysis of Behaviour of U-Girder Bridge DecksIDES Editor
The concept of U-shaped bridge girder is now being
increasingly adopted in urban metro rail projects and for
replacing old bridges where there is a constraint on vertical
clearance. These bridge decks are commonly designed in
practice using simplified methods that assume beam action of
the webs in the longitudinal direction and similar flexural
action of the deck slab in the transverse direction. However,
such assumptions can lead to errors. This paper attempts to
assess the extent of error in the simplified analysis, by
comparing the results with a more rigorous three-dimensional
finite element analysis (3DFEA). A typical prototype railway
bridge girder has been taken as a case study. The results of
the 3DFEA, in terms of load-deflection plots, have been
validated by field testing.
Effectiveness Evaluation of Seismic Protection Devices for Bridges in the PB...Franco Bontempi
Seismic protection measures for bridges can be used both for obtaining acceptable performances from new structures that for retrofitting existing ones. With the modern design philosophy based on probabilistic Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering (PBEE) approaches, the engineers are allowed to investigate different design solutions in terms of vulnerability assessment. However, if probabilistic PBEE approaches are nowadays well established and widely studied also for bridges, the topic of using the PBEE frameworks for the evaluation of the effectiveness of seismic protection devices for bridges is not extensively treated in literature.
The first objective of this work is to deal with the problem of assessing the earthquake performance of an highway bridge equipped with different bearing device: the
elastomeric bearings (ERB) and the friction pendulum systems (FPS). The second purpose is to evaluate the efficiency of a structure-dependent IM in case of isolated system. The examined structure is an highway bridge with concrete piers and steel truss deck. A FE model of the bridge is developed by using nonlinear beam-column elements with fiber section and the devices are modeled by specific elements implementing their
nonlinear behavior. The effectiveness of the different retrofitting strategies has been carried out in terms of damage probability. Choosing the example of slight damage, and referring to the curvature ductility as EDP, the probability of damage during a period of 50 years is: 23% for the structure without isolation, 7% for the structure equipped with ERB, and 3% for the structure equipped with FPS isolation.
Study of Structural Behaviour of Gravity Dam with Various Features of Gallery...IDES Editor
The size and shape of opening in dam causes the
stress concentration, it also causes the stress variation in the
rest of the dam cross section. The gravity method of the analysis
does not consider the size of opening and the elastic property
of dam material. Thus the objective of study is comprises of
the Finite Element Method which considers the size of
opening, elastic property of material, and stress distribution
because of geometric discontinuity in cross section of dam.
Stress concentration inside the dam increases with the opening
in dam which results in the failure of dam. Hence it is
necessary to analyses large opening inside the dam. By making
the percentage area of opening constant and varying size and
shape of opening the analysis is carried out. For this purpose
a section of Koyna Dam is considered. Dam is defined as a
plane strain element in FEM, based on geometry and loading
condition. Thus this available information specified our path
of approach to carry out 2D plane strain analysis. The results
obtained are then compared mutually to get most efficient
way of providing large opening in the gravity dam.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal,
Practical analysis procedures of steel portal frames having different connect...Ali Msabawy
The real behaviour of connections in the steel buildings is often underestimated by designers at the structural analysis and design stages, despite their influences on the structural performance, deflection limits and a possibility of achieving a reduction in the material weights, which can significantly reduce the overall cost and amount of energy embodied. This paper, therefore, described systematic and simplified procedures to conduct a first-order elastic structural analysis of the semi-rigid steel portal frames in order to implement a design optimization using a Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG) algorithm within Solver Add-in tool in Microsoft Excel. The written program used the robustness and efficiency of the Finite Element (FE) method with the versatility of a spreadsheet format in Excel. To simulate the semi-rigid response of the connections, the mathematical representation through End-Fixity Factor and the Modified Stiffness Matrix were used to incorporate such behaviour into structural analysis packages. To validate the written program, a computer-based analysis was conducted using Prokon® software and comparing analysis results with those obtained from the Excel spreadsheet. It demonstrates that Excel's results were perfectly accurate. Consequently, the procedure of establishing spreadsheets as a finite element analysis software for a certain form of frames demonstrates its validity.
Finite Element Modeling On Behaviour Of Reinforced Concrete Beam Column Joint...IJERA Editor
Recent earthquakes have demonstrated that most of the reinforced concrete structures were severely damaged during earthquakes and they need major repair works. Beam column joints, being the lateral and vertical load resisting members in reinforced concrete structures are particularly vulnerable to failures during earthquakes. The existing reinforced concrete beam column joints which are not designed as per code IS13920:1993 must be strengthened since they do not meet the ductility requirements. The Finite element method (FEM) has become a staple for predicting and simulating the physical behaviour of complex engineering systems. The commercial finite element analysis (FEA) programs have gained common acceptance among engineers in industry and researchers. The details of the finite element analysis of beam column joints retrofitted with carbon fibre reinforced polymer sheets (CFRP) carried out using the package ANSYS are presented in this paper. Three exterior reinforced concrete beam column joint specimens were modelled using ANSYS package. The first specimen is the control specimen. This had reinforcement as per code IS 456:2000. The second specimen which is also the control specimen. This had reinforcement as per code IS 13920:1993. The third specimen had reinforcement as per code IS 456:2000 and was retrofitted with carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. During the analysis both the ends of column were hinged. Static load was applied at the free end of the cantilever beam up to a controlled load. The performance of the retrofitted beam column joint was compared with the control specimens and the results are presented in this paper.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BRIDGE WITH TWO ENDS FIXED ON VERTICAL WALL USING FIN...IAEME Publication
The Finite element analyses are conducted to model the tensile capacity of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC). For this purpose bridge with two ends fixed one specimen are casted and tested under direct and uni-axial tension. Two types of aggregates (brick and stone) are used to cast the SFRC and plain concrete. The fiber volume ratio is maintained 1.5 %. Total 8 numbers of dog-bone specimens are made and tested in a 1000-kN capacity digital universal testing machine (UTM). The strain data are gathered employing digital image correlation technique from high-definition images and high-speed video clips. Then, the strain data are synthesized with the load data obtained from the load cell of the UTM.
Finite element method in solving civil engineering problemSaniul Mahi
The applications of Finite Element Method in solving Civil Engineering problem and the merits of using a finite element procedure over the other methods.
Comparative Study of Girders for Bridge by Using SoftwareIJERA Editor
According to various research papers, it has been found that composite bridge gives the maximum strength in
comparison to other bridges and the design and analysis of various girders for steel and concrete by using
various software for composite bridge design for girder. In this project, efforts will make to carry outto check
the analysis of girder by using SAP2000 software. Hence, in this project determine three girders which can be
effective to the composite bridges.
Ultimate strength of composite beam with web openings subjected to combined n...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The Performance Evaluation of Concrete Filled Steel Tubular Arch BridgeIJERA Editor
In this paper, the system assessment theory of he concrete filled steel tubular arch bridge which is based on the theory of the reliability of system reliability is researched through the finite element analysis software ANSYS. Because the concrete filled steel tube arch bridge has the characteristics, such as the components numerous, complex forces, unable to list the of the explicit limit state equation, so use the probability design module of ANSYS (PDS) technology for the performance evaluation of the concrete filled steel tubular arch bridge with the combination of the reliability theory of monte carlo (MC) method, the response surface method (RSM) and the equivalent normal distribution method (JC method).According to the measured data and documents, selecte the random variables which have a large influence on structure reliability as the input parameters and use APDL language to write the structural response’s parameterized model of concrete filled steel tubular arch bridge. Then fit the response surface equation and get its statistical sampling parameters, and finally using Matlab program based on JC method to calculate the reliability index of the components. According to the structure characteristics of concrete filled steel tube arch bridge, the whole structure is as a series of arch rib series, derrick, floor system, selection of components of the minimum reliability index as the system's reliability index.
Earthquake is a natural disaster that destroyed the large property and two deaths
with many injuries during this decade, occurring at the northern of Thailand. By this
cause, this paper aims to evaluate the performance level of existing reinforced concrete
building by retrofitting with the braced steel frames. Moreover, a three-story building
is analysed in SAP2000, used the Nonlinear Static Procedure Method. Therefore, three
different methods are chosen to study in this paper. The first of all, Displacement
Coefficient Method presented in ASCE/SEI 41-13 and FEMA 440, used to calculate
target displacement to point out building performance levels. The second method,
Capacity Spectrum Method published in ACT 40, used deformation limits to compare
with total roof displacement ratio (Δ roof top /H) at the performance point to classify
various performance levels. The last one, The ASCE/SEI 41-13 uses plastic rotation
limit criteria to compare with maximum plastic hinge rotation for member evaluation
of the RC frames. According to the result before retrofitting, the first and second
methods meet Life Safety (LS) and Immediate Occupancy (IO) levels, respectively. The
third method of this paper separated into column and beam performance levels which
meet performance levels in both Life Safety (LS) levels. From the experiment, It shows
that if we use the concentrically braced steel frames to retrofit the structure, it will lie
Assessing Uncertainty of Pushover Analysis to Geometric ModelingIDES Editor
Pushover Analysis a popular tool for seismic
performance evaluation of existing and new structures and is
nonlinear Static procedure where in monotonically increasing
loads are applied to the structure till the structure is unable
to resist the further load .During the analysis, whatever the
strength of concrete and steel is adopted for analysis of
structure may not be the same when real structure is
constructed and the pushover analysis results are very sensitive
to material model adopted, geometric model adopted, location
of plastic hinges and in general to procedure followed by the
analyzer. In this paper attempt has been made to assess
uncertainty in pushover analysis results by considering user
defined hinges and frame modeled as bare frame and frame
with slab modeled as rigid diaphragm and results compared
with experimental observations. Uncertain parameters
considered includes the strength of concrete, strength of steel
and cover to the reinforcement which are randomly generated
and incorporated into the analysis. The results are then
compared with experimental observations.
Finite Element Analysis of Cold-formed Steel ConnectionsCSCJournals
This paper presents a thorough investigation into the structural performance of cold-formed steel column base and beam column connections using single lipped C sections with bolted moment connections. Two specimens consisting of a column base and a beam column connection were carried out, and it was found that section failure under flexural buckling was always critical. Moreover, the proposed connections were demonstrated to be structurally efficient attaining moment resistances close to those of the connected sections. In order to examine the structural behavior of the column base and beam column connections, finite element models were established using shell and bar elements to model the sections and the bolted fastenings respectively. Material non-linearity was incorporated, and comparison between the test and the numerical results was presented in details. It was shown that the proposed analysis method was structurally adequate to predict the structural behavior for column base and beam column with similar connection configurations.
Practical analysis procedures of steel portal frames having different connect...Ali Msabawy
The real behaviour of connections in the steel buildings is often underestimated by designers at the structural analysis and design stages, despite their influences on the structural performance, deflection limits and a possibility of achieving a reduction in the material weights, which can significantly reduce the overall cost and amount of energy embodied. This paper, therefore, described systematic and simplified procedures to conduct a first-order elastic structural analysis of the semi-rigid steel portal frames in order to implement a design optimization using a Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG) algorithm within Solver Add-in tool in Microsoft Excel. The written program used the robustness and efficiency of the Finite Element (FE) method with the versatility of a spreadsheet format in Excel. To simulate the semi-rigid response of the connections, the mathematical representation through End-Fixity Factor and the Modified Stiffness Matrix were used to incorporate such behaviour into structural analysis packages. To validate the written program, a computer-based analysis was conducted using Prokon® software and comparing analysis results with those obtained from the Excel spreadsheet. It demonstrates that Excel's results were perfectly accurate. Consequently, the procedure of establishing spreadsheets as a finite element analysis software for a certain form of frames demonstrates its validity.
Finite Element Modeling On Behaviour Of Reinforced Concrete Beam Column Joint...IJERA Editor
Recent earthquakes have demonstrated that most of the reinforced concrete structures were severely damaged during earthquakes and they need major repair works. Beam column joints, being the lateral and vertical load resisting members in reinforced concrete structures are particularly vulnerable to failures during earthquakes. The existing reinforced concrete beam column joints which are not designed as per code IS13920:1993 must be strengthened since they do not meet the ductility requirements. The Finite element method (FEM) has become a staple for predicting and simulating the physical behaviour of complex engineering systems. The commercial finite element analysis (FEA) programs have gained common acceptance among engineers in industry and researchers. The details of the finite element analysis of beam column joints retrofitted with carbon fibre reinforced polymer sheets (CFRP) carried out using the package ANSYS are presented in this paper. Three exterior reinforced concrete beam column joint specimens were modelled using ANSYS package. The first specimen is the control specimen. This had reinforcement as per code IS 456:2000. The second specimen which is also the control specimen. This had reinforcement as per code IS 13920:1993. The third specimen had reinforcement as per code IS 456:2000 and was retrofitted with carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. During the analysis both the ends of column were hinged. Static load was applied at the free end of the cantilever beam up to a controlled load. The performance of the retrofitted beam column joint was compared with the control specimens and the results are presented in this paper.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BRIDGE WITH TWO ENDS FIXED ON VERTICAL WALL USING FIN...IAEME Publication
The Finite element analyses are conducted to model the tensile capacity of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC). For this purpose bridge with two ends fixed one specimen are casted and tested under direct and uni-axial tension. Two types of aggregates (brick and stone) are used to cast the SFRC and plain concrete. The fiber volume ratio is maintained 1.5 %. Total 8 numbers of dog-bone specimens are made and tested in a 1000-kN capacity digital universal testing machine (UTM). The strain data are gathered employing digital image correlation technique from high-definition images and high-speed video clips. Then, the strain data are synthesized with the load data obtained from the load cell of the UTM.
Finite element method in solving civil engineering problemSaniul Mahi
The applications of Finite Element Method in solving Civil Engineering problem and the merits of using a finite element procedure over the other methods.
Comparative Study of Girders for Bridge by Using SoftwareIJERA Editor
According to various research papers, it has been found that composite bridge gives the maximum strength in
comparison to other bridges and the design and analysis of various girders for steel and concrete by using
various software for composite bridge design for girder. In this project, efforts will make to carry outto check
the analysis of girder by using SAP2000 software. Hence, in this project determine three girders which can be
effective to the composite bridges.
Ultimate strength of composite beam with web openings subjected to combined n...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The Performance Evaluation of Concrete Filled Steel Tubular Arch BridgeIJERA Editor
In this paper, the system assessment theory of he concrete filled steel tubular arch bridge which is based on the theory of the reliability of system reliability is researched through the finite element analysis software ANSYS. Because the concrete filled steel tube arch bridge has the characteristics, such as the components numerous, complex forces, unable to list the of the explicit limit state equation, so use the probability design module of ANSYS (PDS) technology for the performance evaluation of the concrete filled steel tubular arch bridge with the combination of the reliability theory of monte carlo (MC) method, the response surface method (RSM) and the equivalent normal distribution method (JC method).According to the measured data and documents, selecte the random variables which have a large influence on structure reliability as the input parameters and use APDL language to write the structural response’s parameterized model of concrete filled steel tubular arch bridge. Then fit the response surface equation and get its statistical sampling parameters, and finally using Matlab program based on JC method to calculate the reliability index of the components. According to the structure characteristics of concrete filled steel tube arch bridge, the whole structure is as a series of arch rib series, derrick, floor system, selection of components of the minimum reliability index as the system's reliability index.
Earthquake is a natural disaster that destroyed the large property and two deaths
with many injuries during this decade, occurring at the northern of Thailand. By this
cause, this paper aims to evaluate the performance level of existing reinforced concrete
building by retrofitting with the braced steel frames. Moreover, a three-story building
is analysed in SAP2000, used the Nonlinear Static Procedure Method. Therefore, three
different methods are chosen to study in this paper. The first of all, Displacement
Coefficient Method presented in ASCE/SEI 41-13 and FEMA 440, used to calculate
target displacement to point out building performance levels. The second method,
Capacity Spectrum Method published in ACT 40, used deformation limits to compare
with total roof displacement ratio (Δ roof top /H) at the performance point to classify
various performance levels. The last one, The ASCE/SEI 41-13 uses plastic rotation
limit criteria to compare with maximum plastic hinge rotation for member evaluation
of the RC frames. According to the result before retrofitting, the first and second
methods meet Life Safety (LS) and Immediate Occupancy (IO) levels, respectively. The
third method of this paper separated into column and beam performance levels which
meet performance levels in both Life Safety (LS) levels. From the experiment, It shows
that if we use the concentrically braced steel frames to retrofit the structure, it will lie
Assessing Uncertainty of Pushover Analysis to Geometric ModelingIDES Editor
Pushover Analysis a popular tool for seismic
performance evaluation of existing and new structures and is
nonlinear Static procedure where in monotonically increasing
loads are applied to the structure till the structure is unable
to resist the further load .During the analysis, whatever the
strength of concrete and steel is adopted for analysis of
structure may not be the same when real structure is
constructed and the pushover analysis results are very sensitive
to material model adopted, geometric model adopted, location
of plastic hinges and in general to procedure followed by the
analyzer. In this paper attempt has been made to assess
uncertainty in pushover analysis results by considering user
defined hinges and frame modeled as bare frame and frame
with slab modeled as rigid diaphragm and results compared
with experimental observations. Uncertain parameters
considered includes the strength of concrete, strength of steel
and cover to the reinforcement which are randomly generated
and incorporated into the analysis. The results are then
compared with experimental observations.
Finite Element Analysis of Cold-formed Steel ConnectionsCSCJournals
This paper presents a thorough investigation into the structural performance of cold-formed steel column base and beam column connections using single lipped C sections with bolted moment connections. Two specimens consisting of a column base and a beam column connection were carried out, and it was found that section failure under flexural buckling was always critical. Moreover, the proposed connections were demonstrated to be structurally efficient attaining moment resistances close to those of the connected sections. In order to examine the structural behavior of the column base and beam column connections, finite element models were established using shell and bar elements to model the sections and the bolted fastenings respectively. Material non-linearity was incorporated, and comparison between the test and the numerical results was presented in details. It was shown that the proposed analysis method was structurally adequate to predict the structural behavior for column base and beam column with similar connection configurations.
Finite Element Simulation of Steel Plate Concrete Beams subjected to ShearIJERA Editor
In a test series ofSteel plate Concrete (SC) beams conducted by the authorsto determine the minimum shear
reinforcement ratio, complex structural behavior of the tested beams was observed, including shear cracking
occurred within the concrete in the web and bond-slip failure of the bottom steel plate of the beam due to
insufficient shear reinforcement ratio (Qin et al. 2015).This paper focuses on finite element simulation (FEM) of
the SC beams withemphasis on shear and bond-slip behavior. A new constitutive model is proposed to account for
the bond-slip behavior of steel plates. Also, the Cyclic Softened Membrane Model proposed by Hsu and Mo
(2010)is utilized to simulate the shear behavior of concrete with embedded shear reinforcement. Both constitutive
models areimplemented into a finite element analysis program based on the framework of OpenSees (2013).The
proposed FEM is able to capturethe behavior of the tested SC beams.
Finite Element Simulation of Steel Plate Concrete Beams subjected to ShearIJERA Editor
In a test series ofSteel plate Concrete (SC) beams conducted by the authorsto determine the minimum shear
reinforcement ratio, complex structural behavior of the tested beams was observed, including shear cracking
occurred within the concrete in the web and bond-slip failure of the bottom steel plate of the beam due to
insufficient shear reinforcement ratio (Qin et al. 2015).This paper focuses on finite element simulation (FEM) of
the SC beams withemphasis on shear and bond-slip behavior. A new constitutive model is proposed to account for
the bond-slip behavior of steel plates. Also, the Cyclic Softened Membrane Model proposed by Hsu and Mo
(2010)is utilized to simulate the shear behavior of concrete with embedded shear reinforcement. Both constitutive
models areimplemented into a finite element analysis program based on the framework of OpenSees (2013).The
proposed FEM is able to capturethe behavior of the tested SC beams.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
Behavior of RC Beams Retrofitted/Strengthened With External Post-Tension SystemINFOGAIN PUBLICATION
This paper presents a study on the flexural behavior of strengthened RC beams using external post-tensioning technique under the effect of cyclic loads. Post tensioning techniques is a new method to improve the behavior of cracked and sound beams. This new technique was used in this research to improve the behavior of cracked and un-cracked beams. The study consists of two stages, the first stage is an experimental program which is carried out in lap to test casted beams, and the second stage is a theoretical program which was carried out to verify the results of experimental program. The behavior of RC beams in different levels of cracks was studied, crack pattern was observed and failure type was recorded. Comparisons between the behaviors of different RC beams were performed. The experimental study included using of prestressing steel bars, GFRP bars and the effect of different percentage of shear reinforcement was also taken into consideration. Specimens were tested under the effect of cyclic load. Finally the simulations of tested beams were modeled in finite element software (ANSYS) to verify the results of experimental work compared to theoretical analysis.
Non Linear Analysis of Composite Beam Slab Junction with Shear Connectors usi...inventionjournals
Frame finite-element models permit obtaining, at moderate computational cost, significant information on the dynamic response behavior of steel–concrete composite beam frame structures. As an extension of conventional monolithic beam models, composite beams with deformable shear connection were specifically introduced and adopted for the analysis of composite beams, in which the flexible shear connection allows development of partial composite action influencing structural deformation and distribution of stresses. The use of beams with deformable shear connection in the analysis of frame structures raises very specific modeling issues, such as the characterization of the cyclic behavior of the deformable shear connection and the assembly of composite beam elements with conventional beam–column elements. In addition, the effects on the dynamic response of composite beam frame structures of various factors, such as the shear connection boundary conditions and the mass distribution between the two components of the composite beam, are still not clear and deserve more investigation. The object of this paper is to provide deeper insight into the natural vibration properties and nonlinear seismic response behavior of composite beam frame structures and how they are influenced by various modeling assumptions. For this purpose, a materially nonlinear-only finite-element formulation is used for static and dynamic response analyses of steel–concrete frame structures using composite beam elements with deformable shear connection. Realistic uniaxial cyclic constitutive laws are adopted for the steel and concrete materials of the beams and columns and for the shear connection. The resulting finite-element model for a benchmark problem is validated using experimental test results from the literature review
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Finite Element Modeling of a Multi-Storeyed Retrofitted Reinforced Concrete F...IOSR Journals
In the present study, the non-linear response of RC frame using FE modeling under the incremental
loading has been carried out in the first phase of analysis to study the response and load-carrying capacity of a
four storeyed RC frame using non-linear finite element analysis. In the second phase of study an analysis model
for retrofitted RC frame using finite element method using software ATENA is presented. The results obtained
from FE analysis in both cases are compared with the experimental data for four storeyed RC frame tested by
BARC at CPRI. The results from finite element analysis were calculated at the same location as used in
experimental test. The accuracy of the finite element model is assessed by the comparison with experimental
results which are to be in good agreement. The base shear/ displacement curves from finite element analysis
agree well with the experimental results in linear range. The maximum difference in base shear is observed to
be 7.9%
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
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Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
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Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...
Vol3no2 4
1. Advanced Steel Construction Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 565-582 (2007) 565
MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF LATTICE TOWERS WITH
MORE ACCURATE MODELS
Wenjiang Kang1
, F. Albermani2
, S. Kitipornchai1
and Heung-Fai Lam1,*
1
Department of Building & Construction, City University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
*(Corresponding author: E-mail: paullam@cityu.edu.hk)
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Received: 26 May 2005; Revised: 3 February 2007; Accepted: 14 February 2007
ABSTRACT: In traditional design, transmission towers are assumed to be trusses in the calculation of member axial
forces, and secondary braces are usually neglected. However, this assumption does not accurately reflect the
structural characteristics of transmission towers. This paper proposes a finite element model (FEM) in which member
continuity, the asymmetrical sectional properties of members, the eccentricity of connections, and geometrical and
material nonlinearities are considered. The proposed FEM is first verified using experimental results, and is then
employed in the analysis of several lattice towers to investigate some of their practical aspects. Recommendations on
the design of transmission tower systems are made according to the results of the analysis and given in the
conclusion.
Keywords: Transmission towers, secondary bracing, nonlinear analysis, buckling, eccentric connections
1. INTRODUCTION
In conventional design, transmission towers are assumed to be trusses [1], and secondary braces are
omitted from the analysis. The effects of secondary bracing, eccentric connections, member
continuity, and asymmetric member section properties are indirectly considered by modifying a
member’s slenderness ratio. With the calculated axial force of the truss model, the member capacity
is checked against the relevant column curves that are recommended in the design code, such as the
BS standard [2] and the ASCE manual [3]. However, this practice makes the results of the analysis
very uncertain. Cannon [4] invited a number of power companies and tower designers to predict the
member axial forces and capacities for a typical transmission tower. The coefficients of variation
(COVs) in the predicted axial forces of the braces and the main members by different participants
were 18.0% and 9.3%, respectively. Even for engineers, who followed the ASCE manual [3], the
COV of the predicted capacities was 17.4%. Cannon’s statistics indicate that the predicted
capacities of a given transmission tower by the traditional analysis and design method can vary
significantly.
Many researchers have studied the factors that affect the accuracy of the truss model in the analysis
[5-12]. In 1984, Roy et al. [7] investigated the effects of the secondary stresses that arise from joint
rigidity and member continuity in the results of analysis. In 1986, Korol et al. [8] reviewed the
importance of secondary stresses on the strength of trusses through experiments and parametric
analysis. With the full-scale quadrant of a transmission tower panel, Knight and Santhakumar [10]
found in 1993 that the effect of joints on the behavior of transmission towers is very great and that
the secondary stresses are so significant that they may cause the failure of the leg members. This
clearly indicates that the pin-connected truss model is inadequate to represent the real behavior of
transmission towers. Robert et al. [12] showed in 2002 that the predicted ultimate strength of a
transmission tower is more precise with the continuous beam model than it is with a truss model
that was calibrated with full-scale test results.
2. 566 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
To design the load sequence of the full-scale transmission tower test and to find an alternative to the
costly full-scale test, Kitipornchai et al. [5] and Albermani and Kitipornchai [6] developed a
compact and practical nonlinear method to simulate the global structural response of transmission
towers. The program that was developed, the AK-Tower [5, 6], has been employed to predict the
behavior of many transmission towers, and its predicted results are in good agreement with the
full-scale test results [6].
There is a strong need in the industry to study the behavior of lattice towers intensively. However,
research has been directed toward the independent study of structural characteristics. This paper
focuses on the development of a finite element model (FEM) that incorporates all of the structural
characteristics of lattice towers, such as member continuity, asymmetric section properties,
geometric and material nonlinearity, and eccentric connections. Experimental results from the work
of Kitipornchai et al. [5] are employed to verify the proposed FEM, which is used with a typical
transmission tower panel to study comprehensively the effects of several practical aspects of
transmission towers. Design recommendations for these aspects are provided in the conclusion.
2. THE FEM AND ITS VERIFICATION
ANSYS, one of the most popular finite element analysis programs, was employed in the study that
is reported herein. The BEAM189 element [13] was used to model the angle section. The
BEAM189 element automatically provides section-relevant quantities at a number of sections along
the structural member. To capture the nonlinearity of the section material, each section is assumed
to be an assembly of a predetermined number of nine-node cells. Every angle member is divided
into many elements along the longitudinal direction to capture precisely the deformation and to
simulate the member’s geometrical nonlinearity. The material nonlinearity of the steel angle section
is simulated by the bi-linear model. The nodal degrees of freedom of the connecting members were
coupled in specified directions to simulate the connection situations [13]. Furthermore, the
connection eccentricity was modeled through the section offset command of ANSYS [13]. Note
that the initial geometric imperfection was not included in the FEM.
To verify the proposed FEM, the experimentally measured ultimate loads of two angle trusses with
different dimensions and member sections (trusses 1 and 2) in Kitipornchai et al. [5], as shown in
Figure 1, were employed. Four configurations, which are denoted as 1-OS, 2-OS, 1-SS, and 2-SS,
were considered, where 1 and 2 are the truss numbers, and OS (SS) indicates that the free edges of
the angle web members are connected on the opposite (same) sides. The dimension L for trusses 1
and 2 is 1000 mm and 750 mm, respectively. As all of the joints are fully welded, all of the
connections are assumed to be rigid. Figure 1 shows the FEM of the original and failed trusses. As
predicted by the FEM, the failure mode of these trusses was induced by the excessive bending of
member 2, primarily in the plane that is perpendicular to the plane of the truss (as in Figure 2(b)),
which agrees well with the experimental results in reference 5. TABLE 1 summarizes the calculated
results of the proposed FEM and the experimental results [5]. The ultimate load results that were
obtained with the proposed FEM were in reasonable agreement with the experimental results. The
load-displacement curves of truss 2-OS are shown in Figure 3. The results in TABLE 1 and Figure
3 verify the capability of the proposed FEM. Because the practical yield stress is generally higher
than the value that is prescribed by the steel grade, the ultimate load of the practical experiments is
consistently higher than that which is predicted by the proposed FEM. The difference is relatively
larger for the SS configuration, for which the ultimate loads are larger, than it is for the OS
configuration. The small difference between the test and the FEM-predicted results, as shown in
Figure 3, may also have been caused by such factors as material strength variance, residual stress,
and imperfections, which were not considered in the proposed model.
3. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 567
Figure 1. The Truss Experiment in Kitipornchai et al. [5]
a) Original FEM
b) Failure Mode of the Truss (Predicted by the FEM)
Figure 2. Failure Mode of the Truss in the 2-OS Configuration, as Predicted by the FEM
4. 568 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
Table 1. Comparison of Test Results: Former and Current Analysis Results
Truss No. 1-OS 2-OS 1-SS 2-SS
Tests [5] 84.4 134.1 139.5 167.2
Ultimate
loads, P (kN) Proposed
FEM
71.2 123.5 96.4 152.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Truss 2-OS member 2 mid-height
out-of-plane deflections
Load(kN)
Displacement (mm)
Fiber model [1]
Proposed FEM
Test results [1]
Figure 3. Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Load-deflection Curves
3. ANALYSIS RESULTS, COMPARISON AND DISCUSSION
Figure 4 shows a typical transmission tower, which is employed as an example for analysis in this
study. A typical leg of transmission towers is joined by a heavy splice to another large angle section
(stub) that is embedded in the concrete foundation. As a result, the main leg can be modeled as a
rigid support in the analysis. Figure 5 shows the physical and analytical models of a typical tower
leg.
5. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 569
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
7.42
Leg
body
Lower
body
Common
body
Super
structure
Cross
arm
Cross
arm
Figure 4. Full Geometric Model of a Transmission Tower
Horizontals
Secondary bracing
elements (redundant)
Main bracing
elements (diagonal)
Main leg
Stub
Ground Concrete footing
Panel plane
Bolt
a) Physical Model b) Analytical Model
Figure 5. Physical and Analytical Models for a Typical Transmission Tower Leg
6. 570 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
In general, each plane of a transmission tower is mainly employed to resist in-plane forces and
moments. To make the comparison clear without sacrificing its representativeness, the current study
focuses on the panel of a transmission tower, as shown in Figure 6. Furthermore, it is assumed that
all of the structural members of the transmission tower are formed by angle sections. In the present
model, L150 × 150 × 16 mm, L130 × 130 × 10 mm, and L100 × 100 × 6 mm sections are employed
for the leg, horizontal, and diagonal members, respectively, and an L70 × 70 × 5 mm section is used
for the secondary braces.
H H
V V
Node 1
Node 2
Y
X
Z
Y
X
Z
Main bracing
elements
(diagonal)
Secondary
bracing elements
(redundant)
Horizontals
Main leg
Node 3
Figure 6. A Panel Model of the Body and Leg for Analysis
3.1 Connection Details
To incorporate the eccentric connection details in the model, all of the section properties of the
connected angles are transformed to the connection axes. The connection axes for sections 1 and 2
are shown in Figures 7(a) and 7(c). The external loads are assumed to be applied along the
corresponding contacting surfaces, as shown in Figure 7(b). Figure 7(d) shows the 3D view of the
connection in the proposed FEM.
Section 1
Section 2
Connecting axis
Y
Updated
sectional axis
of section 2
Z
C2
Updated
sectional axis
of section 2 S2S1
Updated
sectional axis
of section 1
C1
Y
Z Z Z
External Load
a) Offset of Section 1 b) Connection Details c) Offset of Section 2
7. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 571
d) 3D View of a Typical Connection in the Proposed FEM
Figure 7. Modeling of Connections
3.2 Effects of Connection Rigidity
Three models are employed in this study to investigate the effects of the rigidity of brace end
connections on the behavior of a transmission tower. In Model A, all of the main braces are
assumed to be rigidly connected to the horizontals and the legs. In Model B, the connections of the
main braces are assumed to be in-plane pin-connected and out-of-plane rigid-connected. In Model
C, the connections of the main braces are assumed to be pinned in both in-plane and out-of-plane.
In all three of the models, the secondary members are assumed to be pin-connected. The ultimate
load and the load-displacement curves of the three cases are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Horizontalload,H(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 1 (mm)
Fully rigidly connected model
In-plane pin-connected model
Fully pin-connected model
Figure 8. Load-deflection Curves of the Three Models under Horizontal Load
8. 572 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Verticalload,V(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 2 (mm)
Fully rigidly connected model
In-plane pin-connected model
Fully pin-connected model
Figure 9. Load-deflection Curves of the Three Models under Vertical Load
Figure 8 shows that the connection rigidity has a considerable effect on the ultimate horizontal load
capacity. Under the horizontal load, the ultimate load capacities of Models A, B, and C are 65.03
kN, 54.67 kN, and 40.67 kN, respectively. The ultimate load capacity of Model A (in which all of
the main braces are rigidly connected) is 19% higher than that of Model B (which is in-plane
pin-connected). Furthermore, the ultimate load capacity of Model A is 59.9% higher than that of
Model C (which is all pin connected). A similar trend can be observed in the vertical load case, as
shown in
Figure 9.
The failure mode of Model A under horizontal load is shown in Figure 10. Model A fails due to the
excessive bending of the main bracing member in the leg, primarily in the plane that is
perpendicular to the plane of the truss. Model C also fails for the same reason, but at a much lower
ultimate load. Model B has the intermediate ultimate load with a similar failure mode.
The failure modes of the three models under vertical load are similar, and one example is shown in
Figure 11. Due to the difference in connection rigidity, the displacement curves and ultimate loads
are different.
9. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 573
Figure 10. Failure Mode of Model A under Horizontal Load
Figure 11. Failure Mode of Model A under Vertical Load
The above comparison shows that a rigid connection increases the buckling capacity, as was
expected. In practice, the assumption of connection rigidity must be realistic; otherwise, we may
either overestimate or underestimate the buckling capacity of the structure.
The effect of simultaneously applied horizontal and vertical load is also investigated. In the
combined load case, the horizontal load (H) and the vertical load (V) are 30kN and 100kN,
respectively. The load factor versus the displacement curves is given in Figure 12. The failure mode
of the tower under the combined load is illustrated in Figure 13. Under the combined load, the
failure modes of the three models vary. However, the effect of the connection rigidity, which can be
illustrated by a comparison of the corresponding ultimate loads in Figure 12, is the same as that
which is indicated in Figure 8 and Figure 9, and therefore, only the vertical and horizontal load
cases are considered in the following sub-sections.
10. 574 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Loadingfactor
Displacement (mm)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 3
for fully rigidly connected model
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 1
for in-plane pin-connected model
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 1
for pin-connected model
Figure 12. Load-deflection Curves of the Three Models under the Combined Load
a) Failure Mode of Model A under the Combined Load
11. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 575
b) Failure Mode of Model C under the Combined Load
c) Failure Mode of Model B under the Combined Load
Figure 13. Failure Modes of the Three Models under the Combined Load
3.3 Effect of Secondary Bracing and its Stress
To study the effect of secondary braces, the two models that are shown in Figure 14 are employed.
Secondary braces are considered in one model, but are neglected in the other. It turns out that the
failure mode for the two models is the same. The load-displacement curves for the two models
under horizontal and vertical loads are shown in Figures 15 and 16, respectively.
12. 576 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
XX
Z
Y
Z
Y
a) Model with Secondary Bracing b) Model without Secondary Bracing
Figure 14. Analysis Models with and without Secondary Bracing
Figure 15 shows that the ultimate horizontal load capacity of the tower panel with secondary
bracing is 65.03 kN, which is much larger than that of the tower panel without secondary bracing
(37.32 kN). A similar trend is observed in the vertical load case, which is shown in
Figure 16, with an almost 50% increase in ultimate load capacity.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Horizontalload,H(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 1 (mm)
Model without secondary bracing
Model with secondary bracing
Figure 15. Load-deflection Curves of Rigid-connected Models under Horizontal Load
13. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 577
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Verticalload,V(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 2 (mm)
Model without secondary bracing
Model with secondary bracing
Figure 16. Load-deflection Curves of Rigid-connected Models under Vertical Load
The normalized stress ( yσσ ) in the secondary braces at the buckling capacity ranges from -0.017
to +0.019 in the horizontal load case and from -0.055 to +0.082 in the vertical load case. It can be
seen that the axial stresses for the secondary braces are small. These results indicate that secondary
braces prevent large displacements by reducing the effective length of the main members and thus
enhance the buckling capacity. As a result, secondary braces should not be neglected in the
calculation of ultimate load even though the axial stress on them is small.
3.4 Effect of the Free Edge Direction of Angle Braces
In an analysis of the angle truss model of reference 5, the SS configuration (free edge on the same
side) has a greater ultimate load capacity than that of the OS configuration (free edges on opposite
sides). Here, the effect of the free edge direction of the main braces is studied. The tower panel with
secondary braces is studied with different free edge directions of the main braces, as shown in
Figure 17.
X
Z
Free edge out of paper
Free edge into paper
Y Y
Z
X
a) Opposite Side Model b) Same Side Model
Figure 17. Analysis Models with Different Free Edge Directions of the Main Braces
14. 578 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
Due to the difference in angle directions, the failure mode is caused by the excessive bending of the
leg member, as shown in Figure 18. When this failure mode is compared to the one in Figure 10
(for SS configuration), the bending directions of the failed member in the two models are different.
The calculated out-of-plane displacement of node 2 (as indicated in Figure 6) for both the OS and
SS configurations under horizontal and vertical loads are shown in Figures 19 and 20, respectively.
As shown in the two figures, the leg free edge direction has significant effects under horizontal load,
but has a very small effect under vertical load. Furthermore, the SS configuration performs better
than the OS configuration, which happens to be very popular in transmission tower construction.
Figure 18. Failure Mode of Rigid Model with OS Configuration under Horizontal Load
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Horizontalload,H(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 1 (mm)
OS model with secondary bracing
SS model with secondary bracing
Figure 19. Load-deflection Curves of Node 2 with Secondary Bracing under Horizontal Load
15. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 579
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Verticalload,V(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 2 (mm)
OS model with secondary bracing
SS model with secondary bracing
Figure 20. Load-deflection Curves of Node 2 with Secondary Bracing under Vertical Load
3.5 Effects of Secondary Bracing Configurations
Here, the effects of various secondary bracing configurations on buckling capacity are studied. Five
secondary bracing configurations, as shown in Figure 21, are considered in this study. The SS
configuration with rigid connections is employed in all of the models in Figure 21.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
Figure 21. Secondary Bracing Configurations
16. 580 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Horizontalload,H(kN)
Out-of-Plane displacement of Node 1 (mm)
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D
Model E
Figure 22. Load-deflection Curves of Models under Horizontal Load
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Verticalload,V(kN)
Out-of-plane displacement of Node 2 (mm)
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D
Model E
Figure 23. Load-deflection Curves of Models under Vertical Load
The failure modes of the five models are the same as those that are given in Figure 10 (under
horizontal load) and Figure 11 (under vertical load). Figure 22 shows that the load-deflection
curves for the models under horizontal load are very sensitive to the secondary bracing
configurations. Models B, C, and D have relatively higher ultimate load capacities than do Models
A and E. This can be attributed to cross bracing in Models B, C, and D, because cross bracing can
help to enhance rigidity. Furthermore, the ultimate load capacities of Models B, C, and D are very
close to each other. Hence, it can be concluded that all of the forms of cross bracing have similar
effects on the ultimate load capacity. Figure 23 shows that the load-deflection curves for different
17. Wenjiang Kang, F. Albermani, S. Kitipornchai and Heung-Fai Lam 581
models under vertical load are almost the same. This is because buckling under vertical load is
induced by the horizontal members, whereas buckling under horizontal load is induced by the leg
members, for which the secondary braces make a significant contribution to the behavior of the
system.
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
A finite element model (FEM), which considers member continuity, asymmetrical sectional
properties, the eccentricity of connections, and geometrical and material nonlinearities, is proposed
and was verified by experimental data from the literature [5]. A series of comprehensive parametric
studies were then carried out with the proposed FEM. Referring to the results of the analysis, the
following conclusions are made.
1. The connection rigidity of the main braces should be considered when calculating the
ultimate load capacity of a tower, as it has significant effects on the buckling capacity of the
overall structural system. Inappropriate modeling of the connection rigidity may
overestimate or underestimate buckling capacity.
2. Although secondary braces are usually subjected to very small axial loads, the results show
that their existence greatly enhances the buckling capacity of the structure by reducing the
effective length of the leg members. Nonlinear analysis without consideration of secondary
braces may lead to an unreliable prediction of the ultimate load capacity of the system.
3. The free edge direction of the main braces has significant effects on the buckling capacity of
transmission towers in certain cases. The SS configuration performed better than the OS
configuration did in the example that was used in this paper. In a calculation of the ultimate
load capacity of transmission towers, a consideration of the effect of free edge directions in
the FEM is strongly recommended.
4. The results of the analysis also show that cross bracing in the secondary bracing
configuration can enhance the ultimate load capacity of the structure. Furthermore, the case
study also shows that different types of cross bracing configurations provide a similar
enhancement of buckling capacity.
REFERENCES
[1] Marjerrison, M., “Electric Transmission Tower Design,” Journal of the Power Division,
ASCE, 1968, Vol. 94(PO1), pp. 1-23.
[2] British Standards Institution, “BS8100: Part 3. Lattice Towers and Masts: Code of Practice
for Strength Assessment of Members of Lattice Towers and Masts,” 1999, London, UK.
[3] American Society of Civil Engineers, “ASCE 10-97: Design of Latticed Steel Transmission
Structures,” 1998, New York, USA.
[4] Cannon, D.D.J., “Variation in Design Practice for Lattice Towers,” Proceedings of the
Sessions related to Steel Structures at Structures Congress of ASCE, San Francisco, CA,
USA, 1989, pp. 268-277.
[5] Kitipornchai, S., Albermani, F.G.A. and Chan, S.L., “Elasto-plastic Finite Element Models
for Angle Steel Frames,” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1990, Vol. 116, No. 10,
pp. 2567-2581.
[6] Albermani, F.G.A. and Kitipornchai, S., “Non-linear Analysis of Transmission Towers”,
Engineering Structures, 1992, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 139-151.
[7] Roy, S., Fang, S.J. and Rossow, E.C., “Secondary Stresses on Transmission Tower
Structures,” Journal of Energy Engineering, 1984, Vol. 110, No. 2, pp. 157-174.
18. 582 Modeling and Analysis of Lattice Towers with More Accurate Models
[8] Korol, R.M., Rutenberg, A. and Bagnariol, D., “On Primary and Secondary Stresses in
Triangulated Trusses,” Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 1986, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp.
123-142.
[9] Rao, N.P. and Kalyanaraman, V., “Non-linear Behaviour of Lattice Panel of Angle Towers”,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2001, Vol. 57, No. 12, pp. 1337-1357.
[10] Knight, G.M.S. and Santhakumar, A.R., “Joint Effects on Behavior of Transmission Towers,”
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1993, Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 698-712.
[11] Kemp, A.R. and Behncke, R.H., “Behavior of Cross-bracing in Latticed Towers,” Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1998, Vol. 124, No. 4, pp. 360-367.
[12] Robert, V. and Lemelin, D.R., “Flexural Considerations in Steel Transmission Tower
Design,” Proceedings of the “Electrical Transmission in a New Age” Conference of ASCE,
Omaha, Nebraska, USA, 2002, pp. 148-155.
[13] ANSYS Inc., ANSYS Structural Analysis Guide.