The ppt talks about the problems that India faced after independence like partition, development of constitution, rehabilitation of migrants, integration of princely states etc.

2.  In a memorable address to the Constituent Assembly on the night of 14 August, Jawaharlal
Nehru, speaking as the first prime minister of a free India and giving expression to the
feelings of the people, said:
 “Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem
our pledge . . . At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to
life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from
the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds
utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the
service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity . . . We end today a
period of ill fortune and India discovers herself again.”
 As Nehru declared in his 14 August speech, ‘The achievement we celebrate today is but a step,
an opening of opportunity , to the greater triumphs and achievements . . . That future is not
one of ease and resting but of incessant striving so that we may fulfil the pledges we have so
often taken.’
 We shall discuss the short-term problems and the long term tasks under Nehru’s leadership
in this presentation.

3.  Fifteenth August 1947, the first day of free India, was celebrated with much
exuberance and elation. The sacrifices of generations of patriots and the blood of
countless martyrs had borne fruit.
 But this joy was tainted by despair, for the country had been divided. Large parts of
the two new nations were engulfed by communal riots. There was a mass exodus of
people from both states across the new borders.
 There was scarcity of food and other consumer goods, and a fear of administrative
breakdown.
 Independence had been accompanied by a multitude of problems, centuries of
backwardness, prejudice, inequality , and ignorance still weighed on the land.
 The debris of two centuries of colonialism had to be cleared and the promises of the
freedom struggle to be fulfilled. The long haul had just begun.

5.  On 14–15 August 1947, two nation states came into existence, because of
‘partition’ of the division of British India into India and Pakistan. According to
the “two nation theory” advanced by the Muslim League, India consisted of two
‘People’ Hindus and Muslims.
 A very important task at hand was demarcation of boundaries. After 3rd June
plan of Mountbatten, a British jurist Radcliff was invited to fix the problem and
to form two boundary commissions one for Bengal and one for Punjab. Four
other members were also there in commission but there was a deadlock between
Congress and Muslim league. On 17th August, 1947 he announced his award.
 According to Award, it was decided to follow the principle of religious
majorities which means that areas where the Muslims were in majority would
make up the territory of Pakistan. The remaining was to stay with India.
 It initiated the process of migration from India to Pakistan and vice versa.
https://youtu.be/iYmzrQ1aYr0

6. © Brain Wrinkles

8. POPULATION EXCHANGES
 Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly-formed states in the
months immediately following Partition. Once the lines were established, about 14.5
million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious
majority. Based on 1951 Census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan
from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan immediately
after partition.
 The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of
such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of
the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly. 500,000, with low
estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.
 Women faced with the brunt of the partition violence. In ―dishonoring a women you
dishonor the religion, honor, and culture of the man associated with the woman ―defile the
purity of the other race by impregnating their women and forcing sex. Nearly 75,000
women faced with some sort of violence. Women were kidnapped, raped, molested,
paraded naked in the streets, forced prostitution, breasts cut off, bought and forced into
marriage, forced change in identity.

9.  India was in the midst of a communal holocaust. There was senseless communal
slaughter and a fratricidal war of unprecedented proportions. Unspeakable
atrocities were perpetrated on the minorities in both India and Pakistan.
 In the span of a few months, nearly 500,000 people were killed and property worth
thousands of millions of rupees was looted and destroyed. Communal
violence threatened the very fabric of society.
 The situation was brought under control within a few months through
decisive political and administrative measures like Repression of Riots by using army
and police etc.
 Nehru carried on a massive campaign against communalism to instill a sense of
security in the minorities, through public speeches, radio broadcasts, speeches in
parliament, private letters and epistles to chief ministers.
 A major setback to the communal forces occurred with Gandhiji’s martyrdom.
 However, Communalism was thereby contained and weakened but not eliminated, for
conditions were still favourable for its growth.

10. © Brain Wrinkles
Time Magazine cover
representing the
partition of India -
1947.

18.  The government had to stretch itself to the maximum to give relief to and resettle and
rehabilitate the nearly six million refugees from Pakistan who had lost their all there and whose
world had been turned upside down.
 By 1951, the problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees from West Pakistan had been fully
tackled.
 The task of rehabilitating and resettling refugees from East Bengal was made more difficult by the
fact that the exodus of Hindus from East Bengal continued for years. While nearly all the Hindus
and Sikhs from West Pakistan had migrated in one go in 1947, a large number of Hindus in East
Bengal had stayed on there in the initial years of 1947 and 1948.
 But as communal riots broke out periodically in East Bengal, there was a steady stream
of refugees from there year after year till 1971. Providing them with work and shelter and
psychological assurance, therefore became a continuous and hence a difficult task.
 Unlike in Bengal, most of the refugees from West Punjab could occupy the large lands and property
left by the Muslim migrants to Pakistan from Punjab, U.P. and Rajasthan and could therefore be
resettled on land.
 This was not the case in West Bengal. Also because of linguistic affinity, it was easier for Punjabi
and Sindhi refugees to settle in today’s Himachal Pradesh and Haryana and western U.P.,
Rajasthan and Delhi.
 The resettlement of the refugees from East Bengal could take place only in Bengal and to a lesser
extent in Assam and Tripura. As a result, ‘a very large number of people who had been engaged in
agricultural occupations before their displacement were forced to seek survival in semi-urban and
urban contexts as the underclass,’ and contributed to ‘the process of immiseration’ of West Bengal.

19.  British India was divided into what were called the British Indian Provinces and the
Princely States.
 With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure,
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel succeeded in integrating the hundreds of princely states
with the Indian Union in two stages.
 Some states had shown wisdom and realism and perhaps a degree of patriotism by
joining the Constituent Assembly in April 1947.
 But the majority of princes had stayed away and a few, such as those of Travancore,
Bhopal and Hyderabad, publicly announced their desire to claim an independent
status.
BRITISH INDIAN PROVINCES
PRINCELY STATES
• The British Indian Provinces were
directly under the control of the
British government
• Several large and small states ruled by
princes, called the Princely States, enjoyed
some form of control over their internal
affairs as long as they accepted British
supremacy.
• Princely States covered one-third of the
land area of the British Indian Empire

21.  It was announced by the British that with the end of their rule over India, supremacy of the British
crown over Princely States would also lapse. This meant that all these states, as many as 565 in all,
would become legally independent.
 The British government took the view that all these states were free to join either India or Pakistan
or remain independent if they so wished. This decision was left not to the people but to the princely
rulers of these states. This was a very serious problem and could threaten the very existence of a
united India.
 First of all, the ruler of Travancore announced that the state had decided on Independence. The
Nizam of Hyderabad made a similar announcement the next day. Rulers like the Nawab of Bhopal
were averse to join the Constituent Assembly.
 The interim government took a firm stance against the possible division of India into small
principalities of different sizes. Sardar Patel was India’s Deputy Prime Minister and the Home
Minister during the crucial period immediately following Independence. He played a historic role in
negotiating with the rulers of princely states firmly but diplomatically and bringing most of them into
the Indian Union.
 The government’s approach was guided by three considerations: Firstly, the people of most of the
princely states clearly wanted to become part of the Indian union. Secondly, the government was
prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions. Thirdly, in the backdrop of Partition which
brought into focus the contest over demarcation of territory, the integration and consolidation of the
territorial boundaries of the nation had assumed supreme importance.

22. PROBLEMS SOLVED ?
• Before 15 August
1947, peaceful negotiations
had brought almost all
states whose territories
were contiguous to the
new boundaries of
India, into the Indian Union
• The rulers of most of the
states signed a document
called the ‘Instrument of
Accession’ which meant
that their state agreed to
become a part of the Union
of India
• Accession of the Princely
States of Junagadh,
Hyderabad, Kash mir
and Manipur proved
more difficult than the
rest.
• The issue of Junagarh was
resolved after a plebiscite
confirmed people’s desire
to join India
• The issue of Kashmir is part
of modern Indian history
• The cases of Hyderabad
and Manipur are discussed
in detail

24.  Hyderabad, the largest of the Princely States was surrounded entirely by Indian territory.
Some parts of the old Hyderabad state are today parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.
 Its ruler carried the title, ‘Nizam’, and he was one of the world’s richest men. The Nizam
wanted an independent status for Hyderabad. He entered into what was called the
Standstill Agreement with India in November 1947.
 In the meantime, a movement of the people of Hyderabad State against the Nizam’s rule
gathered force. The peasantry in the Telangana region in particular, was the victim of
Nizam’s oppressive rule and rose against him. Women who had seen the worst of this
oppression joined the movement in large numbers. Hyderabad town was the nerve centre
of this movement. The Communists and the Hyderabad Congress were in the forefront of
the movement.
 The Nizam responded by unleashing a paramilitary force known as the Razakars. They
murdered, maimed, raped and looted, targeting particularly the non-Muslims. The
central government had to order the army to tackle the situation. In September 1948,
Indian army moved in to control the Nizam’s forces. After a few days of intermittent
fighting, the Nizam surrendered. This led to Hyderabad’s accession to India.

27. • A few days before Independence, the Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed
the Instrument of Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that the
internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.
• Under the pressure of public opinion, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948
and the state became a constitutional monarchy. Thus Manipur was the first part of India to
hold an election based on universal adult franchise
• In the Legislative Assembly of Manipur there were sharp differences over the question of
merger of Manipur with India. While the state Congress wanted the merger, other political
parties were opposed to this.
• The Government of India succeeded in pressurizing the Maharaja into signing a Merger
Agreement in September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected Legislative
Assembly of Manipur.
• This caused a lot of anger and resentment in Manipur, the repercussions of which are
still being felt.

29.  Junagadh was a small state on the coast of Saurashtra surrounded by Indian territory
and therefore without any geographical contiguity with Pakistan. Yet, its Nawab
announced accession of his state to Pakistan on 15 August 1947 even though the
people of the state, overwhelmingly Hindu, desired to join India.
 The Indian nationalist leaders had for decades stood for the sovereignty of the people
against the claims of the princes. It was, therefore, not surprising that in Junagadh’s
case Nehru and Patel agreed that the final voice, like in any other such case, for
example Kashmir or Hyderabad, should be that of the people as ascertained through a
plebiscite.
 Going against this approach, Pakistan accepted Junagadh’s accession. On the other
hand, the people of the state would not accept the ruler’s decision. They organized a
popular movement, forced the Nawab to flee and established a provisional
government.
 The Dewan of Junagadh, Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of the more famous Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto, now decided to invite the Government of India to intervene. Indian troops
thereafter marched into the state. A plebiscite was held in the state in February 1948
which went overwhelmingly in favour of joining India.

30.  The state of Kashmir bordered on both India and Pakistan. Its ruler Hari Singh was a Hindu, while nearly
75 per cent of the population was Muslim. Hari Singh too did not accede either to India or Pakistan. Fearing
democracy in India and communalism in Pakistan, he hoped to stay out of both and to continue to wield
power as an independent ruler.
 The popular political forces led by the National Conference and its leader Sheikh Abdullah, however, wanted
to join India. The Indian political leaders took no steps to obtain Kashmir’s accession and, in line with their
general approach, wanted the people of Kashmir to decide whether to link their fate with India or Pakistan.
 But Pakistan not only refused to accept the principle of plebiscite for deciding the issue of accession in the
case of Junagadh and Hyderabad, in the case of Kashmir it tried to short-circuit the popular decision through
a shortsighted action, forcing India to partially change its attitude in regard to Kashmir.
 On 22 October, with the onset of winter, several Pathan tribesmen, led unofficially by Pakistani army officers,
invaded Kashmir and rapidly pushed towards Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. The ill-trained army of the
Maharaja proved no match for the invading forces. In panic, on 24 October, the Maharaja appealed to India
for military assistance.
 Nehru, even at this stage, did not favour accession without ascertaining the will of the people. But
Mountbatten, the Governor-General, pointed out that under international law India could send its troops to
Kashmir only after the state’s formal accession to India. Sheikh Abdullah and Sardar Patel too insisted on
accession.
 And so on 26 October, the Maharaja acceded to India and also agreed to install Abdullah as head of the state’s
administration. Even though both the National Conference and the Maharaja wanted firm and permanent
accession, India, in conformity with its democractic commitment and Mountbatten’s advice, announced that it
would hold a referendum on the accession decision once peace and law and order had been restored in the
Valley.

31.  After accession the cabinet took the decision to immediately fly troops to Srinagar. Nearly
100 planes airlifted men and weapons to Srinagar to join the battle against the raiders.
Srinagar was first held and then the raiders were gradually driven out of the Valley,
though they retained control over parts of the state and the armed conflict continued for
months.
 Fearful of the dangers of a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, the Government of
India agreed, on 30 December 1947, on Mountbatten’s suggestion, to refer the Kashmir
problem to the United Nations Security Council, asking for vacation of aggression by
Pakistan.
 Nehru was to regret this decision later as, instead of taking note of the aggression by
Pakistan, the Security Council, guided by Britain and the United States, tended to side
with Pakistan.
 Ignoring India’s complaint, it replaced the ‘Kashmir question’ before it by the ‘India–
Pakistan dispute’. It passed many resolutions, but the upshot was that in accordance with
one of its resolutions both India and Pakistan accepted a ceasefire on 31 December 1948
which still prevails and the state was effectively divided along the ceasefire line.

32.  In 1951, the UN passed a resolution providing for a referendum under UN supervision
after Pakistan had withdrawn its troops from the part of Kashmir under its control.
 The resolution has remained infructuous since Pakistan has refused to withdraw its
forces from what is known as Azad Kashmir. Since then Kashmir has been the main
obstacle in the path of friendly relations between India and Pakistan.
 India has regarded Kashmir’s accession as final and irrevocable and Kashmir as its
integral part. Pakistan continues to deny this claim. Kashmir has also over time become
a symbol as well as a test of India’s secularism; it was, as Nehru put it, basic to the
triumph of secularism over communalism in India.

34.  The division of assets: Tensions stretched to a breaking point with Pakistan over the division of assets.
According to the Indo- Pakistan financial settlement of 1947 India had to pay rupees 55 crores as the
latter’s share of the assets.
 The Refugee Problem: The partition of India gave way to the refugee problem. By mid-1948 about 5.5
million non-Muslims had moved into India and a very large number of Muslims had left India for
Pakistan. According to the Indian government, the non-Muslims left behind property worth 500 crores
in west Pakistan whereas the Muslim losses in India are put to 100 crores.
 Origin of the Kashmir Problem: The Maharaja Hari Singh was a Hindu while 75% of the population
was that of Muslims. Kashmir was strategically important for both India and Pakistan, however, the
famous movement lead by Sheik Abdullah waned integration with India. The Maharaja, on the other
hand, feared democracy in India and communalism in Pakistan, thus hoping to stay independent.
 The Indus Water Dispute: The dispute started in 1960. The dispute arose because Indus and its
tributaries flow through both India and Pakistan. West Pakistan and West India were both dependent
on Indus and its tributaries for water, power supply, and irrigation. These rivers rise in India and the
canal system is also in India. Partition cut through a complex and unified system of canals.
 Another source of constant tension was the strong sense of insecurity among Hindus in East Bengal
which emerged as a consequence of the communal character of Pakistan political system.

35.  The second and the more difficult stage of the full integration of the princely
states into the new Indian nation began in December 1947. Once again Sardar
Patel moved with speed, completing the process within one year.
 Smaller states were either merged with the neighbouring states or merged
together to ‘form centrally administered areas’. A large number were consolidated
into five new unions, forming Madhy a Bharat, Rajasthan, Patiala and East
Punjab States Union (PEPSU), Saurashtra and Travancore-Cochin; My sore,
Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir retained their original form as separate
states of the Union.
 In return for their surrender of all power and authority , the rulers of major states
were given privy purses in perpetuity , free of all taxes. The privy purses
amounted to Rs 4.66 crore in 1949 and were later guaranteed by the constitution.
The rulers were allowed succession to the gaddi and retained certain privileges
such as keeping their titles, flying their personal flags and gun salutes on
ceremonial occasions.

36.  Two other trouble spots remained on the Indian body politic. These were the French- and
Portuguese-owned settlements dotting India’s east and west coasts, with Pondicherry and Goa
forming their hub.
 The people of these settlements were eager to join their newly liberated mother-country . The
French authorities were more reasonable and after prolonged negotiations handed over
Pondicherry and other French possessions to India in 1954.
 But the Portuguese were determined to stay on, especially as Portugal’s NATO allies, Britain
and the US, were willing to support this defiant attitude. The Government of India, being
committed to a policy of settling disputes between nations by peaceful means, was not willing to
take military steps to liberate Goa and other Portuguese colonies.
 The people of Goa took matters in their hands and started a movement seeking freedom from
the Portuguese, but it was brutally suppressed as were the efforts of non-violent satyagrahis
from India to march into Goa.
 In the end, after waiting patiently for international opinion to put pressure on Portugal, Nehru
ordered Indian troops to march into Goa on the night of 17 December 1961.
 The Governor-General of Goa immediately surrendered without a fight and the territorial and
political integration of India was completed, even though it had taken over fourteen y ears to do
so.