Lesson Plan and Worksheets on Characteristics of Living LhingsKavita Grover
The document outlines a lesson plan on the characteristics of living things. It includes 7 key characteristics: movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion, and nutrition. The plan involves introducing these characteristics, having students identify them in groups, filling out a mind map and worksheets, and discussing each characteristic in more detail. The goal is for students to understand what qualifies something as living and be able to differentiate living and non-living things.
This document discusses the different parts of plants and their functions, as well as the process of photosynthesis. It notes that plants have leaves, stems, roots, and flowers, with each part playing an important role - leaves make food through photosynthesis, stems transport water and nutrients, roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, and flowers produce seeds. The document then examines the structure and function of leaves in more detail, and classifies plants based on their structure, root and stem types, whether they produce seeds or spores, and whether they are edible.
This document discusses nutrition in plants. It explains that plants get nutrients from the soil and light energy from the sun to produce their own food through photosynthesis. There are different modes of nutrition in plants - autotrophs can produce their own food, heterotrophs obtain food from other organisms, and some plants have parasitic or symbiotic relationships. The document also describes two activities - one showing that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis, and another observing the fungus bread mould growing on bread as an example of a saprotroph.
This document contains a quiz about plant biology. It asks 20 multiple choice questions about the different parts of plants, how they grow and make food, their needs for water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide, and their importance for providing oxygen and being a food source for animals and humans. The answers to the 20 questions are provided at the end.
The document outlines the objectives and activities of a science session. The objectives are for participants to be able to: identify process skills in developing science ideas like experimenting; perform experimental activities using different variables; and explain the effect of controlled variables, independent variables, and dependent variables in experiments. The document then provides an example experimental design on determining what makes an egg float in water. It includes the problem, hypothesis, materials, procedure, observation, and conclusion.
Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth and is essential for agriculture. It is composed of different materials and has distinct horizontal layers called horizons. The topsoil horizon, or A-horizon, is dark and rich in nutrients and humus. Below this is the B-horizon, which contains less humus and compact soil particles. The lowest C-horizon is made up of small rock fragments. Soil types like sandy, clayey and loamy are determined by particle size, and each has different properties for water retention and drainage. Human activities that pollute soil with plastics, chemicals and pesticides can destroy its fertility.
The lesson plan aims to teach students about beneficial microorganisms. The teacher will start by asking students if salmonella and E. coli are helpful or harmful, and have them identify the angry face. Next, the teacher will do an activity where students touch, smell, and identify common microorganisms like milk, yogurt, bread, and cheese. Finally, the teacher will summarize that some bacteria can be helpful because they help people and plants stay healthy, listing examples like bacteria breaking down food in our bodies, mold making penicillin, and yeast making bread rise. Students will complete practice activities and a worksheet to reinforce the lesson.
Ch.1.the characteristics of living things (biology)Reem Bakr
This document discusses the characteristics of living things. It outlines the seven life processes that differentiate living things from non-living things: feeding, respiration, movement, growth, excretion, reproduction, and irritability. It provides examples of how different organisms such as crabs, lobsters, axolotls, plants, ticks, and grass snakes exhibit these life processes in different ways suited to their needs.
Lesson Plan and Worksheets on Characteristics of Living LhingsKavita Grover
The document outlines a lesson plan on the characteristics of living things. It includes 7 key characteristics: movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion, and nutrition. The plan involves introducing these characteristics, having students identify them in groups, filling out a mind map and worksheets, and discussing each characteristic in more detail. The goal is for students to understand what qualifies something as living and be able to differentiate living and non-living things.
This document discusses the different parts of plants and their functions, as well as the process of photosynthesis. It notes that plants have leaves, stems, roots, and flowers, with each part playing an important role - leaves make food through photosynthesis, stems transport water and nutrients, roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, and flowers produce seeds. The document then examines the structure and function of leaves in more detail, and classifies plants based on their structure, root and stem types, whether they produce seeds or spores, and whether they are edible.
This document discusses nutrition in plants. It explains that plants get nutrients from the soil and light energy from the sun to produce their own food through photosynthesis. There are different modes of nutrition in plants - autotrophs can produce their own food, heterotrophs obtain food from other organisms, and some plants have parasitic or symbiotic relationships. The document also describes two activities - one showing that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis, and another observing the fungus bread mould growing on bread as an example of a saprotroph.
This document contains a quiz about plant biology. It asks 20 multiple choice questions about the different parts of plants, how they grow and make food, their needs for water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide, and their importance for providing oxygen and being a food source for animals and humans. The answers to the 20 questions are provided at the end.
The document outlines the objectives and activities of a science session. The objectives are for participants to be able to: identify process skills in developing science ideas like experimenting; perform experimental activities using different variables; and explain the effect of controlled variables, independent variables, and dependent variables in experiments. The document then provides an example experimental design on determining what makes an egg float in water. It includes the problem, hypothesis, materials, procedure, observation, and conclusion.
Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth and is essential for agriculture. It is composed of different materials and has distinct horizontal layers called horizons. The topsoil horizon, or A-horizon, is dark and rich in nutrients and humus. Below this is the B-horizon, which contains less humus and compact soil particles. The lowest C-horizon is made up of small rock fragments. Soil types like sandy, clayey and loamy are determined by particle size, and each has different properties for water retention and drainage. Human activities that pollute soil with plastics, chemicals and pesticides can destroy its fertility.
The lesson plan aims to teach students about beneficial microorganisms. The teacher will start by asking students if salmonella and E. coli are helpful or harmful, and have them identify the angry face. Next, the teacher will do an activity where students touch, smell, and identify common microorganisms like milk, yogurt, bread, and cheese. Finally, the teacher will summarize that some bacteria can be helpful because they help people and plants stay healthy, listing examples like bacteria breaking down food in our bodies, mold making penicillin, and yeast making bread rise. Students will complete practice activities and a worksheet to reinforce the lesson.
Ch.1.the characteristics of living things (biology)Reem Bakr
This document discusses the characteristics of living things. It outlines the seven life processes that differentiate living things from non-living things: feeding, respiration, movement, growth, excretion, reproduction, and irritability. It provides examples of how different organisms such as crabs, lobsters, axolotls, plants, ticks, and grass snakes exhibit these life processes in different ways suited to their needs.
The document provides an overview of cells, including their history, structures, and differences between plant and animal cells. It explains that cells are the basic unit of life, first observed by Robert Hooke in 1660 when he looked at bark through a microscope and saw small compartments that he named "cells." The presentation then details the structures found in typical animal cells like the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi bodies. It concludes by noting additional structures like the cell wall, chloroplasts, and chlorophyll that are present in plant cells but not animal cells.
This document summarizes the four main types of tissues in the body: epithelial, muscular, nervous, and connective tissue. It describes the characteristics and functions of each tissue type. Epithelial tissue forms the outer layers of the body and its subtypes include squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and stratified squamous epithelium. Connective tissue connects and supports other tissues. Its subtypes include areolar, adipose, compact bone, hyaline cartilage, and types of blood cells. Muscular tissue contains muscle fibers that contract and relax to cause movement, divided into striated, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Nervous tissue is composed of neurons that transmit nerve impulses throughout the body and brain.
Thermal energy is transferred from hot objects to cold objects in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact of particles in solids. Convection involves the transfer of thermal energy by the circulation of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Buildings use various insulation methods to reduce thermal energy transfer, like double-walled construction, air gaps, and reflective surfaces to reduce conduction, convection, and radiation.
This document discusses the properties and states of matter. It defines matter as anything that has mass and volume, and defines the three common states as solid, liquid, and gas. It provides properties to differentiate the three states, such as solids having a definite shape and volume, liquids having no definite shape but a fixed volume, and gases having no definite shape or fixed volume. The document also discusses phase changes between the different states when heat is added or removed, such as melting, boiling, evaporation, condensation, and sublimation.
This lesson plan is for a 9th grade biology class on double circulation. It involves two activities where students will label a diagram of pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. They will learn that double circulation is where blood passes through the heart twice, with pulmonary circulation moving blood from the heart to the lungs and systemic circulation moving blood to the entire body before returning to the heart. The lesson aims to develop students' factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge of double circulation.
Physical and chemical changes of matterMarwa salah
This document discusses physical and chemical changes of matter. It provides examples of physical changes such as melting, dissolving, and grinding, which change a substance's appearance or state but not its chemical composition. Chemical changes, like burning paper or sugar, produce new substances with different properties from the original. The key difference is that physical changes alter appearance or state while chemical changes alter the actual molecular structure and identity of a substance.
The human heart has four chambers - two atria and two ventricles - that work together to circulate blood throughout the body. The heart beats regularly due to a group of pacemaker cells in the right atrium that initiate each heartbeat. Factors like blood pressure, oxygen levels, and hormones can influence the heart rate. Blood vessels carry oxygenated and deoxygenated blood between the heart and tissues via arteries and veins. Coronary heart disease occurs when fatty deposits build up in the arteries and restrict blood flow.
Matter exists in three main states: solids, liquids, and gases. Solids maintain a fixed shape unless broken, while liquids flow freely and take the shape of their container. Gases expand freely to fill their container. Air is a mixture of invisible gases including oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. Understanding the different states of matter and their properties is essential for describing the physical world around us.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in three main states: solid, liquid, and gas. The state depends on how tightly or loosely the particles are packed. Solids have a fixed shape and volume as particles are tightly packed and vibrate in place. Liquids take the shape of their container but maintain a fixed volume as particles can move past one another. Gases have no definite shape or volume as particles are very far apart and move freely. Water can change states by adding or removing heat, going from solid ice to liquid to gas vapor.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their complexity. Prokaryotic cells are simpler and lack membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have organelles enclosed within membranes. Key differences include prokaryotes having circular DNA floating in the cytoplasm versus eukaryotes with linear DNA enclosed in a nucleus. Prokaryotes emerged billions of years ago as the first and only form of life for a long time, while eukaryotes developed later and are generally more complex with the potential to be multicellular. Both cell types share some basic components like cell membranes, ribosomes, and DNA.
Cell (The function and structural unit of life) Class-8thAbhinav Maurya
The document discusses the structure and functions of cells. It begins by summarizing the discovery of cells in the 17th century by Robert Hooke and the development of the cell theory in the 19th century. It then defines the cell as the basic unit of life and discusses variations in cell number, shape, and size between organisms. The main parts of the cell are then described in detail, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. Key differences between plant and animal cells are also highlighted.
Here are some examples of energy transformation that occur at home:
- Electricity is transformed into light and heat energy when turning on a light bulb. The filament inside the bulb gets hot due to the flow of electric current, producing light and thermal energy.
- Electric potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy when using an electric mixer, blender or other kitchen appliance plugged into an outlet. The motor converts electricity into mechanical motion or spinning.
- Chemical energy stored in batteries is transformed into electrical energy when devices run on battery power, such as phones, toys, flashlights and remote controls.
- Solar energy from the sun is transformed into electrical energy by photovoltaic solar panels on rooftops. The panels
The document discusses the parts of a plant and how plants grow from seeds. It notes that roots take in water and nutrients from the soil, stems hold up the plant and move water and nutrients, and leaves use sunlight, air, water and nutrients to make food. Flowers make fruits containing seeds. Seeds are scattered by planting, animals, water and wind and can germinate into seedlings when they have sunlight, air, water and nutrients.
Matter of our surrounding | states of matter | solid | Liquid | Gas| part 1Dentistry World
Matter of our surrounding | states of matter | solid | Liquid | Gas| part 1
States of matters
What is solid?
What is liquid?
What is gases?
Matter of our surrounding | states of matter | solid | Liquid | Gas| part 1
Three states of matter
Here is what I would say to explain the lesson to my friend who was absent:
The lesson today was all about the cell cycle and cell division. We learned about the different phases cells go through as they grow and divide. There is the interphase, where the cell grows and prepares to divide. Interphase has three phases - G1 for growth, S for DNA replication, and G2 for more growth preparation. Then there is the M phase, also called mitosis, which is the actual division phase where the cell splits into two.
Mitosis is further broken down into the phases of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. We discussed what happens in each phase as the chromosomes condense and
Analysis of new curriculum of class 11 biology/Dambar Khatri
The document analyzes and compares the new and old class 11 biology curriculum in Nepal. The new curriculum was revised based on research and suggestions to include more practical and application-based learning. It divides content into competencies, theory, and practical sections for both botany and zoology. While course content remained similar, the new curriculum reorganized some topics, increased practical hours, emphasized projects and field work, and implemented a blended assessment approach including internal and external evaluations. The goal of the revisions was to make the curriculum more conceptual, practical, and skill-based compared to the previous knowledge-based theoretical model.
Forces can be pushes, pulls, or a combination of both. A force is any interaction between two objects that causes a change in motion or shape. There are two main types of forces - contact forces that act when objects touch, and non-contact forces that act over a distance like magnetic or gravitational forces. Pressure is the amount of force applied over a given area, and depends on both the force and the contact area. Applying force over a smaller area results in greater pressure.
The document discusses the classification and parts of plants. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Plants are classified based on whether they are flowering or non-flowering, and whether they live on land or in water.
2) The main parts of a plant are the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Roots anchor the plant and absorb water and nutrients, while stems support the plant and transport water and minerals. Leaves contain chlorophyll and make food for the plant. Not all plants produce flowers or fruits.
3) Questions are provided to help students think about the characteristics and classification of plants, as well as the different parts of a plant and their functions. Diagrams are included to
crop production and management class 8 sciencealisha kaur
There are two types of crops - kharif crops which are sown during the rainy season like rice, corn, and soybeans, and rabi crops which are grown during winter like wheat, peas, and mustard. The basic practices of crop production include preparing soil, sowing seeds, adding manure and fertilizers, irrigating, removing weeds, harvesting, and storing crops. Seeds are sown by hand or using a seed drill for even spacing in rows. Manure provides organic matter to soil while fertilizers are manufactured chemicals that do not provide humus. Water is supplied through irrigation using sources like rivers, wells, and pumps. Weeds are removed through pulling, troweling, or
The document provides an overview of cells, including their history, structures, and differences between plant and animal cells. It explains that cells are the basic unit of life, first observed by Robert Hooke in 1660 when he looked at bark through a microscope and saw small compartments that he named "cells." The presentation then details the structures found in typical animal cells like the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi bodies. It concludes by noting additional structures like the cell wall, chloroplasts, and chlorophyll that are present in plant cells but not animal cells.
This document summarizes the four main types of tissues in the body: epithelial, muscular, nervous, and connective tissue. It describes the characteristics and functions of each tissue type. Epithelial tissue forms the outer layers of the body and its subtypes include squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and stratified squamous epithelium. Connective tissue connects and supports other tissues. Its subtypes include areolar, adipose, compact bone, hyaline cartilage, and types of blood cells. Muscular tissue contains muscle fibers that contract and relax to cause movement, divided into striated, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Nervous tissue is composed of neurons that transmit nerve impulses throughout the body and brain.
Thermal energy is transferred from hot objects to cold objects in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact of particles in solids. Convection involves the transfer of thermal energy by the circulation of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Buildings use various insulation methods to reduce thermal energy transfer, like double-walled construction, air gaps, and reflective surfaces to reduce conduction, convection, and radiation.
This document discusses the properties and states of matter. It defines matter as anything that has mass and volume, and defines the three common states as solid, liquid, and gas. It provides properties to differentiate the three states, such as solids having a definite shape and volume, liquids having no definite shape but a fixed volume, and gases having no definite shape or fixed volume. The document also discusses phase changes between the different states when heat is added or removed, such as melting, boiling, evaporation, condensation, and sublimation.
This lesson plan is for a 9th grade biology class on double circulation. It involves two activities where students will label a diagram of pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. They will learn that double circulation is where blood passes through the heart twice, with pulmonary circulation moving blood from the heart to the lungs and systemic circulation moving blood to the entire body before returning to the heart. The lesson aims to develop students' factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge of double circulation.
Physical and chemical changes of matterMarwa salah
This document discusses physical and chemical changes of matter. It provides examples of physical changes such as melting, dissolving, and grinding, which change a substance's appearance or state but not its chemical composition. Chemical changes, like burning paper or sugar, produce new substances with different properties from the original. The key difference is that physical changes alter appearance or state while chemical changes alter the actual molecular structure and identity of a substance.
The human heart has four chambers - two atria and two ventricles - that work together to circulate blood throughout the body. The heart beats regularly due to a group of pacemaker cells in the right atrium that initiate each heartbeat. Factors like blood pressure, oxygen levels, and hormones can influence the heart rate. Blood vessels carry oxygenated and deoxygenated blood between the heart and tissues via arteries and veins. Coronary heart disease occurs when fatty deposits build up in the arteries and restrict blood flow.
Matter exists in three main states: solids, liquids, and gases. Solids maintain a fixed shape unless broken, while liquids flow freely and take the shape of their container. Gases expand freely to fill their container. Air is a mixture of invisible gases including oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. Understanding the different states of matter and their properties is essential for describing the physical world around us.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in three main states: solid, liquid, and gas. The state depends on how tightly or loosely the particles are packed. Solids have a fixed shape and volume as particles are tightly packed and vibrate in place. Liquids take the shape of their container but maintain a fixed volume as particles can move past one another. Gases have no definite shape or volume as particles are very far apart and move freely. Water can change states by adding or removing heat, going from solid ice to liquid to gas vapor.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their complexity. Prokaryotic cells are simpler and lack membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have organelles enclosed within membranes. Key differences include prokaryotes having circular DNA floating in the cytoplasm versus eukaryotes with linear DNA enclosed in a nucleus. Prokaryotes emerged billions of years ago as the first and only form of life for a long time, while eukaryotes developed later and are generally more complex with the potential to be multicellular. Both cell types share some basic components like cell membranes, ribosomes, and DNA.
Cell (The function and structural unit of life) Class-8thAbhinav Maurya
The document discusses the structure and functions of cells. It begins by summarizing the discovery of cells in the 17th century by Robert Hooke and the development of the cell theory in the 19th century. It then defines the cell as the basic unit of life and discusses variations in cell number, shape, and size between organisms. The main parts of the cell are then described in detail, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. Key differences between plant and animal cells are also highlighted.
Here are some examples of energy transformation that occur at home:
- Electricity is transformed into light and heat energy when turning on a light bulb. The filament inside the bulb gets hot due to the flow of electric current, producing light and thermal energy.
- Electric potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy when using an electric mixer, blender or other kitchen appliance plugged into an outlet. The motor converts electricity into mechanical motion or spinning.
- Chemical energy stored in batteries is transformed into electrical energy when devices run on battery power, such as phones, toys, flashlights and remote controls.
- Solar energy from the sun is transformed into electrical energy by photovoltaic solar panels on rooftops. The panels
The document discusses the parts of a plant and how plants grow from seeds. It notes that roots take in water and nutrients from the soil, stems hold up the plant and move water and nutrients, and leaves use sunlight, air, water and nutrients to make food. Flowers make fruits containing seeds. Seeds are scattered by planting, animals, water and wind and can germinate into seedlings when they have sunlight, air, water and nutrients.
Matter of our surrounding | states of matter | solid | Liquid | Gas| part 1Dentistry World
Matter of our surrounding | states of matter | solid | Liquid | Gas| part 1
States of matters
What is solid?
What is liquid?
What is gases?
Matter of our surrounding | states of matter | solid | Liquid | Gas| part 1
Three states of matter
Here is what I would say to explain the lesson to my friend who was absent:
The lesson today was all about the cell cycle and cell division. We learned about the different phases cells go through as they grow and divide. There is the interphase, where the cell grows and prepares to divide. Interphase has three phases - G1 for growth, S for DNA replication, and G2 for more growth preparation. Then there is the M phase, also called mitosis, which is the actual division phase where the cell splits into two.
Mitosis is further broken down into the phases of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. We discussed what happens in each phase as the chromosomes condense and
Analysis of new curriculum of class 11 biology/Dambar Khatri
The document analyzes and compares the new and old class 11 biology curriculum in Nepal. The new curriculum was revised based on research and suggestions to include more practical and application-based learning. It divides content into competencies, theory, and practical sections for both botany and zoology. While course content remained similar, the new curriculum reorganized some topics, increased practical hours, emphasized projects and field work, and implemented a blended assessment approach including internal and external evaluations. The goal of the revisions was to make the curriculum more conceptual, practical, and skill-based compared to the previous knowledge-based theoretical model.
Forces can be pushes, pulls, or a combination of both. A force is any interaction between two objects that causes a change in motion or shape. There are two main types of forces - contact forces that act when objects touch, and non-contact forces that act over a distance like magnetic or gravitational forces. Pressure is the amount of force applied over a given area, and depends on both the force and the contact area. Applying force over a smaller area results in greater pressure.
The document discusses the classification and parts of plants. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Plants are classified based on whether they are flowering or non-flowering, and whether they live on land or in water.
2) The main parts of a plant are the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Roots anchor the plant and absorb water and nutrients, while stems support the plant and transport water and minerals. Leaves contain chlorophyll and make food for the plant. Not all plants produce flowers or fruits.
3) Questions are provided to help students think about the characteristics and classification of plants, as well as the different parts of a plant and their functions. Diagrams are included to
crop production and management class 8 sciencealisha kaur
There are two types of crops - kharif crops which are sown during the rainy season like rice, corn, and soybeans, and rabi crops which are grown during winter like wheat, peas, and mustard. The basic practices of crop production include preparing soil, sowing seeds, adding manure and fertilizers, irrigating, removing weeds, harvesting, and storing crops. Seeds are sown by hand or using a seed drill for even spacing in rows. Manure provides organic matter to soil while fertilizers are manufactured chemicals that do not provide humus. Water is supplied through irrigation using sources like rivers, wells, and pumps. Weeds are removed through pulling, troweling, or
El documento explica cómo leer la hora en español. Detalla las diferentes formas de expresar la hora, incluyendo "en punto", "y", "menos" y los cuartos, diez y cinco minutos. Proporciona ejemplos como "Es la una en punto" para la 1:00 pm y "Son las dos y media" para las 2:30 pm. También incluye preguntas de práctica para leer la hora correctamente.
Interpretivism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that interprets human behavior and society based on people's beliefs and experiences rather than external factors. Interpretivists believe that people make their own choices rather than being determined by natural laws or scientific explanations. They study culture and people's lives in great detail through qualitative methods like interviews and observation to understand people's interpretations of the world from their own perspectives. This provides data that is high in validity since it represents people's true experiences, but results may not be generalizable to wider populations. Key aspects of interpretivism include understanding social phenomena through Verstehen, or empathy, and producing theory that represents how people view the world rather than external causes.
1. Vad är metod?
och varför ska vi ha det?
tisdag 17 januari 12
2. Metod?
• Systematiskt tillvägagångssätt för att genomföra
en aktivitet av något slag.
• Systemutvecklingsmetod
• Programmeringsmetod
• Designmetod
• Metodik: Läran om metoder och metodbruk.
• I denna kurs pratar vi dock om vetenskaplig
metod.
Per Flensburg 2
tisdag 17 januari 12
3. Vetenskaplig metod?
• Är väl beprövade och erkända procedurer, vilka
används för att få fram en speciell sorts kunskap,
den Vetenskapliga Kunskapen, som utmärks av
stor pålitlighet och allmängiltighet.
• Med andra ord: Vetenskaplig metod och
vetenskaplig kunskap är nära relaterade.
• Men vad är då vetenskap – egentligen?
Per Flensburg 3
tisdag 17 januari 12
4. Vetenskap och Metod
4
Problem
Teori
Teori
Teori
Teori Ämne Domän
1
2 3
Metodologi Metod
5 6
Per Flensburg 4
tisdag 17 januari 12
5. Har man nytta av metod
utanför Vetenskapen?
Teori Resultat Vet. metod
Vetenskap
Problem-
lösning Konsult
Metod Resultat Lösning
Per Flensburg 5
tisdag 17 januari 12
6. Ingredienser i metoder
• Beskrivning av problemet, sett från ett visst
perspektiv
• Generell metodansats (Vetenskapsfilosofi)
• Metod för datainsamling
• Metod för dataanalys
• Metod för att dra slutsatser
• Metod för presentation av resultatet
Per Flensburg 6
tisdag 17 januari 12
7. Vetenskap
Vad 17 är det???
tisdag 17 januari 12
8. Vetenskap –
populärdefinition
• Vetenskapliga teorier är på ett rigoröst sätt härledda ur
erfarenhetsfakta som man uppnått genom
observationer och experiment.
• Vetenskap är baserad på det vi kan se, höra, känna osv.
• Personliga åsikter och spekulationer har ingen plats
inom vetenskapen.
• Vetenskapen är objektiv.
• Vetenskapen är generell.
• Vetenskapen förutsätter observationer utan påverkan
Per Flensburg 8
tisdag 17 januari 12
9. Science
• Betyder ”naturvetenskap” på engelska
• För traditionell naturvetenskap gäller kriterierna
på föregående slide
• Men kvantmekaniken sätter allt på ända
eftersom det grundläggande antagandet:
”observera utan att påverka” (ceteris paribus)
inte längre gäller.
• Detta gäller också om människor och sociala
system studeras
Per Flensburg 9
tisdag 17 januari 12
10. Vetenskapliga förklaringar
• Bygger ofta på orsak-verkan, manifesterade
genom samverkande variabler.
Oberoende variabler
V
Va
ira
r
ba
ia
be
le
l
Ex: Om man röker är
BeroendeVariabel
Variabel Fenomen det airaV
leb stor chans att få
le lungcancer!
l
be
ba
ia
ira
r
Va
V
Per Flensburg 10
tisdag 17 januari 12
11. Variabler?
• Vad är en variabel?
• Det ges av teorin, som beskriver domänen i form
av ett antal koncept.
• Den Vetenskapliga Undersökningens uppgift är:
• Att bevisa teorins giltighet i det studerade
området (hypotesprövning)
• Att utvidga befintlig teori med nya koncept
eller nya områden
Per Flensburg 11
tisdag 17 januari 12
12. Variabelanalys
• Det säger sig själv att det ofta är mkt intrikata
samband mellan dessa variabler.
• Att reducera dem till ett fåtal samband är en
oerhörd förenkling.
• Därför sysslar Vetenskapen mest med det som
kan förenklas på ett enkelt sätt.
• Trivialiteter kallas det för i vardagslivet...
Per Flensburg 12
tisdag 17 januari 12
13. Teorier
• Teorierna innehåller begrepp och samband
mellan begrepp som beskriver eller förklarar
fenomen i vardagslivet.
• En viss vetenskaplig inriktning tar fasta på att
beskriva fenomen i avsikt att förstå dem.
• Förstå behöver inte vara i strikta orsak-verkan
termer och den kan även ändras över tiden.
• Detta kallas hermenuetik.
Per Flensburg 13
tisdag 17 januari 12
14. Objektivitet
• Hur vet vi att det finns en objektiv verklighet,
oberoende av oss? All vår kunskap om
verkligheten kommer ju genom våra
sinnesintryck.
• Och dessa kan vara nog så bedrägliga.
Per Flensburg 14
tisdag 17 januari 12
40. FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT
OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY
COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE
OF YEARS...
How many ”F” are there?
There are six ”F”!
tisdag 17 januari 12
41. Answer as fast as possible
• 1+5
• 2+4
• 3+3
• 4+2
• 5+1
• Say the number six to yourself as many times as possible
in 15 seconds
• Quick: Think of a vegetable!
• You thought of a carrot!
• Or cucumber!
Per Flensburg 41
tisdag 17 januari 12
42. Men varför har man då
vetenskap?
• Istället för “absolut kunskap” så kan man säga
“så generell kunskap som möjligt”
• Eller avgränsa sig till ett bestämt sammanhang
och endast uttala sig om detta.
• Problemet är känt som “relevance vs rigour”
• Den vetenskapliga kunskapen ska hjälpa oss att
bättre förstå (och kontrollera?) vår värld.
• Vi får nya begrepp som beskriver okända sidor.
Per Flensburg 42
tisdag 17 januari 12
43. Vetenskaplig process
• Man observerar verkligheten och finner vissa
regelbundenheter.
• Dessa regelbundenheter namnges och man
studerar deras förhållande till andra kända
fenomen.
• När detta är klarlagt har vår kunskap om
verkligheten ökat något lite.
Per Flensburg 43
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44. Andra karakteristika
• Den vetenskapliga kunskapen är tillgänglig för
alla och kostar ingenting.
• Den vetenskapliga proceduren är öppen och fri
för alla att få insyn i.
• Alla ska kunna kontrollera mina resultat genom
att upprepa min undersökning.
• För att detta ska vara möjligt krävs ett metodiskt
och genomtänkt tillvägagångssätt, dvs. metod!
• Jfr kvalitetssäkring, typ ISO-9000!
Per Flensburg 44
tisdag 17 januari 12
45. Nackdelar med metod
• Vetenskaplig metod är alltså väl beprövade och
erkända tillvägagångssätt.
• Det innebär att nytänkande och kreativitet inte
är möjligt i metodhänseende.
• Det innebär att banbrytande nya upptäckter
aldrig kan göras om man följer metoderna!
• Historien visar också att alla stora upptäckter
har skett när man bröt mot reglerna!
Per Flensburg 45
tisdag 17 januari 12
46. Slutsats
• Vetenskapens frihet och oberoende kräver ett
metodiskt tillvägagångssätt
• Metoden är också en kvalitetssäkring
• Men den garanterar inga stora, genomgripande
upptäckter.
• Faktiskt hindrar den sådana!
• Men att bryta mot reglerna är ingen garanti för
stora upptäckter.
Per Flensburg 46
tisdag 17 januari 12
47. Sanning
Ett viktigt och besvärligt begrepp
tisdag 17 januari 12
48. Sanning
• Finns olika Sanningar:
• Korrekt <=> med verkligheten
överensstämmande, mots. “inkorrekt”
• Sant <=> logisk sanning, mots “falskt”
• Rätt <=> Moralisk sanning, mots. “fel”
• Ofta blandar man hop dem!
Per Flensburg 48
tisdag 17 januari 12
49. Logisk sanning
• Anses vara grundläggande för all Vetenskaplig
Verksamhet.
• Kan ytterst härledas till det som kallas
satslogiken.
• Det innebär dock endast manipulering med
symboler enligt regler i satslogiken.
• Finns dock ingen koppling till verkligheten;
logiken kan inte tillföra oss kunskap om den!
Per Flensburg 49
tisdag 17 januari 12
50. vad blir...
+
Per Flensburg 50
tisdag 17 januari 12
52. Korrekt
• “Det snöar ute just nu” kan vara korrekt.
• “Det ligger snö på marken” är meningslöst på
samiska, eftersom begreppet “snö” inte finns.
• Om solen skiner och jag säger att det är vackert
väder protesterar en person från Somalia. För
dem är det vackert väder när det regnar.
• Korrektheten beror på språket och på
världsbilden (Weltanschauung).
Per Flensburg 52
tisdag 17 januari 12
53. Rätt
• För en nazist är det rätt att döda en jude.
• På vissa ställen är det rätt att döda en dödsdömd
förbrytare.
• Men var det rätt att genomföra den forskningen
som gjorde att man kunde konstruera
atombomben?
• Är det rätt att forska kring meningslösheter?
T.ex. hur man förkortar färgen “blå” i
programkod.
Per Flensburg 53
tisdag 17 januari 12
54. Objektiv sanning
• Finns inom logiken
• Finns inte i verkligheten (möjligen i en liten del
av den)
• Finns inte i moralen
• Fast en del troende hävdar det...
• I samtliga fall (inkl logiken) måste man vara
överens om utgångspunkterna och
förutsättningarna.
Per Flensburg 54
tisdag 17 januari 12
55. Allmängiltig kunskap
• Den vetenskapliga kunskapen ska vara giltig
överallt och alltid.
• Det gör att den blir väldigt urvattnad...
Per Flensburg 55
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56. Samhälls-
vetenskap
Med en rejäl dos vetenskapsfilosofi
tisdag 17 januari 12
57. Samhällsvetenskap
• Vetenskapens roll i samhället är att förstå och
förklara sociala fenomen, att fokusera speciella
problemställningar och att utmana
konventionella uppfattningar om den sociala och
den fysiska världen.
• Forskningspraktiken visar att det finns olika
perspektiv på ett och samma fenomen och
alternativa metoder för att samla in information
och analysera data.
Per Flensburg 57
tisdag 17 januari 12
58. Olika metodologier
• Objektivism • Subjektivism
”Metodteori”
• Positivism • Idealism
• Empirism • Feminism
• Realism
Problem
Teori
Teori
Teori
Teori Ämne Domän
Metodologi Metod
tisdag 17 januari 12
59. Objektivism
• Objektivitet innebär saklighet och opartiskhet.
• Objektivitet underbygger, tillbakavisar,
strukturerar eller genererar våra teorier
• Den producerar resultat som kan utmana inte
bara våra uppfattningar utan också de som rent
generellt gäller i samhället.
Per Flensburg 59
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60. Objektivism (forts.)
• Det är ett vanligt antagande att om våra
värderingar inte blandar sig i vår forskning, så är
den objektiv och höjd över varje form av kritik.
• Den grundläggande övertygelsen är att det
måste finnas vissa permanenta, ahistoriska källor
eller strukturer som vi ytterst kan falla tillbaka
på när det gäller att bestämma innebörden av
rationalitet, kunskap, sanning, verklighet, det
goda eller det rätta.
Per Flensburg 60
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61. Positivism
• Positivism är en anti-metafysisk kunskapsteori.
• Den definierar vår natur eller existens.
• Enligt denna målsättning kan vi generalisera
utifrån våra observationer av sociala fenomenen
och formulera påståenden som är giltiga för
beteendet hos populationen som helhet.
• Utifrån sin modell förklarar positivismen
mänskligt beteende i termer av orsak och verkan.
Per Flensburg 61
tisdag 17 januari 12
62. Empirism 1
• Positivismen har samma uppfattningen som
empirismen i den meningen att båda
riktningarna anser att det finns ”fakta” som vi
kan samla in från den sociala världen oberoende
av hur människorna själva tolkar dem.
• Som forskare behöver vi bara förfina våra
redskap för datainsamlingen så att de blir
neutrala registreringsinstrument.
Per Flensburg 62
tisdag 17 januari 12
63. Empirism 2
• Den fundamentala skillnaden mellan empirism
och positivism ligger på det teoretiska planet.
• Inom positivismen är data ”teori-styrande”: data
ska utgöra ett test av teorins giltighet.
• Empirismen saknar den teorin som styr
insamlingen av data.
Per Flensburg 63
tisdag 17 januari 12
64. Empirism 3
• Empirism refererar till en uppfattning om
samhällsforskningen där betoningen ligger på
produktion av korrekta data – noggrant
bestämda, exakta och generaliserbara – och där
data i sig utgör målet med forskningen. Denna
syn sammanfattas i slagordet ”fakta talar för sig
själva”.
Per Flensburg 64
tisdag 17 januari 12
65. Empirism 4
• Man antar att det finns en värld där ute som vi
kan registrera och analysera oberoende av
människors tolkningar av den.
• Man arbetar utifrån den så kallade
”korrespondensteorin om sanning”, som innebär
att en uppfattning eller ett påstående är sant om
det finns ett yttre faktum som korresponderar
mot det.
Per Flensburg 65
tisdag 17 januari 12
66. Realism 1
• Den realistiska traditionen delar positivismens
syn att vetenskapens mål handlar om att hitta
förklaringar, men där slutar också likheterna.
• En realist ansluter sig till existensen av vissa
oomstridda kategorier som materiella objekt,
universalia, kausala lagar, antal, sannolikheter,
rationella skäl, sociala strukturer och moraliska
fakta.
Per Flensburg 66
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67. Realism 2
• De underliggande strukturella mekanismerna
bestämmer vad vi kan se och observera.
• Forskarens uppgift är att blottlägga de sociala
relationernas struktur för att förstå varför vi har
de institutioner och handlingsmönster som vi
har.
• Ex: Talcott Parsons strukturalism inom
sociologin
Per Flensburg 67
tisdag 17 januari 12
68. Realism 3
• Uppgiften för samhällsforskaren är
• att samla in fakta om den sociala världen
• förklara dessa fakta utifrån de bakomliggande
mekanismer, som strukturerar människors
handlingar och hindrar deras val från att
förverkligas
• Ex: skolans funktion under kapitalismen blir
att reproducera arbetskraften.
Per Flensburg 68
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69. Subjektivism 1
• Vi kan endast få kunskap om världen genom
subjektiva upplevelser
• Genom dessa tillskriver vi omgivningen en
mening
• En subjektivist studerar inte omgivningen i sig,
endast den personliga tolkningen av densamma.
Per Flensburg 69
tisdag 17 januari 12
70. Subjektivism 2
• Vi kan som forskare inte – som positivismen
påstår – nå kunskap om människornas
omgivning oberoende av deras tolkningar
• Det enda vi med säkerhet kan veta är hur
människor tolkar världen omkring sig.
• Som forskare är vårt intresse fokuserat på deras
förståelse och tolkning av sin sociala miljö.
• Men hur kommuniceras den???
Per Flensburg 70
tisdag 17 januari 12
71. Idealism 1
• Idealismen betonar hur vi som människor själva
skapar den sociala världen genom våra idéer och att
vi inte bara en produkt av den.
• Den hävdar att våra handlingar styrs av de regler vi
använder oss av för att tolka världen.
• Eftersom naturvetenskaperna studerar objekt som
saknar ”medvetande”, menar man inom denna
tradition att man inte kan använda
naturvetenskapliga metoder för att studera socialt liv.
Per Flensburg 71
tisdag 17 januari 12
72. Idealism 2
• Det går inte att tala om orsak och verkan när
man undersöker människors sociala liv, eftersom
människan som varelse - till skillnad från
molekyler – reflekterar, tolkar och handlar i sin
miljö.
Per Flensburg 72
tisdag 17 januari 12
75. Från filosofi till metod
Förstå-Orsak/
Subjektiv-Objektiv Världsbild Verkan
Metodansats Forskningsansats
Forskningsansats
Metodansats
Metodologier Forskningsansats
Forskningsansats
Forskningsansats
Hur gör vi? Vad gör vi?
(-ismerna)
Per Flensburg 75
tisdag 17 januari 12
76. Forsknings- Pertti Järvinens modell
ansats
Studium av Matematiska
verkligheten
studier
Vad är Studium av
verklig- artefakter
heten?
Konceptuell- Empiriska
analytiska studier Bygga en Evaluera en
studier artefakt artefakt
Teori- Teori-
prövning skapande
75%
tisdag 17 januari 12