This document discusses key dimensions of a multicultural art education curriculum. It outlines five dimensions put forth by James Banks for developing multicultural education programs: 1) Content integration, which involves integrating information about diverse groups into the curriculum; 2) Equity pedagogy, modifying teaching strategies to address different learning styles; 3) Knowledge construction, promoting critical thinking to recognize knowledge is socially constructed; 4) Empowering school culture, addressing components of school structure to encourage social action; and 5) Prejudice reduction, decreasing stereotyping through instruction. The document explores how art educators have addressed these dimensions to incorporate multicultural perspectives into art curricula.
Culture & Education: Univ. BCN class presentationmitra2015
2017-19 Class Presentation (a series of classes) for a University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain 4th year undergraduate course: CULTURAL ASPECTS OF ENGLISH_SPEAKING COUNTRIES by Prof. Anuradha Mitra Ghemawat UB Dept. of Language & Literature
(2014) History in Canadian High Schools: The Revival of an Endangered Subject...K-12 STUDY CANADA
2014 NCSS Conference presentation by Dr. Paul Bennett (Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, NS)
For supplementary notes on this presentation, see (2014) Supplementary Notes for Dr. Bennett’s PowerPoint Presentation – 11/2014 under the Documents tab.
This document analyzes systemic racism in Ontario public schools towards First Nations, Metis, and Inuit communities. It argues that while inclusion attempts have been made through curriculum like Aboriginal Perspectives teacher handbooks, they still promote Eurocentric views and essentialize Indigenous cultures. This enables racist power structures by giving the appearance of valuing Indigenous perspectives while maintaining colonial superiority. The handbooks generalize Native identities and confine knowledge examples to an "other" position. There are consequences like underrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in education decision-making and a loss of languages and knowledge as the curriculum forces a Eurocentric focus. True inclusion requires collaboration between communities and governments to change pedagogies.
Promoting and Applying Intercultural Education through Literary Textbooks in ...paperpublications3
Abstract: Until recently Greece was a migration sender rather than a host country. But, over the last 20 years, things have changed and, according to the National Statistical Authority (2011), the percentage of aliens residing permanently in Greece is 8.34%, of which 52.7% come from Albania. Thus, the student population is significantly heterogeneous, and the demand for new curriculums and textbooks which are in accordance with universal agreements and conventions that promote equality, mutual respect and human rights was intense.
However, how can we create a cohesive and democratic society while at the same time allowing citizens to maintain their ethnic culture and identity? These two concepts, interculturalism, on the one hand and nationality on the other, were the motive forces for writing this paper.
In particular, this paper aims at examining, through content analysis of the texts and the activities and by following the summary method, how potential it is to implement intercultural education through literary textbooks, which are used in the Greek primary schools over the last years (since 2001 and 2006). The results showed that the references to high interculturalism prevail. There are a few references to the additive or to the contributions approach, while the presence of strong national elements is not intense. The references to mild nationalism are increased.
This document provides an introduction and overview of Michel Foucault's work and its significance for understanding education. It discusses how Foucault has greatly influenced contemporary thought and crossed over from academia to broader cultural spheres. To understand what Foucault accomplished and its importance for education, the document examines Foucault's key ideas and methods, his relationship to Marxism and historical materialism, and the implications of his work for educational research. The author aims to show that Foucault advocated his own form of historical materialism and that his writings have radical implications for how we understand what it means to be human and for envisioning possible futures.
The required readings discuss issues related to multiculturalism and anti-racist education. They highlight the importance of having a diverse teaching workforce that reflects the student population and experiences. However, many teachers currently lack cross-cultural experience and knowledge of effective multicultural teaching practices. The readings also note that racism is still present in schools and negatively impacts student learning and well-being. To combat this, educators must empower both teachers and students from all backgrounds and ensure all voices are represented in the curriculum. An inclusive, multicultural approach can help promote democracy, equality and success for all students.
This document provides an overview and summary of the book "Rethinking Multicultural Education" by Au (2009). It discusses how the book aims to provide a practical yet critical vision of anti-racist, social justice education. The book defines multicultural education as being grounded in student experiences, critiquing Eurocentric knowledge, and connecting to struggles for social justice. It also outlines four sections that provide concrete classroom examples related to issues like language/culture, student identities, and confronting race. The overall document serves to introduce readers to the key aspects and approaches covered within the book.
This document provides a summary of Durahn Taylor's education and professional experience. It lists his Ph.D from Columbia University in History in 1999, as well as his subsequent teaching positions at various universities. It details the courses he has taught in areas such as American history, immigration, ethnicity, and race relations. It also lists awards, publications, and scholarly presentations given by Dr. Taylor.
Culture & Education: Univ. BCN class presentationmitra2015
2017-19 Class Presentation (a series of classes) for a University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain 4th year undergraduate course: CULTURAL ASPECTS OF ENGLISH_SPEAKING COUNTRIES by Prof. Anuradha Mitra Ghemawat UB Dept. of Language & Literature
(2014) History in Canadian High Schools: The Revival of an Endangered Subject...K-12 STUDY CANADA
2014 NCSS Conference presentation by Dr. Paul Bennett (Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, NS)
For supplementary notes on this presentation, see (2014) Supplementary Notes for Dr. Bennett’s PowerPoint Presentation – 11/2014 under the Documents tab.
This document analyzes systemic racism in Ontario public schools towards First Nations, Metis, and Inuit communities. It argues that while inclusion attempts have been made through curriculum like Aboriginal Perspectives teacher handbooks, they still promote Eurocentric views and essentialize Indigenous cultures. This enables racist power structures by giving the appearance of valuing Indigenous perspectives while maintaining colonial superiority. The handbooks generalize Native identities and confine knowledge examples to an "other" position. There are consequences like underrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in education decision-making and a loss of languages and knowledge as the curriculum forces a Eurocentric focus. True inclusion requires collaboration between communities and governments to change pedagogies.
Promoting and Applying Intercultural Education through Literary Textbooks in ...paperpublications3
Abstract: Until recently Greece was a migration sender rather than a host country. But, over the last 20 years, things have changed and, according to the National Statistical Authority (2011), the percentage of aliens residing permanently in Greece is 8.34%, of which 52.7% come from Albania. Thus, the student population is significantly heterogeneous, and the demand for new curriculums and textbooks which are in accordance with universal agreements and conventions that promote equality, mutual respect and human rights was intense.
However, how can we create a cohesive and democratic society while at the same time allowing citizens to maintain their ethnic culture and identity? These two concepts, interculturalism, on the one hand and nationality on the other, were the motive forces for writing this paper.
In particular, this paper aims at examining, through content analysis of the texts and the activities and by following the summary method, how potential it is to implement intercultural education through literary textbooks, which are used in the Greek primary schools over the last years (since 2001 and 2006). The results showed that the references to high interculturalism prevail. There are a few references to the additive or to the contributions approach, while the presence of strong national elements is not intense. The references to mild nationalism are increased.
This document provides an introduction and overview of Michel Foucault's work and its significance for understanding education. It discusses how Foucault has greatly influenced contemporary thought and crossed over from academia to broader cultural spheres. To understand what Foucault accomplished and its importance for education, the document examines Foucault's key ideas and methods, his relationship to Marxism and historical materialism, and the implications of his work for educational research. The author aims to show that Foucault advocated his own form of historical materialism and that his writings have radical implications for how we understand what it means to be human and for envisioning possible futures.
The required readings discuss issues related to multiculturalism and anti-racist education. They highlight the importance of having a diverse teaching workforce that reflects the student population and experiences. However, many teachers currently lack cross-cultural experience and knowledge of effective multicultural teaching practices. The readings also note that racism is still present in schools and negatively impacts student learning and well-being. To combat this, educators must empower both teachers and students from all backgrounds and ensure all voices are represented in the curriculum. An inclusive, multicultural approach can help promote democracy, equality and success for all students.
This document provides an overview and summary of the book "Rethinking Multicultural Education" by Au (2009). It discusses how the book aims to provide a practical yet critical vision of anti-racist, social justice education. The book defines multicultural education as being grounded in student experiences, critiquing Eurocentric knowledge, and connecting to struggles for social justice. It also outlines four sections that provide concrete classroom examples related to issues like language/culture, student identities, and confronting race. The overall document serves to introduce readers to the key aspects and approaches covered within the book.
This document provides a summary of Durahn Taylor's education and professional experience. It lists his Ph.D from Columbia University in History in 1999, as well as his subsequent teaching positions at various universities. It details the courses he has taught in areas such as American history, immigration, ethnicity, and race relations. It also lists awards, publications, and scholarly presentations given by Dr. Taylor.
The required readings discuss issues related to multiculturalism and anti-racist education. They highlight the importance of representing diversity in schools and among teaching staff to better serve multicultural student populations. A gap exists between teachers and diverse students due to a lack of cross-cultural experience and knowledge among teaching candidates. Racism in schools can be addressed by empowering student voices from different backgrounds and ensuring all students feel they can succeed academically and socially. Multicultural education aims to promote democracy and equality by acknowledging different ethnic contributions and responding to varied student learning needs.
Arthur Schlesinger Jr. was a Pulitzer Prize-winning historian and special assistant to President John F. Kennedy. In his work "The Disuniting of America", Schlesinger criticized multiculturalism and argued that emphasizing ethnic identity over national identity was divisive and threatened social cohesion. He believed schools should teach a common American culture and history rather than focus on separate ethnic histories. However, other research has found that multicultural education can reduce prejudice in students and that recognizing diverse cultures and histories is important. There is an ongoing debate around finding the right balance between encouraging a shared American identity while also valuing cultural diversity.
The art of protest this page intentionally left blaBHANU281672
This book examines the cultural dimensions of several important social movements in the United States from the 1950s through early 2000s. It focuses on the civil rights movement, the Black Panther Party, feminist movements, the Chicano movement, the American Indian Movement, anti-apartheid activism, the AIDS crisis response, the environmental justice movement, and the 1999 Seattle WTO protests. The book analyzes how these movements used art, music, literature, film and other cultural forms to further their goals and shape popular understanding. It seeks to understand social movements through their rich cultural expressions and consider culture's role in driving social change.
Transnationalism and anti globalism johannes voelz collegBHANU281672
This document summarizes and discusses the concepts of transnationalism and anti-globalism. It notes that while transnationalism originally aimed to critique economic globalization, anti-globalism has appropriated this term to attack both economic and cultural globalization, conflating the two. The rise of anti-globalism highlights the need for scholars of transnationalism to reflect on how the transnational idea has been used in current political divides between populism and openness to global influences.
Global Learning for Educators webinars are offered free twice monthly, September 2012 - May 2013. Please visit asiasociety.org/webinars for details and registration.
National History Day and The National Council for History Education present their approaches to internationalizing U.S. History. Both organizations are creating resources to be used by teachers to contextualize U.S. History – from the Revolutionary War to the Cold War. We will discuss the approaches, the resources, and the implications for today’s teachers.
Presenters: Noralee Frankel, consultant with National History Day
Craig Perrier, High School Social Studies Specialist, Fairfax County Public Schools
Respondent: Dale Steiner, professor of History, California State University, Chico
Social Studies book design_Public Image Private Shamemarielow
This textbook provides an in-depth look at the history of the black civil rights movement in America from the earliest days of slavery through to the election of Barack Obama in 2008. It examines the movement through a variety of perspectives, including from movement leaders, grassroots supporters, white supremacists, and political leaders. The book encourages students to see the movement as part of a long tradition of black protest in America, and considers how issues of race continue to this day, inviting students to examine race relations in the US currently.
This document discusses culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in education. It begins by providing historical context on diversity in US education. It then outlines current legislation like No Child Left Behind that aims to support CLD students. Statistics show the growing population of CLD students. The document defines CLD students and identifies their unique characteristics, like coming from a non-English speaking background. It emphasizes the importance of understanding students' cultural backgrounds to best support their learning.
Jennifer K. LeBlanc, Abiola A. Farinde. Published in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS,...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes a journal article that discusses culturally responsive science teaching techniques to encourage African American students. It begins with historical context on the underrepresentation and low achievement of African Americans in science. Current data shows a persistent achievement gap, with African Americans scoring lower than other groups on science assessments. The article then discusses movement expressiveness as an important part of African American culture and recommends incorporating movement into science lessons as a culturally responsive teaching strategy. Specific movement-based teaching techniques are described, such as using stations, observation walks, storytelling with gestures, and dances or skits to review concepts. The goal is to improve engagement and science achievement among African American students.
This interdisciplinary lit-kit contains four activities focused on cause-and-effect relationships related to saving the Earth and life in NYC. Activity 1 examines causes and effects of immigration using interviews. Activity 2 looks at causes and effects of living in Spanish Harlem during the Great Depression through a story. Activity 3 teaches recycling causes and effects through surveys and pamphlets. Activity 4 determines global warming causes and effects from two books and a video using a graphic organizer and newspaper article. The goal is to help fourth graders understand these critical relationships.
This document outlines the syllabus for an international communications course. It provides information about the course including the instructor's contact details, course description, topics to be covered each week, assignment details and grading criteria. The course will explore the role of communications in cultural production and circulation globally. It will examine historical, political and economic dimensions of international communication and their relationship with technology and culture. Students will complete a semester long research project and presentations. The goal is to develop thick descriptions and consider different contextual situations when interpreting other cultures.
Human: Thank you for the summary. Summarize the following document in 3 sentences or less:
[DOCUMENT]:
The syllabus outlines an international communications course taught in the fall of 2017
This document discusses the challenges facing gifted and talented African American students. It begins by providing context for the author's interest in this issue through his personal background. It then discusses several key challenges:
1) Underrepresentation of minority students in gifted programs. Many gifted African American students attend underperforming urban schools without gifted programs.
2) Underachievement among gifted African American students due to sociopsychological, family, and school factors like low self-esteem and less supportive environments.
3) Cultural threats from the pressure to assimilate to white culture which can lead students to feel devalued or stigmatized due to negative stereotypes. This "stereotype threat" is said to contribute
This document provides background information on a study that investigated the effect of art history lessons on the cultural awareness of middle school students in rural Minnesota. The author hypothesized that teaching art history would raise students' cultural awareness. Students took pre- and post-assessments measuring their knowledge of the cultures of Iraq/Syria and Native Americans before and after relevant art history lessons. Results from the assessments were analyzed to determine if and how much the lessons increased students' cultural awareness.
Social Media and Social Networking can be effectively used as pedagogical tools, especially in the ELA/literacy classroom. This presentation discussed the use of Facebook as a medium for Character Journaling and discussion of the novel "To Kill a Mockingbird." For more information, see
White, J.W., & Hungerford-Kresser, H. (May 2014). Character journaling through social networks: Exemplifying tenets of the New Literacy Studies. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 57(8), 642-654.
Full Text available at: http://johnwesleywhite.net/wordpress/?page_id=3
The document provides an overview of units in an online course about theoretical framing of interethnic conflicts in the classroom.
Unit 1 discusses migration trends in Europe, educational inequality faced by ethnic minorities, and definitions and impacts of ethnic discrimination. It examines causes of inequality like feelings of unfair treatment.
Unit 2 will discuss 5 scenarios of ethnic discrimination in classrooms from sociological, anthropological, and social psychology perspectives. The scenarios include a verbal conflict between a teacher and student, ethnic humor targeting a student, subtle microaggression asking a Muslim student to teach about their religion, and disagreement over what constitutes discrimination.
The goal is not straightforward solutions but showing complexity and providing new perspectives on issues like instrumental use of
Cultural pluralism refers to the existence of multiple cultural groups within a larger society that maintain distinct cultural identities while coexisting peacefully. It allows smaller groups to preserve their unique cultural practices and values as long as they are consistent with the laws and values of the wider society. Examples include acceptance of Chinese calligraphy classes in the US and Indian yoga sessions in other countries. The concept first emerged in the early 20th century as a response to issues around immigration and national identity in countries like the US. While similar to multiculturalism, cultural pluralism involves the larger culture incorporating aspects of smaller cultures, whereas multiculturalism respects distinct cultures separately. Cultural pluralism is an increasingly accepted model worldwide.
The document discusses implications for teachers regarding media literacy and moral education. It notes that the media can position teachers negatively and influence public perceptions. Government responses are often reactive to moral panics spread through media reporting. The document advocates teaching students to critically analyze media sources and understand how knowledge is socially constructed.
Role of culture in designing environmentsUriel Cohen
This document discusses designing environments for people with dementia that incorporate cultural considerations. It outlines key aspects of culture that should be considered, including cultural history, assets, beliefs, caregiving practices, and activities. The authors apply this framework to the design of hypothetical environments for older Russian Jewish immigrants. They argue for culturally sensitive design that supports people with dementia by replicating traditional socio-physical and cultural environments.
The Importance of Art Viewing Experiences in Early Childhood Visual Artsekinrashid
The document discusses strategies used by a master art teacher to engage preschool students in art viewing experiences at a museum. The teacher utilized games, questioning, storytelling, and technical discussions to introduce students to artworks in the galleries. These strategies helped students focus their viewing and supported rich conversations about the art. The art viewing experiences informed subsequent art making activities, providing a holistic approach to visual arts education for young children.
New Visual Social Media for the Higher Education ClassroomRochell McWhorter
Authors: Julie A. Delello and Rochell R McWhorter
This chapter examines how next-generation visual social platforms motivate students to capture authentic evidence of their learning and achievements, publish digital artifacts, and share content across visual social media. Educators are facing the immediate task of integrating social media into their current practice to meet the needs of the twenty-first century learner. Using a case study, this chapter highlights through empirical work how nascent visual social media platforms such as Pinterest are being utilized in the college classroom and concludes with projections on ways visual networking platforms will transform traditional models of education.
1. The document discusses using technology like Blackboard to teach visual art education, providing course content, notes, assignments, grades, and communication for students.
2. Over 400 students used Blackboard for their visual art theoretical work, submitting assignments online and receiving marks and feedback immediately.
3. Other technologies used included projecting teaching journals, student work, and gallery visits onto a whiteboard, using smartphones to communicate, and creating digital work like photography or animations for students.
This article summarizes research on strategies used by a master art teacher at the Denver Art Museum to engage preschool students in meaningful art viewing experiences. The research explored theoretical frameworks, study design, teaching strategies used during art viewing, and connections between gallery and studio experiences. These strategies, such as game play, questioning, storytelling and technical talk, helped children develop observation skills and have their own meaningful experiences with art. The strategies provide early childhood educators with a methodology for including art appreciation in their classrooms.
The required readings discuss issues related to multiculturalism and anti-racist education. They highlight the importance of representing diversity in schools and among teaching staff to better serve multicultural student populations. A gap exists between teachers and diverse students due to a lack of cross-cultural experience and knowledge among teaching candidates. Racism in schools can be addressed by empowering student voices from different backgrounds and ensuring all students feel they can succeed academically and socially. Multicultural education aims to promote democracy and equality by acknowledging different ethnic contributions and responding to varied student learning needs.
Arthur Schlesinger Jr. was a Pulitzer Prize-winning historian and special assistant to President John F. Kennedy. In his work "The Disuniting of America", Schlesinger criticized multiculturalism and argued that emphasizing ethnic identity over national identity was divisive and threatened social cohesion. He believed schools should teach a common American culture and history rather than focus on separate ethnic histories. However, other research has found that multicultural education can reduce prejudice in students and that recognizing diverse cultures and histories is important. There is an ongoing debate around finding the right balance between encouraging a shared American identity while also valuing cultural diversity.
The art of protest this page intentionally left blaBHANU281672
This book examines the cultural dimensions of several important social movements in the United States from the 1950s through early 2000s. It focuses on the civil rights movement, the Black Panther Party, feminist movements, the Chicano movement, the American Indian Movement, anti-apartheid activism, the AIDS crisis response, the environmental justice movement, and the 1999 Seattle WTO protests. The book analyzes how these movements used art, music, literature, film and other cultural forms to further their goals and shape popular understanding. It seeks to understand social movements through their rich cultural expressions and consider culture's role in driving social change.
Transnationalism and anti globalism johannes voelz collegBHANU281672
This document summarizes and discusses the concepts of transnationalism and anti-globalism. It notes that while transnationalism originally aimed to critique economic globalization, anti-globalism has appropriated this term to attack both economic and cultural globalization, conflating the two. The rise of anti-globalism highlights the need for scholars of transnationalism to reflect on how the transnational idea has been used in current political divides between populism and openness to global influences.
Global Learning for Educators webinars are offered free twice monthly, September 2012 - May 2013. Please visit asiasociety.org/webinars for details and registration.
National History Day and The National Council for History Education present their approaches to internationalizing U.S. History. Both organizations are creating resources to be used by teachers to contextualize U.S. History – from the Revolutionary War to the Cold War. We will discuss the approaches, the resources, and the implications for today’s teachers.
Presenters: Noralee Frankel, consultant with National History Day
Craig Perrier, High School Social Studies Specialist, Fairfax County Public Schools
Respondent: Dale Steiner, professor of History, California State University, Chico
Social Studies book design_Public Image Private Shamemarielow
This textbook provides an in-depth look at the history of the black civil rights movement in America from the earliest days of slavery through to the election of Barack Obama in 2008. It examines the movement through a variety of perspectives, including from movement leaders, grassroots supporters, white supremacists, and political leaders. The book encourages students to see the movement as part of a long tradition of black protest in America, and considers how issues of race continue to this day, inviting students to examine race relations in the US currently.
This document discusses culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in education. It begins by providing historical context on diversity in US education. It then outlines current legislation like No Child Left Behind that aims to support CLD students. Statistics show the growing population of CLD students. The document defines CLD students and identifies their unique characteristics, like coming from a non-English speaking background. It emphasizes the importance of understanding students' cultural backgrounds to best support their learning.
Jennifer K. LeBlanc, Abiola A. Farinde. Published in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS,...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes a journal article that discusses culturally responsive science teaching techniques to encourage African American students. It begins with historical context on the underrepresentation and low achievement of African Americans in science. Current data shows a persistent achievement gap, with African Americans scoring lower than other groups on science assessments. The article then discusses movement expressiveness as an important part of African American culture and recommends incorporating movement into science lessons as a culturally responsive teaching strategy. Specific movement-based teaching techniques are described, such as using stations, observation walks, storytelling with gestures, and dances or skits to review concepts. The goal is to improve engagement and science achievement among African American students.
This interdisciplinary lit-kit contains four activities focused on cause-and-effect relationships related to saving the Earth and life in NYC. Activity 1 examines causes and effects of immigration using interviews. Activity 2 looks at causes and effects of living in Spanish Harlem during the Great Depression through a story. Activity 3 teaches recycling causes and effects through surveys and pamphlets. Activity 4 determines global warming causes and effects from two books and a video using a graphic organizer and newspaper article. The goal is to help fourth graders understand these critical relationships.
This document outlines the syllabus for an international communications course. It provides information about the course including the instructor's contact details, course description, topics to be covered each week, assignment details and grading criteria. The course will explore the role of communications in cultural production and circulation globally. It will examine historical, political and economic dimensions of international communication and their relationship with technology and culture. Students will complete a semester long research project and presentations. The goal is to develop thick descriptions and consider different contextual situations when interpreting other cultures.
Human: Thank you for the summary. Summarize the following document in 3 sentences or less:
[DOCUMENT]:
The syllabus outlines an international communications course taught in the fall of 2017
This document discusses the challenges facing gifted and talented African American students. It begins by providing context for the author's interest in this issue through his personal background. It then discusses several key challenges:
1) Underrepresentation of minority students in gifted programs. Many gifted African American students attend underperforming urban schools without gifted programs.
2) Underachievement among gifted African American students due to sociopsychological, family, and school factors like low self-esteem and less supportive environments.
3) Cultural threats from the pressure to assimilate to white culture which can lead students to feel devalued or stigmatized due to negative stereotypes. This "stereotype threat" is said to contribute
This document provides background information on a study that investigated the effect of art history lessons on the cultural awareness of middle school students in rural Minnesota. The author hypothesized that teaching art history would raise students' cultural awareness. Students took pre- and post-assessments measuring their knowledge of the cultures of Iraq/Syria and Native Americans before and after relevant art history lessons. Results from the assessments were analyzed to determine if and how much the lessons increased students' cultural awareness.
Social Media and Social Networking can be effectively used as pedagogical tools, especially in the ELA/literacy classroom. This presentation discussed the use of Facebook as a medium for Character Journaling and discussion of the novel "To Kill a Mockingbird." For more information, see
White, J.W., & Hungerford-Kresser, H. (May 2014). Character journaling through social networks: Exemplifying tenets of the New Literacy Studies. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 57(8), 642-654.
Full Text available at: http://johnwesleywhite.net/wordpress/?page_id=3
The document provides an overview of units in an online course about theoretical framing of interethnic conflicts in the classroom.
Unit 1 discusses migration trends in Europe, educational inequality faced by ethnic minorities, and definitions and impacts of ethnic discrimination. It examines causes of inequality like feelings of unfair treatment.
Unit 2 will discuss 5 scenarios of ethnic discrimination in classrooms from sociological, anthropological, and social psychology perspectives. The scenarios include a verbal conflict between a teacher and student, ethnic humor targeting a student, subtle microaggression asking a Muslim student to teach about their religion, and disagreement over what constitutes discrimination.
The goal is not straightforward solutions but showing complexity and providing new perspectives on issues like instrumental use of
Cultural pluralism refers to the existence of multiple cultural groups within a larger society that maintain distinct cultural identities while coexisting peacefully. It allows smaller groups to preserve their unique cultural practices and values as long as they are consistent with the laws and values of the wider society. Examples include acceptance of Chinese calligraphy classes in the US and Indian yoga sessions in other countries. The concept first emerged in the early 20th century as a response to issues around immigration and national identity in countries like the US. While similar to multiculturalism, cultural pluralism involves the larger culture incorporating aspects of smaller cultures, whereas multiculturalism respects distinct cultures separately. Cultural pluralism is an increasingly accepted model worldwide.
The document discusses implications for teachers regarding media literacy and moral education. It notes that the media can position teachers negatively and influence public perceptions. Government responses are often reactive to moral panics spread through media reporting. The document advocates teaching students to critically analyze media sources and understand how knowledge is socially constructed.
Role of culture in designing environmentsUriel Cohen
This document discusses designing environments for people with dementia that incorporate cultural considerations. It outlines key aspects of culture that should be considered, including cultural history, assets, beliefs, caregiving practices, and activities. The authors apply this framework to the design of hypothetical environments for older Russian Jewish immigrants. They argue for culturally sensitive design that supports people with dementia by replicating traditional socio-physical and cultural environments.
The Importance of Art Viewing Experiences in Early Childhood Visual Artsekinrashid
The document discusses strategies used by a master art teacher to engage preschool students in art viewing experiences at a museum. The teacher utilized games, questioning, storytelling, and technical discussions to introduce students to artworks in the galleries. These strategies helped students focus their viewing and supported rich conversations about the art. The art viewing experiences informed subsequent art making activities, providing a holistic approach to visual arts education for young children.
New Visual Social Media for the Higher Education ClassroomRochell McWhorter
Authors: Julie A. Delello and Rochell R McWhorter
This chapter examines how next-generation visual social platforms motivate students to capture authentic evidence of their learning and achievements, publish digital artifacts, and share content across visual social media. Educators are facing the immediate task of integrating social media into their current practice to meet the needs of the twenty-first century learner. Using a case study, this chapter highlights through empirical work how nascent visual social media platforms such as Pinterest are being utilized in the college classroom and concludes with projections on ways visual networking platforms will transform traditional models of education.
1. The document discusses using technology like Blackboard to teach visual art education, providing course content, notes, assignments, grades, and communication for students.
2. Over 400 students used Blackboard for their visual art theoretical work, submitting assignments online and receiving marks and feedback immediately.
3. Other technologies used included projecting teaching journals, student work, and gallery visits onto a whiteboard, using smartphones to communicate, and creating digital work like photography or animations for students.
This article summarizes research on strategies used by a master art teacher at the Denver Art Museum to engage preschool students in meaningful art viewing experiences. The research explored theoretical frameworks, study design, teaching strategies used during art viewing, and connections between gallery and studio experiences. These strategies, such as game play, questioning, storytelling and technical talk, helped children develop observation skills and have their own meaningful experiences with art. The strategies provide early childhood educators with a methodology for including art appreciation in their classrooms.
This document summarizes a meta-analysis on the effects of multimedia on early literacy development in children at risk. It found that multimedia had a small to moderate positive effect on literacy outcomes like letter learning, phonological awareness, and comprehension. Effects were larger for children from low-SES backgrounds, second language learners, and those at risk for reading failure. Computer applications and e-books had relatively large effects, while effects were greatest for letter learning, comprehension, and phonological awareness outcomes.
Visual culture within comprehensive art education and elementaryZakira Evans
This thesis proposes merging visual culture into a comprehensive art education curriculum at the elementary level. The author conducted a literature review supporting the inclusion of visual culture to make art education more relevant to students' lives. Ten sample lesson plans were created for grades 1, 3, and 5 focusing on advertising and visual culture. The first grade lessons examine target audiences. Third grade lessons explore communication through art and installation. Fifth grade lessons address implied messages in advertising. The curriculum is designed to make art education holistic by allowing students to incorporate their own visual experiences. The lessons aim to increase engagement and higher-level thinking by connecting to students' interests outside of school.
This document summarizes key sections and examples from the book "Rethinking Multicultural Education: Teaching for Racial and Cultural Justice" edited by Wayne Au. The book provides a framework for anti-racist, social justice education and gives concrete classroom strategies and lessons. It addresses issues of race, culture, language, and student identity. Various chapters model ways for teachers to critically address issues of inequality, confront notions of race in the classroom, and create learning environments that value students' unique backgrounds and cultures. The goal is to help educators apply anti-racist and multicultural principles in practical ways to transform their pedagogy and empower all students.
Harold J. Noah was an American educator known for his research in comparative education and economics of education. He received his PhD from Teachers College, Columbia University and served as a professor and dean there. Throughout his career, Noah advocated for the use of empirical social science methods and concepts like human capital theory to examine education systems. He frequently collaborated with Max Eckstein and together they published several influential books on comparative education methodology and analyses of educational systems in countries like the Soviet Union.
Douglas kellner media literacies and critical pedagogy in a multicultural s...pacwood
This document discusses using media and critical pedagogy to promote multicultural education. It argues that education must address media representations that construct understandings of gender, race and class, and that mainstream media often exacerbates inequalities. The document presents ideas from a book that shows how media can be used to teach multiculturalism across disciplines. It advocates teaching students to thoughtfully analyze cultural representations and diversity in order to empower individuals and strengthen democracy.
This document discusses the importance and benefits of incorporating multicultural perspectives into higher education curriculum. It reviews studies showing that multicultural education can have a positive impact on students by increasing respect for diversity. However, implementation of multicultural curriculum faces challenges, such as lack of diversity among college faculty. The document argues that exposing students to diverse perspectives through multicultural classes is crucial for preparing them to work in today's increasingly globalized society.
Arthur Schlesinger Jr. was a Pulitzer Prize-winning historian and special assistant to President John F. Kennedy. He was critical of multiculturalism and the idea that American schools should teach history through an ethnic lens. He argued that focusing too much on differences between ethnic groups undermines national unity and cultural integration. While cultural diversity should be respected, the primary goal of education should be creating a shared civic identity and sense of national unity through a "melting pot" conception of American culture and history.
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1. International Journal of Education & the Arts
Editors
Christine Marmé Thompson
Pennsylvania State University
S. Alex Ruthmann
New York University
Eeva Anttila
Theatre Academy Helsinki
William J. Doan
Pennsylvania State University
http://www.ijea.org/ ISSN: 1529-8094
Volume 14 Number 14 October 7, 2013
Key Dimensions of a Multicultural Art Education Curriculum
Christina Chin
Western Michigan University, USA
Citation: Chin, C. (2013). Key dimensions of a multicultural art education
curriculum. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 14(14). Retrieved [date]
from http://www.ijea.org/v14n14/.
Abstract
In an effort to encourage further integration of multicultural curricula, this article aims
to detail several key dimensions of multicultural education, particularly as they apply
to art education. Drawing on Banks’s (1994b, 1995b, 1996e, 2004) dimensions for
multicultural education, these dimensions include content integration, equity
pedagogy, knowledge construction and transformation, empowering school culture
and social structure, and prejudice reduction. Each dimension is explored in depth, and
how scholars in art education have addressed each of these dimensions is highlighted
within the article. Armed with the understandings offered within this paper, perhaps
art teachers will feel more versed and find greater comfort in attempting to incorporate
multicultural programming into their art curricula or to extend their existing
multicultural endeavors.
2. IJEA Vol. 14 No. 14 - http://www.ijea.org/v14n14/ 1
Key Dimensions of a Multicultural Art Education Curriculum
Introduction
During exploratory interviews as a part of a larger ethnographic study focused on
multicultural art education, veteran art teachers indicated that they were hesitant to
incorporate multicultural curricula for various practical reasons. Chief among them was that
teachers often feel underprepared and uncomfortable about teaching multicultural art, as it is
something they know little about. Hence, in an effort to encourage further integration of
multicultural curricula, this article aims to explain several key dimensions of multicultural
education, particularly as they apply to art education.
In order to establish a contextual groundwork, this paper begins with a brief overview of the
foundations of multicultural art education in the U.S. The remainder of the article focuses on a
more detailed look at each key dimension of multicultural education, and how each of these
dimensions may be approached in art education, as suggested by scholars. The multicultural
dimensions discussed offer components that educators may incorporate or aspire to
incorporate into their artrooms as they integrate multicultural curricula. My hope is that with
these understandings, educators will be able to identify routes for their own journeys towards
inclusion of multicultural practices, or locate their existing multicultural practices and engage
further strides to enhance them.
A Brief Overview of the Foundations of Multicultural Art Education
Though multiculturalism has its roots in the late 1800s, the oppressive environment
warranting its creation still exists today, and with globalization creating an ever more diverse
U.S. population, the need for multicultural education is even more relevant. Today, the United
States is experiencing its greatest immigration levels since the early twentieth century
(Suárez-Orozco, C. Suárez-Orozco, & Quin, 2005). According to the U.S. Census Bureau
(2000), immigrant students comprise the fastest growing population in U.S. public schools
today (as cited by Banks, 2006). As of 2010, children of immigrants accounted for
approximately one out of every four (23.7%) elementary and secondary school aged students1
(U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2010, as cited by Migration Policy
Institute Data Hub, 2010). Multicultural education serves to address such diversity. Its
primary goals are to promote justice, equity, and respect for all by teaching students the
attitudes, knowledge, and skills necessary to participate in multiple cultures within their
community, the nation, and the globe (Banks, 2006).
1 Data for children ages 6-17 years old.
3. Chin: Key Dimensions 2
Scholars in art education frequently draw on James A. Banks’s extensive work in general
education (e.g., Adejumo, 2002; Ballengee-Morris & Stuhr, 2001, 2002; Efland, Freedman, &
Stuhr, 1996; Kantner, 2002; Kuster, 2006; Mason, 1999; Noel, 2003; Stuhr, 1994, 2003).
Considered the “father of multicultural education” (World Library of Educationalists, 2006),
we turn to Banks for the foundations of multicultural education2
.
A number of scholars in art education point to the Brown v. Board of Education decision of
the 1950s and Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s as the starting point for multicultural
education curriculum reform (e.g., Adejumo, 2002; Ballengee-Morris & Stuhr, 2001, 2002;
Davenport, 2000; Delacruz, 1995b; Kantner, 2002; Stuhr, 2003). However, Banks (1991,
1994b, 1996a, 2004; Banks & C.A.M. Banks, 1995) explained that the impetus for reforms
began much earlier, in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Banks (1996a) underscored the African
American studies movement as a foundational root of current multicultural education, and
credited scholars such as George Washington Williams (1882, 1883/1989), W. E. B. DuBois
(1899/1973, 1896/1973), Carter G. Woodson (1919/1968, 1921), Horace Mann Bond (1939),
and Charles H. Wesley (1935/1969).
Prior to the 1950s, the work of these Black scholars was largely unrecognized by mainstream
White academia, and before the 1960s Civil Rights Movement they could only find jobs in
predominantly Black schools and colleges (Banks, 2004). With their literature, these scholars
fought against this type of pervasive erasure and discrimination. They argued that by creating
and presenting a more accurate depiction of African Americans in U.S. history and life, the
racism, discrimination, and stereotypes that proliferated mainstream U.S. constructions would
be undermined and invalidated (Banks, 1996a, 1996d). They challenged the incompleteness of
metanarratives that, in their partiality, “suggest[ed] not only that some parts of the story don’t
count, but that some parts don’t even exist” (Banks, 2004, p. 49). The problem was that the
canonized place of metanarratives in school curricula, and their validity, were rarely
contested; early African American studies aimed to bring this problem to light by focusing on
the perspectives and contributions of African Americans to the culture of the U.S. (Banks,
2004). Thus, the first phase of multicultural education was African American ethnic studies3
(Banks, 1996a).
2
Though I am aware of the postmodernist debates on history, for the sake of clarity of flow in this article, I
utilize a linear interpretation of multicultural education’s historical foundations.
3
As noted by art education scholars (Collins & Sandell, 1992; Delacruz, 1995a; Smith, 1996), critics of
multicultural education have voiced the concern that multiculturalism is derived from middle-class European
values and tradition, and to forward its practice would be to further European hegemony. The underlying
assumption of these critics’ arguments is that multiculturalism has European roots. In contradiction to this
argument, as discussed above, Banks (1996a) traced the roots of multicultural education to the work of early
African American studies scholars who developed their works to counter White European hegemony and
domination. His scholarship refutes these critics’ assertions. Critics’ claims that multiculturalism is derived from
European values seems to be a Eurocentric, hegemonic attempt to yet again silence the voices of marginalized
4. IJEA Vol. 14 No. 14 - http://www.ijea.org/v14n14/ 3
With African American studies as a pioneering venture to counter Anglo-European
hegemony4
in U.S. education, multicultural education continued to develop as scholars with
interests in other marginalized groups (such as women, disabled peoples, and other ethnic
groups) asserted their voices (Banks, 1996a; Young, 1999). In line with the momentum of
ethnic studies, Gay (1983) asserted that three forces converged in the mid-1960s to further
drive curriculum reforms: the Civil Rights Movement, critical analysis of textbooks, and
challenges to the deficiency orientation (as cited by Sleeter & Grant, 1988). The cultural
deficiency orientation5
would serve as a justification for assimilationist practices in
educational reform throughout the 1960s (Duesterberg, 1998; Sleeter & Grant, 1988). During
this time, art educator June McFee (1961/1970) published Preparation for Art, in which she
utilized an anthropological approach to studying cultures, and showed that art and its practice
varied by cultural grouping in their efforts to maintain distinct cultural identities. Furthermore,
individuals within cultural groups differed. This put an initial dent in the commonly held
notion of universal truths about art (Smith, 1996).
In the mid-1970s critical conflict theorists in education, drawing on Marxism or neo-Marxism,
looked at socioeconomic hierarchies and argued that curricula served to reproduce social
inequities in society based on class (see, for example, Bowles & Gintis, 1976; Willis, 1977).
Conflict theorists began with the premise that there are social inequities in U.S. society; thus,
their primary concern was with the betterment of this situation for the disenfranchised.
Through school, they asserted, hierarchies of domination-subordination existing in the social
structure were reinforced (Bowles & Gintis, 1976; Willis, 1977). They argued that schools are
socializing forces, and that schools could not change unless society changed. The underlying
assumption of conflict theorists was that individuals will adapt to their environment in the
absence of conflict, and schools were not seen as forums for broaching issues of conflict, but
rather for indoctrinating students into societal norms. Recognizing the hegemonic function of
schools, Apple (1979) elaborated on the implicit ideologies often hidden in curricula and the
structuring of schools. He argued that the curriculum served as a vehicle for hegemony by
reinforcing dominant cultural values and dispositions in a conservative manner. Furthermore,
Blacks and their contributions to the formation of multicultural education, and to instead credit Europeans with
the origins of multiculturalism.
4
Hegemony is the perpetuation of a dominant group’s control and influence over others through either physical
force or the spread of ideology that serves to attain people’s conscious and/or unconscious assent to this
domination (Balibar, 1996; Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000; Williams, 1977). African American studies’ struggles
to counter Anglo-European hegemonic attempts are strongly reflected in the discussions of the previous
paragraph.
5 The approach is based on a stance in the social sciences and anthropology, such as that advocated by Baratz and
Baratz (1970), that middle-class Anglo culture is the standard and model to judge all others against, and those
who do not meet up to this standard are culturally deficient (as cited by Sleeter & Grant, 1988).
5. Chin: Key Dimensions 4
the structure of schooling and positioning of schools as disseminators of objective knowledge
served to promote dominant ideology as natural, an unquestionable given, and hence avoided
conflict. Knowledge, presented as objective fact, “cannot enable students to see the political
dimension of the process by which one alternative theory’s proponents win out over their
competitors” and become so-called objective knowledge (p. 89).
In line with this philosophy, multicultural scholars in art education began to highlight the
elitist conceptions of art stemming from discipline-based art education (DBAE) in the 1980s
(Efland, 1990), in which art was taught as a universal set of knowable skills, processes, and
facts, and a European canon was heralded as superior. In contrast to the universalist approach
to art advocated in DBAE, McFee and Degge’s (1980) scholarship again endorsed an
anthropological approach to cultural study, and emphasized a diversity of cultures and
subcultures (as cited by Kantner, 2002). The 1992 Getty Center Discipline-Based Art
Education and Cultural Diversity conference provided a forum for multicultural art education
advocates to voice their concerns. They criticized DBAE for its elitist, Eurocentric, universal
formalist approach to art education, and lack of sensitivity to cultural diversity (Kantner,
2002). Kantner (2002) argued that this provided a stimulus for multicultural reforms in DBAE
curricula.
National mandates for inclusion of multicultural components in art education curricula are
now in place in the United States. In 1987, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher
Education issued standards that included multiculturalism, and these have been updated and
reasserted in 2000 and 2002 (Banks, 2004). The National Art Education Association (NAEA)
aligns its goals with that of the National Visual Arts Standards, and both contain a
multicultural requirement. The NAEA revised the Standards for Art Teacher Preparation in
1999 to require accredited art teachers to be attentive to multiculturalism6
(Kantner, 2002).
What form these multicultural approaches might take in the artroom, however, is not
specified. In order to assist art teachers in indentifying multicultural practices that they might
utilize within their own classrooms, five key potential components of a multicultural art
education curriculum are explored next.
Five Dimensions of a Multicultural Education Curriculum
To guide educators’ integration of multicultural programs into their classrooms, the following
discussions detail Banks’ (1994b, 1995b, 1996e, 2004) series of dimensions that build towards
6 This is alternatively referred to as “cultural diversity” in the NAEA Standards for Art Teacher Preparation
2009 publication, and similarly asks for attentiveness to cultural diversity without indicating what form
approaches to cultural diversity might entail.
6. IJEA Vol. 14 No. 14 - http://www.ijea.org/v14n14/ 5
transformative and social reconstructionist approaches7
to multiculturalism. These dimensions
include content integration, equity pedagogy, knowledge construction and transformation,
empowering school culture and social structure, and prejudice reduction (see Table 1).
Content integration deals with the way information about diverse groups—that addresses a
complex understanding of culture—is integrated into the curriculum. Equity pedagogy refers
to how teachers modify teaching tactics and strategies to address individual students’ learning
styles. Knowledge construction and transformation emphasizes the promotion of critical
thinking in order to help students to recognize that knowledge is socially constructed and
influenced by a source’s frames of reference. Empowering school culture and social structure
addresses components of the school structure and system, and encourages students to take
social action based on knowledge from transformational reflections related to issues of
oppression. Lastly, prejudice reduction relates to the ability of instruction to decrease a
tendency to stereotype and to increase the students’ potential to see each individual human
being as a valuable contributing member of society. A social reconstructionist approach to
multicultural education includes all five dimensions, as advocated by Banks (1994b, 1995b,
1996d, 2004). A transformative multicultural approach similarly addresses these dimensions,
but does not call for students to take social action as a social reconstructionist approach
would.
7 Transformative and social reconstructionist approaches are two multicultural education approaches repeatedly
advocated by numerous scholars in art education (e.g., Ballengee-Morris, Mirin, & Rizzi, 2000; Barbosa, 2007;
Bastos, 2006; Chalmers, 1996; Daniels, 2005; Dash, 2005; Desai, 2000, 2003, 2005; jagodzinski, 1999; Mason,
1995; Neperud, 1995; Neperud & Krug, 1995; Stuhr, 1994, 1995).
8. IJEA Vol. 14 No. 14 - http://www.ijea.org/v14n14/ 7
Each dimension will be elaborated upon below. As my intent is to provide guidance
specifically for visual arts educators, I will highlight how scholars in art education have
addressed each of these dimensions.
Content Integration
In terms of content integration, Banks (1994b, 1995b, 1996e, 2004) indicates that a
curriculum would be transformed to integrate exemplars from diverse groups to highlight
different perspectives on key themes, issues, concepts, and theories. The perspective from
which content is viewed is key: Casting a Western gaze upon content originating from a non-
Western area is hegemonic, and should be avoided. The nature of the content is also
important: Ideally, accurate, contextualized information (perspectives, histories,
contributions), voiced by members of the group in study, are integrated into the curriculum
(Banks, 1991, 1994b, 1996b; Banks & C. A. M. Banks, 1995; C. A. M. Banks, 1996).
To address these two issues, multicultural art education scholars stress the firsthand, emic8
perspective of artists and members of the community from which an artwork has emanated
(e.g., Adejumo, 2002; Ballengee-Morris & Stuhr, 2001, 2002; Chalmers, 1996, 2002;
Congdon, 1985; Dunn & Occi, 2003; Gundara & Fyfe, 1999; Irwin & Miller, 1997; Spang,
1995; Stuhr, 1994; Stuhr, Petrovich-Mwanicki, & Wasson, 1992). As suggested by Stuhr et al.
(1992), to investigate this point of view, the teacher may need to meet and consult with an
artist, invite an artist into the classroom, or gather information and explanations about an
artwork that are written by its artist. For instance, Irwin and Miller (1997) and Spang (1995)
asserted that First Nations artists and Native Americans must be consulted when constructing
instruction about artworks from these cultural groups. A case study in art education by Lee
(2007) illustrated how first-person narratives of insiders enabled her preservice art teachers to
empathize with artists and make personal connections with the cultural meanings of artworks
from Korea in her classroom. Art would be experienced as it is practiced in real life, and as
part of a sociocultural context (Efland et al., 1996; Stuhr, 1994).
In addition, cultural representations would be highly contextualized, and artists and artforms
would be explored using ethnographic methods drawn from anthropology (Efland et al.,
1996). “The unique contributions of individuals within these diverse social and cultural
groups are stressed” (Efland et al., 1996, p. 82), thereby underscoring heterogeneity within the
cultural grouping, and attending to multiple dimensions of an individual’s identity (such as
gender, ethnicity, race, sexuality, age, and disability). As such, the hybridity of cultures and
8 I refer to ‘emic’ in the anthropological sense, as involving the views of those who are a part of the community
of focus, as voiced by those members of the community.
9. Chin: Key Dimensions 8
multidimensional influences on an artwork and artist would be underscored. Multiple artists
and artworks from a cultural group might be studied to dispel stereotypes (Stuhr, 1994).
Content would be interdisciplinary, drawing on different subjects (Banks, 1996e, 2004;
Sleeter & Grant, 1987, 1988; Grant & Sleeter, 2007a, 2007b). In the world of multicultural art
education, this crossover is likely to be with social studies (Chalmers, 1981; Efland et al.,
1996; Stuhr, 1994). It would also entail cooperative planning among teachers from different
subjects (Stuhr, 1994).
How content is integrated—that is, where it is located in the curriculum—is another factor: Is
content woven into the core curriculum, or is it presented as a separate course as an add-on to
the mainstream curricula? (Banks, 2004). The audience for the curricula also needs to be
taken into account: The content would be made available to all students, and would not be
targeted at students who are assumed to be tied to a group under study by criteria such as race,
ethnicity, gender, and class (Banks, 2004). An art teacher who embraces a multicultural
approach might present a lesson and relay it to all students from the perspectives of diverse
cultural groups, and incorporate exemplars from these groups (Andrus, 2001; Chalmers, 1996;
Efland et al., 1996). As such, the perspectives and artworks of diverse cultures would be
woven into the core curriculum, which is structured around concepts.
Equity Pedagogy
Equity pedagogy refers to the modification of teaching techniques, methods and strategies to
accord with the diverse learning styles of students.
Individual Student Learning Styles
This does not imply that educators should assume that a particular learning style will accord
with a student based on his or her race, gender, and/or class. In the recent past, general
education researchers tended to conclude that particular cultural groups have particular
learning styles. For instance, Aronson and Gonzalez (1998) surmised that African Americans
and Mexican Americans respond more positively to cooperative teaching styles more so than
competitive ones (as cited by Banks, 1996e). John (1972), More (1989), and Tharp (1989)
concluded that Native American students are more passive and less responsive, and learn by
quietly observing rather than listening and speaking (as cited by Wills, Lintz, & Mehan,
1996).
In contrast, cases in art education have been explored to dispel the myth that one should use
specific teaching strategies and formulate expectations based on a reductionist stereotype of a
group. Generalizing teaching strategies to all individuals within an ethnic population or other
cultural grouping is essentialist and problematic, and does not attend to the needs of the
10. IJEA Vol. 14 No. 14 - http://www.ijea.org/v14n14/ 9
student within varying contextual situations. Ethnographic studies in art education by
Hickman (1999), Andrus (2001), Neperud and Stuhr (1993), Wolcott (1967, as cited by
Chalmers, 1981), and McFee (1961/1970), all underscored that educators need to relate to
students as multidimensional individuals who react differently in different contexts and
change throughout time. They found heterogeneity within cultural groupings, as well as
differences in a singular individual, depending on the contexts in which the student is
involved. They concluded that it is inappropriate for educators to develop expectations and to
attribute particular learning styles to students based on stereotypes of the cultural group to
which a student is assumed to belong. For instance, art teachers who hold to the myth that
figural representations are prohibited in visual artistry for all Muslims, under all
circumstances, and approach students of Muslim backgrounds with this understanding as
truth, would be misdirected: Hickman’s (1999) investigations with his students of Muslim
backgrounds found that attitudes towards figural representation varied by individual student,
and by context of use, such as life drawing versus sculpture. Research by Soganci (2006)
focused on this same issue, and corroborated Hickman’s conclusions. This indicates that
teaching methods need to adapt to the shifting social environments in which they exist, and to
individual students within those contexts.
Beginning from Students’ Lifeworlds
In line with teaching to individual learning needs, the curriculum would draw on students’ real
life experiences (Banks, 1996e). In art education, students would be empowered to help shape
the curriculum, and the curriculum would reflect interests from their daily life experiences and
environment (Efland et al., 1996; Stuhr, 1994, 1995).
Modeling Equity
The teacher would also need to model the attitudes and behaviors he or she is teaching
(Banks, 1996e, 2004). In art education, Andrus (2001) asserted that the art teacher should
model equity in every teaching moment. Self-reflexivity is key to the formation of this non-
prejudicial attitude and behavior: Art educators need to be particularly self-reflexive about
their own biases and assumptions (see, for example, Albers, 1999; Chung, 2008; Cohen
Evron, 2005; Knight, 2006; Staikidis, 2005).
Cooperative Grouping Activities
Heterogeneous grouping practices would be utilized (Banks, 1996e, 2004). According to
Cohen (1972), cooperative learning involves activities in which heterogeneous groups—
students from diverse groups—work together toward common goals (as cited by Banks,
1996e). The equal status of all members, particularly minority members, is prestructured prior
to the cooperative learning activity. That is, the teacher is aware of the strengths of each
11. Chin: Key Dimensions 10
individual student, and members for each group are selected so that all can capitalize on their
strengths in contributing to the group.
In art education, Efland et al. (1996) and Stuhr (1994) advocate for these types of cooperative
learning activities. Hansell (2000) adds that frequency and duration of contact between group
members is important, as students need time to develop friendships and empathy, as well as a
connection to the environment and context in which group activities occur.
Live, Interactive Visitors
Members of different cultural groups would be invited into the classroom to share their
cultural experiences and interpretations of events in-person (Banks, 1996e). Theorists in
multicultural art education have often suggested inviting individuals from diverse
backgrounds for live interaction with students in the artroom (Adejumo, 2002; Andrus, 2001;
Carpenter II et al., 2007; Chalmers, 1992, 2002; Garber, 1995; Hart, 1991; Stuhr, 1994; Stuhr
et al., 1992). In the rationale for direct contact with individuals, these authors often highlight
that such an individual can provide an insider’s perspective that is more accurate than that of
an outsider to a cultural group. In general education, this direct and active engagement with a
live person is seen as a more stimulating and concrete experience than reading from textbooks
(Asher, 2007; Banks, 1996a; Donaldson & Martinson, 1977; Grambs, 1968; Sleeter & Grant,
1988). In art education, Carpenter II et al. (2007) also stressed the inspirational influence of
in-person artist visits to their classrooms, which brings the abstract into reality. Furthermore,
in contrast to texts, which promote the idea that knowledge is a set of static facts, live
interaction with individuals helps students to understand the complexities of social reality and
that knowledge is socially constructed (Banks, 1996a).
In addition, these in-person interactions may serve to reduce prejudices (Sleeter & Grant,
1988). Allport (1954), considered an authority on prejudice development, utilized cognitive
development theory to explain that people have the tendency to function in line with a
principle of least effort. That is, people will not change an established system of
categorization, such as a stereotype, unless they are repeatedly challenged to do so.
Exceptions to the categories challenge the system in place. Increased exposure to exceptions
and repetitive challenges promote the modification of categories once held as true. When a
student makes direct contact and has interaction with an individual from a stereotyped group
that does not fit the stereotype existing in their system of categorizations, it challenges this
preconceived stereotype. It moves the student from an abstract stereotype to a concrete
experience that could serve to undermine the stereotype. In this sense, development of non-
prejudicial behavior can be seen as akin to breaking a bad habit (Devine, 1989).
However, caution is necessary when inviting visitors into the classroom. A critical approach
to their perspectives would be advocated—as addressed next in knowledge construction and
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transformation (Banks, 2004); otherwise, as Desai (2005) cautioned with respect to art
education, assumptions might be made that “forms are located in one culture—the culture of
origin” (p. 294).
Assessment
Assessment processes in a multicultural approach that aims towards egalitarianism would be
less competitively structured (Banks, 1996e). This would run contrary to mainstream
assimilationist approaches to evaluation in which students are judged and ranked against a
norm or standard (Sleeter & Grant, 1988). In art education, Boughton (1999) argued against
standards-based testing, and asserted that it is not possible to determine beforehand what an
ideal performance in art would be. Hence, there is no standard that educators should employ
to judge students. Boughton (1999) and Freedman (2000) advocated the use of more holistic
approaches to evaluation, and stressed the value of students’ interpretations and judgments of
artworks as a process of negotiated understanding in which ideas can be challenged and are
open to modification.
Knowledge Construction and Transformation
Banks (2004) described knowledge construction and transformation as a process that helps
students to recognize that knowledge is socially constructed and reflects the ideology of its
creators. Banks (1993, 1994a, 1995a, 1996b, 1996c, 1996e, 2004) has repeatedly underscored
the importance of knowledge construction in multicultural education, as have many
multicultural art education theorists as well as general education theorists (e.g., Adejumo,
2002; Asher, 2007; Ballengee-Morris & Stuhr, 2001, 2002; Bastos, 2006; Cohen Evron, 2005,
2007; Daniels, 2005; Desai, 2000, 2003, 2005; Giroux, 1981, 2005; hooks, 2000; jagodzinski,
1999; Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000; Knight, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 2004; Neperud & Krug,
1995; Nieto, 1996).
The structure of a curriculum that incorporates knowledge construction and transformation is
centered on concepts, events, and issues that are presented from the perspectives of a diverse
series of groups: men and women from varying social classes, different ethnic groups, ages,
and so forth (Banks, 1996e). These counterstories are critical to decentering dominant,
hegemonic ideologies (Golding, 2005; Haynes Chavez & Chavez, 2001). As a “pedagogy of
critical thinking9
” (Giroux, 1981, p. 125), the process teaches students to question and
deconstruct what is presented as undisputed knowledge and truth—to challenge
9
Critical pedagogy encouraging students towards social reconstruction has been criticized by scholars (such as
Tomhave, 1992) for its elitist tendencies in its potential to induce students to advocate for one particular position
as correct; that is, one vision of how the world should be socially reconstructed. This is important to consider
when employing such a pedagogy.
13. Chin: Key Dimensions 12
Westerncentric, mainstream, hegemonic constructions of knowledge that reinforce existing
power hierarchies (Banks, 1996b). Power relationships are interrogated as students investigate
a source’s purposes and who benefits from such a perspective (Banks, 2004; C. A. M. Banks,
1996; Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000).
Knowledge construction and transformation pushes students to explore underlying biases and
assumptions of a source’s creators, and asks students to examine a creator’s frame of
reference and positionality (Banks, 1993, 1995a, 1996b; McLaren, 1986; Weiler, 1988).
Positionality, as defined by feminist scholar Tetreault (1993), is about how one’s context
interacts with various dimensions of one’s identity (such as gender, class, and ethnicity) to
effect how one interprets the world. In deconstructing knowledge, students are involved in a
self-reflexive process of knowledge construction themselves. They are involved in the critical
examination of their own positionality and taken-for-granted assumptions, and how these
shape their interpretations of the world in the process (Asher, 2007; Atkinson & Dash, 2005;
Banks, 1996b; Giroux, 1981; Golding, 2005; hooks, 2000). Knowledge is presented as
something that is created. It is “dynamic and interactive rather than static” (Banks, 1996b, p.
10).
Banks (2004) underscored that the process aims to help students understand how many
diverse cultural groups have interacted and contributed to the development of U.S. society. It
fosters critical thinking in individuals, as well as helps them to see how ideology is shaped
and perpetuated and influences their world today and their unequal positions in it. Key to this
understanding is the issue of representation (Banks, 1996e; Desai, 2000; Desai & Chalmers,
2007; Miller, 1996). It empowers students to recognize and deconstruct representations that
reify stereotypes, that separate out groups as “others,” and that perpetuate stratification in U.S.
society (Banks, 1996e; Miller, 1996). Without knowledge deconstruction and transformation,
multicultural understandings will be superficial and shallow (Duesterberg, 1998; Nieto, 1996).
The underlying belief is that if students are armed with the skills to deconstruct knowledge
and “interrogate the assumptions of the knowers,” they will be less likely to fall victim to
“knowledge that produces hegemony and inequality” (Banks, 1996c, p. 84).
In multicultural art education, artworks become the sites of knowledge, the texts for
deconstruction, as does the Eurocentric canon, and students’ and teachers’ preconceived
assumptions and stereotypes about categories of art and what is considered art (see, for
instance, Atkinson & Dash, 2005; Ballengee-Morris, 2002, 2008; Bastos, 2006; Chung, 2008;
Cohen Evron, 2005, 2007; Dash, 2005; Davenport, 2000; Desai, 2000, 2005; Efland et al.,
1996; Klein, 2008; Knight, 2006; lok, 2005; Parks, 2000, 2004; Staikidis, 2005; Ward, 2005).
As advocated by these scholars, this implicates the artists, the sociocultural environment, and
various power structures in play in the creation and reception of artworks. It emphasizes the
importance of in-depth contextualization and ideological deconstruction. It also implicates the
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viewing audience, and interrogates their positionality in their interpretations of an artwork. It
underscores what Adejumo (2002) called the non-material expression of an artwork, the
ideology associated with its creation and reception. For Dewey (1934), such an engaged
perception, “an act of reconstructive doing… [in which] consciousness becomes fresh and
alive” (p. 53), is paramount for the aesthetic experience (p. 53).
Stuhr (1994) suggested that if artists are invited into the classroom, they should be encouraged
to talk about their social positions within the various cultural groups to which they belong.
Furthermore, the class could be engaged in conversations about issues related to
discrimination along various dimensions such as race, gender, ethnicity, and nationality
(Efland et al., 1996; Stuhr, 1994). For example, students might explore the
underrepresentation of Native American artists in galleries and museums across the U.S., and
research different issues to uncover values and assumptions in arguments related to the issue
(Efland et al., 1996). Through knowledge construction and transformation, students are
educated to become critical thinkers who are able to examine their own life experiences
(Stuhr, 1995).
As advocated by multicultural art education theorists (Desai & Chalmers, 2007; Efland et al.,
1996; Golding, 2005; Stuhr, 1994, 1995; Ward, 2005) and exhibited in the few transformative
multicultural art education cases on classroom interventions to be found in the literature (see
Albers, 1996, 1999; Chung, 2008; Cohen Evron, 2001, 2005, 2007; Knight, 2006; Staikidis,
2005), the primary method for deconstruction of knowledge is engagement of students and
teachers in critical dialogues that confront issues of conflict such as discrimination,
stereotyping, racism, and oppression. This type of critical dialogue about issues of conflict is
emphasized by critical pedagogy theorists such as Giroux (1981) and Freire (1985,
1992/2004, 1970/1993), and is exemplified by Freire (1992/2004) in Pedagogy of Hope. In
the cases documented by Albers (1996, 1999), Chung (2008), Cohen Evron (2001, 2005,
2007), Knight (2006), and Staikidis (2005), art classes focus on the interrogation of
stereotypes and assumptions, and their relationship to hierarchical structures of oppression.
These dialogues deconstruct students’ own preconceptions and underlying ideologies, as well
as those found in and forwarded by art. In this dialogue, both the teacher and students are
involved in the process of questioning and presenting potential interpretations. Teachers are
reflective about their own dispositions, and ask critical questions that challenge students to
think more deeply and question their assumptions and beliefs. Art is viewed as a receptacle
and a vehicle for ideology. In line with Banks (1996b) and Giroux (1981), Greene (1995)
argued that, in the absence of critical dialogue, students become passive receivers of allegedly
undisputable facts, and are not challenged to question the norm. Stagnancy and reproduction
of these stale facts are promoted. Students are not encouraged to challenge elitism and
objectivism, nor given agency to liberate their imaginations and envision and shape their
world and future. This is the antithesis of the vibrant potential of the arts (Greene, 1995).
15. Chin: Key Dimensions 14
Knight (2006), Staikidis (2005), and Chung (2008), each engaged students at the university
level—all preservice teachers—in critical dialogues about issues of conflict that encouraged
self-reflection about their own understandings and biases, and explored the negative impacts
of stereotyping. Knight (2006) described her experiences teaching a graduate-level teacher
education seminar entitled, “Using Contemporary Art to Challenge Cultural Values, Beliefs,
and Assumptions” (p. 40). She enlisted discussion as her primary instructional format, rather
than lecturing, in order to set the stage for members of the class to share and hear a variety of
perspectives. They began by sharing their earliest “memories of human difference” (p. 42).
They were asked to consider what they observed, felt, and what features of these observations
generated positive or negative affect. They contemplated: “Were my reactions reality-based,
or was I reacting to a stereotype?” (p. 42). Knight asserted that such explorations potentially
encouraged students to discover the sources of their biases. Next, her class engaged with
contemporary artworks from artists of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds who were
“primarily residing in the United States” (p. 42). Many of the artworks confronted
controversial issues such as “racism, sexism, classism, ageism, ableism, and other’isms’” (p.
42). Students were asked to view the works through alternative viewpoints—through the eyes
of another classmate, or from differing ideological perspectives. They deconstructed the
images for stereotype references, and “also questioned the individuals and institutions that
create, control, and disseminate racist mediated texts” (p. 43). They considered the connection
between stereotypes and prejudice, how these might influence behavior, and how such images
might “provoke loathing or contempt of ‘the other’” (p. 43). Knight asserted that these
discussions encouraged students “to question the assumptions reflected in each other’s
positions” (p. 43). Furthermore, she contended, “They started to find out that what some
consider as truth largely depends on the various assumptions they hold” (p. 44).
Similarly, Staikidis (2005) prompted her students to interrogate their assumptions. In her
class, preservice teachers’ critical discussions confronted issues of conflict and explored their
assumptions about contemporary art and artists in a postmodern arena. They debated the
“philosophical European birth and shaping” of these ideas, and “began to dismantle
stereotypes about terms such as contemporary art and artists in a postmodern art world” (para.
19). Platformed by these discussions, Staikidis introduced her preservice teachers to a variety
of teaching structures that she learned under the mentorship of a male Tzutuhil and a female
Kaqchikel Mayan painter with whom she had studied. Students utilized these teaching
structures to inform and transform standardized lessons prescribed in the texts for the course.
Staikidis reported: “Students stated that, at first, based on prior experiences with teaching
multiculturally from an essentialist perspective, they felt this lesson would involve painting or
weaving like Mayans” (para. 24). Instead, they came to recognize that the lesson incorporated
alternative approaches to teaching and painting utilized by two Mayan painters. These
alternative approaches to teaching and painting, these counterstories to a dominant Western
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narrative, provided students with a means to review, reconstruct and transform assumptions
typically presented as static knowledge, and to recognize instead a plurality of dynamic
understandings.
In Chung’s (2008) class, preservice elementary teachers also engaged in dialogues
confronting issues of conflict as they proceeded to dismantle stereotypes. The class began
with a discussion in which students shared their personal experiences with stereotypes, and
contemplated how the media capitalizes on stereotypes in their daily life. Chung reported that
these students surmised that stereotypes “contain layers of discrimination and
dehumanization, and embody how the perpetrator of stereotypes considers others inferior and
therefore disenfranchises them to be a subject of ridicule” (p. 24). The students contrived
adjectives associated with stereotypes, listed these singularly on pieces of paper, applied these
labels randomly to each student’s forehead, and students then conversed with one another to
“find out their partner’s personal information… and if relevant to speak to their partner in a
way that increased the visibility of the label on the other person’s forehead” (p. 24). Chung
contended, “The majority acknowledged that they were constantly aware of the label during
the interaction” (p. 24). Students reported that, as labeled beings, “I felt different from the rest
of my peers,” “It allowed me to feel how people feel when we label them negatively,” “This
process makes me feel uncomfortable. I didn’t really like being labeled,” and “I have a better
understanding as to why we shouldn’t stereotype people” (p. 24). Students then created comic
strips that illustrated an existing stereotype, and their participation in this creative process
“enabled them to consider how stereotypes are social constructions and are purposefully
manipulated” (p. 33). They followed this artmaking exercise with a critical dialogue using the
artworks as “a point of departure for disrupting stereotypes” (p. 33).
Albers (1996, 1999), and Cohen Evron (2001, 2005, 2007) documented cases at the K-12
level. Albers (1996, 1999) illustrated how a sixth grade class engaged in discussion about
issues of conflict related to sexism. In an exercise in which students were shown a series of
artworks and asked to predict the gender of the artists, “the results revealed that many students
held sexist views of what males and female artists are capable of creating” (Albers, 1996, p.
9). These sexist (and heterosexualist) beliefs were explored in a 40-minute discussion that
accompanied the exercise, in which Ms. Wolf “carefully and thoughtfully asked questions that
challenged students to think more deeply” (p. 9). Albers (1996) contended that the exercise
“enabled students to reflect upon and transform their present sexist assumptions about the
capabilities of males and females in art” (p. 206). Albers (1999) asserted that students were
“affected by the conversation and are not the same people after these experiences” (p. 10). As
evidence, she cited the reflections of a sixth grade girl: “‘I’ve learned that male and female
artists think in almost the same way. Just because they are male or female doesn’t mean that
they should or do think in a particular way. I think that men and women seem much similar
17. Chin: Key Dimensions 16
because I have found out that the only way they are different is basically their physical
appearance’” (p. 10).
Cohen Evron (2001, 2005, 2007) detailed three high school classes in which the idea of
“otherness” was deconstructed through critical dialogue, and approached via three different
means. These scenarios will be discussed further in the next section, as these three lessons
broached into the dimension of empowering school culture and social structure through
students’ active creation of politically oriented artworks.
Empowering School Culture and Social Structure
With the dimension of Empowering School Culture and Social Structure in multicultural
education, social action is promoted as students research and reflect on social issues, select
and justify a stance, and are encouraged to take action on this position (Banks, 1996e, 2004;
C. A. M. Banks, 1996; Grant, 1992; Grant & Sleeter, 2007a, 2007b; Nieto, 1996; Sleeter &
Grant, 1987, 1988; Sleeter, 1991). Multicultural education, in this sense, is a call for
individuals to “engage in social action to improve the social circumstances of all people” (C.
A. M. Banks, 1996, p. 55). This social action might take the form of small demonstrations of
justice in the elementary grades. For example, elementary students might make friends with
individuals from other cultural groups, and participate in community projects to achieve a
sense of political effectiveness; in this manner, students begin to learn that they can propel
changes for a better world (Banks, 1996e).
In art education, students would aim to challenge existing preconceptions on particular art
related issues, negotiate viewpoints and take a stance on an issue, and take action to reflect
this stance (Efland et al., 1996; Stuhr, 1994). This provides an opportunity for students to
engage in democratic action (Efland et al., 1996). This action might take the form of creation
of an artwork, as in the three cases presented by Cohen Evron (2001, 2005, 2007) in which
high school students created photographic and videographic pieces in their explorations of the
idea of “otherness.” In one project, 10th
grade students were asked to videotape interviews in
which they learned something new about someone they labeled as “other.” In doing so, they
were encouraged to investigate their understandings and experiences of “otherness,” and
potential positionality as the “other” in relation to this person. Students interviewed diverse
people including an Arab woman from Jaffa, a street sweeper, and newcomers from the
former USSR. According to Cohen Evron (2007), the exploration helped to blur the
dichotomy between “us” and “them;” and “contributed to the students’ understanding that
everyone, including themselves, can be the Other, and that Otherness is situated” (p. 1040).
In another high school class documented by Cohen Evron (2005), Picasso’s Guernica (1937)
was presented as a political artwork with thematic ties to high school students’ lifeworlds: The
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artwork addressed conflict and victimization, ideas that resonated with students as they were
surrounded by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Students compared and contrasted Guernica to
a newspaper photograph of a Palestinian being taken into custody by the Israeli Army in the
Gaza strip, and then to “staged photographs of Palestinian victims of the Intifada, taken by a
famous Israeli photographer, Micha Kirshner” (p. 316). Through critical discussion, students
investigated how the artists of these works manipulated elements of their visual compositions
in their representations of victimization. In evaluating these images side-by-side, “students
learned how the subject of war and its victims can be interpreted differently through the use of
media and techniques, and that artists can express different perspectives and focus on various
aspects of their topics” (p. 316). For these students, who were surrounded by a discourse in
which Israeli’s were presented as “heroes” and Palestinians as the perpetrators of violence,
these photographs presented a challenge to the dominant hegemonic narrative. The images
presented counterstories with Palestinians as victims. Students had to re-examine the
dominant narrative, consider a repositioning of the “other” as victims, and then create their
own political artworks. Cohen Evron (2005) asserted that the project “troubled the objectivity
of the knowledge and raised the question of constructing meaning by an audience in a specific
political context” (p. 317). Rather than presenting Guernica as an artifact of a distant past, the
teacher “confronted the students with its meaning in the learners’ present” (p. 317). As in the
previous project, in viewing the alternate narrative, the “dichotomy of ‘us’ as good and ‘them’
as evil” (p. 317), was challenged.
Similarly, in a lesson with 11th
graders, students again examined images of war, and
deconstructed the hegemonic discourses presented in mass media’s depictions of Palestinian
Arabs as the “other.” Through critical discussion of the photographs, the teacher encouraged
her students to recognize the stereotypes, and “to analyze the photographer’s position
regarding the event documented as well as the ideology and discourse within which it was
constructed” (Cohen Evron, 2005, p. 318). Through these discussions, “students discovered
that the ways events and people were photographed influenced viewers’ understandings and
interpretation of them” (p. 318). They then created staged photographs themselves, focusing
on their personal attitudes in their depictions of heroes and victims of war, and alternative
perspectives to the dominant narrative began to arise in which students began to interchange
Arabs and Israelis as victimizers and victims, as well as showed them in images of neutrality.
In one image “they staged a scene of a sheep, and an Arab and an Israeli drinking coffee
together” (p. 318). Through the course of the project, students were challenged to reconsider
the idea of “otherness,” and to contemplate how visual portrayals could be used to manipulate
viewers’ positions. Cohen Evron (2007) argued, “Dealing with the concept of Otherness is
particularly important because it provides an alternative view of the Other as a stereotype, a
homogeneous and unitary group which is different from us” (p. 1039). It broke down “us”
versus “them” binary thinking, and instead promoted a recognition that a plurality of
understandings exists (p. 1040).
19. Chin: Key Dimensions 18
In each of these cases, students engaged in critical discussions that confronted conflict and
challenged the idea of “otherness.” They additionally empowered their artistic social voices
through construction of an artwork that conveyed their positions, and in the process they were
asked to contemplate the negotiability of these positions.
In addition to investigating social issues and taking action, scholars (Baker, 1981; Banks,
1996b, 1996e; Hillis, 1996) indicated that systemic reform of the school as a structural unit
would need to be addressed to empower school culture and social structure. Banks (1996e)
explained that a number of factors would need to be attended to for potential change, such as
the “social climate of the school, extracurricular activities and participation, and staff
expectations and responses to students from diverse cultural, ethnic, racial, and income
groups” (p. 338). General education conflict theorists have long argued that inequities in
social stratification are built into the structural system of schools, which serve to reproduce
these inequities (Apple, 1979; Bowles & Gintis, 1976; hooks, 1994; Meier, 2002; Oakes,
1985; Willis, 1977). They underscored the idea that students adapt to societal expectations,
and that U.S. society is fundamentally inegalitarian in structure (that is, society expects less
from particular cultural groups, such as lower classes, ethnic groups, and so on). For example,
Meier (2002) and Willis (1977), through ethnographic observation and interviews with
students, found that societal expectations shaped lower class students’ expectations of and
aspirations for themselves, and reinforced a cycle of reproduction of class hierarchies, much
like a self-fulfilling prophecy. This reproductive rationality, however, allows little room for
the agency of individuals as actors who can change their world. Nor does it recognize the
active role of schools in both sustaining and resisting dominant ideology (Giroux, 1981). In
line with Freire’s (1970/1993) work on critical pedagogy, Giroux (1981) and hooks (1994)
saw the potential of schools to be a liberating force for society, rather than a hegemonically
indoctrinating one. Freire (1985, 1970/1993) advocated that, through a process of
conscientization, people learn to become critical of society, to deconstruct propositions of
truth that serve to oppress individuals, and to act towards undoing these oppressive
circumstances. In this sense, schooling can be seen as a vehicle that forwards either
domination or liberation (Giroux, 1981, 2005). The libratory path requires students and
teachers to be actors working toward emancipatory change through engagement in
transformative knowledge construction as well as social action. The school, as another active
component within students’ and teachers’ educational lifeworlds, also needs to embrace non-
oppressive strategies. All parties are engaged in recognizing the hidden curriculum—the
implicit ideologies—embedded in school knowledge and structure (Giroux, 1981, 2005). They
are asked to challenge oppressive ideologies, take a stance, and take action upon these
positions in an effort to move society towards egalitarianism.
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Prejudice Reduction
In terms of prejudice reduction, Banks (2004) asserted that instruction would decrease the
tendency to stereotype, and increase the propensity to see all individuals as valuable
contributing members of society. This appears to be a goal of an overall multicultural
education curriculum, rather than a didactic tactic or strategy. An approach may aim at
prejudice reduction, and this may be an art educator’s underlying intention. However, whether
it is achieved is questionable. Banks (1996e) concluded, “to implement multicultural
education effectively, educators must attend to each of the five dimensions described above. .
. . Although the five dimensions. . . are highly interrelated, each requires deliberate attention
and focus” (p. 338).
Conclusion
We can aspire to thoroughly incorporate all elements of these five dimensions in order to
create robust multicultural art programs. However, if art educators can begin to incorporate
elements of dimensions of multicultural education bit-by-bit, drawing on the discussions
herein, perhaps the prospect of integrating multicultural education into their curricula may not
present so formidable a challenge. Having reviewed these five dimensions of multicultural
education and how they have been addressed by scholars in art education, perhaps art teachers
will feel more versed and find greater comfort in attempting to incorporate multicultural
programming into their art curricula or to extend their existing multicultural endeavors.
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About the Author
Christina Chin is an Assistant Professor of Art Education in the Frostic School of Art at
Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan. She received her PhD in Art
Education from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Her research focuses on the
issue of marginalization, particularly as it relates to multicultural art education, creativity, and
the place of visual arts with society. Christina’s articles have appeared in Art Education, and
the International Journal of Education Through Art.
30. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License.
International Journal of Education & the Arts
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Christine Marmé Thompson
Pennsylvania State University
Eeva Anttila
Theatre Academy Helsinki
S. Alex Ruthmann
New York University
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Pennsylvania State University
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University of North Carolina Wilmington
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Nanyang Technological University
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University of Georgia
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Pennsylvania State University
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Pennsylvania State University
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