This document provides a summary and evaluation of the article "Research on Globalization and Education" by Spring (2008). It discusses four major theoretical perspectives on the globalization of education: world culture, world systems, post-colonial, and culturalist. It analyzes how these perspectives relate to different sociological paradigms such as structural functionalism and conflict theory. It also discusses concepts like global flows and networks, and how education shapes and is shaped by society in the context of globalization. The evaluation provides an in-depth analysis of the topics and issues covered in the original research article and presentation.
Processes of change in academia â the impact of government and marketRemigiuszRosicki
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The paper describes the problems associated with the development of universities and higher education on a global scale and based on the example of Poland. To illustrate the subject, the research fo-cuses on: (1) the idea of university autonomy and elitism from a historical and contemporary perspec-tive, (2) the delusion of elitism and social advancement of education which is attributed to it, (3) the myth of flexibility of education generated among others by politicians. The text indicates the main processes in academia: (1) centuries long removal of the autonomy of uni-versities, (2) the 'humanistic ethos' of universities is also removed, (3) universities are transformed into 'vocational colleges', (4) higher education is developed as one of the service sectors, (5) universities are transformed into institutions responsible for the labour market, (6) universities are entered in the 'logic of the free market', (7), the number of the educated is increasing, (8) the fetishisation of education, (9) the myth of flexibility of education and the its multifunctionality in the context of limited absorption capacity of the labour.
Processes of change in academia â the impact of government and marketRemigiuszRosicki
Â
The paper describes the problems associated with the development of universities and higher education on a global scale and based on the example of Poland. To illustrate the subject, the research fo-cuses on: (1) the idea of university autonomy and elitism from a historical and contemporary perspec-tive, (2) the delusion of elitism and social advancement of education which is attributed to it, (3) the myth of flexibility of education generated among others by politicians. The text indicates the main processes in academia: (1) centuries long removal of the autonomy of uni-versities, (2) the 'humanistic ethos' of universities is also removed, (3) universities are transformed into 'vocational colleges', (4) higher education is developed as one of the service sectors, (5) universities are transformed into institutions responsible for the labour market, (6) universities are entered in the 'logic of the free market', (7), the number of the educated is increasing, (8) the fetishisation of education, (9) the myth of flexibility of education and the its multifunctionality in the context of limited absorption capacity of the labour.
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Learning ResourcesLinksFROM THIS LINK CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, &4 ht.docxcroysierkathey
Â
Learning Resources/Links
FROM THIS LINK CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, &4 http://www.aupress.ca/index.php/books/120219
This reading discusses how social scientists analyze religion in terms of what it does for the individual, community, or society.http://www.sociologyguide.com/religion/social-functions-and-dysfunctions-of-religion.php
This article talks about the allegation that some clergy are suspected of helping those causing unrest in the Ukraine. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/07/world/europe/evidence-grows-of-russian-orthodox-clergys-aiding-ukraine-rebels.html?_r=0
This article discusses the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its history and ethnic relations, architecture, food, economy, and political life. Pay particular attention to the section gender roles and statuses. http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Saudi-Arabia.html
A report that presents labor market and economic opportunities for both men and women. The report touches on significant progress towards gender equality in education around the world, but notes persistent inequalities in pay.http://www.oecd.org/social/50423364.pdf
An interactive timeline on the Middle East protests of 2011.Â
http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2011/mar/22/middle-east-protest-interactive-timeline
This article discusses the political unrest North Africa, Syria, and Middle East and how has democracy fared against the support for Islam in these regions.Â
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138479/sheri-berman/the-promise-of-the-arab-spring
This article discusses the declining birth rate of women throughout most the world and the sociological and demographic implications.
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/05/opinion/sunday/bye-bye-baby.html?_r=0
A series of articles on the ranking of US students compared to the world, based on the PISA exam. The first two articles have opposing interpretations of US test scores. The third shows where the US compares to the world in education, and the last one shows how educational rankings relate to economic performance of nations.Â
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2010-12-07-us-students-international-ranking_N.htm
http://news.stanford.edu/news/2013/january/test-scores-ranking-011513.html
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/PISA-2012-results-snapshot-Volume-I-ENG.pdf
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/46643496.pdf
This article discusses how the US students lag around the average on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test of science, math, and reading.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/us-students-lag-around-average-on-international-science-math-and-reading-test/2013/12/02/2e510f26-5b92-11e3-a49b-90a0e156254b_story.html
A podcast by Diane Rehm on a book by Amanda Ripley, The Smartest Kids In the World, where the author follows three American kids who study abroad.
http://thedianerehmshow.org/audio/#/shows/2013-08-19/amanda-ripley-smartest-kids-world/@00:00
In this module we explore the differences between philosophical and sociological approach ...
The Construction of Cultural Valuesand Beliefs in Chinese .docxrtodd643
Â
The Construction of Cultural Values
and Beliefs in Chinese Language
Textbooks: A critical discourse analysis
Yongbing Liu*
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This article examines the discourses of cultural values and beliefs constructed in Chinese language
textbooks currently used for primary school students nationwide in China. By applying story
grammar analysis in the framework of critical discourse analysis, the article critically investigates
how the discourses are constructed and what ideological forces are manifested in the textbooks.
More specifically, it analyses how story grammar and textual devices are manipulated in the
construction of selected versions of cultural values and beliefs for the child reader. Further, it
explores how the discourses position the child reader to read through the ways that the discourses
are constructed, and concludes that the discourses serve the interests of the government and its
cultural elites, but not the interests of the child reader.
Introduction
In the late 1970s China began to reform its economic system and opened its doors to
the outside world. After roughly two decades of reform, China has seen an
unmistakable emergence of activities that mark a ââcapitalist societyââ: industrializa-
tion, privatization of the means of production, commodification of labour, the rise of
a new rich class, and so on (see, for example, Eaton, 1999; Naughton, 2000). The
implementation of a free market economy has led to income gaps widening
enormously, and the unemployment rate is soaring. These have caused a psycho-
logical and ideological crisis for many Chinese people and generated untold
resentment against reform, globalization, and the government. Within China it is
publicly argued that the high unemployment rate and the gap between the rich and
poor could cause social instability (see, for example, He, Q. L., 1998; Hu, 1999).
The market economy has caused the state to lose control over society and has placed
the Chinese working class at the mercy of new capitalist exploitation.
The growth of the free market has had implications beyond the economic
structure: It has opened up a Pandoraâs box of social evils, such as corruption,
drug abuse, prostitution, and counterfeit products, which have appeared and
*Centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice, National Institute of Education, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore 637616. Email: [email protected]
ISSN 0159-6306 (print)/ISSN 1469-3739 (online)/05/010015-16
# 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/01596300500039716
Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education
Vol. 26, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 15ďż˝/30
developed at a terrifying speed (He, Q. L., 1998). Human compassion towards
the poor and underprivileged has reached a historically low level. Some scholars (for
example He, Q. L., 1998) believe that all of these problems are caused by the
ââget-rich mentalityââ driven by the free market. In.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL3Research proposalCompare and contra.docxgholly1
Â
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3
Research proposal
âCompare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary societyâ
In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, Europe experienced significant changes in history. This marked the rebirth and intellectual growth of Europe since many changes were realized during the people. Renaissance was the word used to describe the rebirths that occurred. Renaissance marked the time of significant changes in cultural, literature, philosophical, and art revolution in other nations in Europe (Kaufman, 2012). The change started in Italy and expanded to other areas in Europe. During the early Renaissance, the society had unique characteristics. However, after the occurrence of changes, contemporary society or the current society was developed. The contemporary society is also characterized by unique features compared to the early Renaissance. However, the two types of society are characterized by features that are similar, while others are different. This research is guided by a thesis statement indicating that similarities and differences between the two spread across all aspect of life, including the education system, cultural practices, and economic inventions, among others.
According to Guarnieri and Negro (2012), the difference in the two societies is marked by changes in the spread of knowledge whereby during the early renaissance society information was spread through handwritten forms. Renaissance left to the invention of the printing press. This also reformed the education system since in the ancient times, education was reserved for the rich people, but the rebirth led to the middle class and low classes are educated. This has led to early discoveries and the spread of information. Currently, society spread written material through online press whereby it reaches many people as compared to contemporary society. Renaissance has also facilitated the rise of Humanism. In the early Renaissance era, people were devoted to living a religious life. This was accompanied by fulfilling their spiritual purpose of life. In contemporary society, humanism raised such that people are now interested in filling their interests rather than religious demands. The modern society emphasize more on worldly presses as well as studied classic texts from scholars and philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato to obtain aspirating. People have developed an increased desire to travels and acquire knowledge (Kaufman, 2012).
The goal of the paper is to deeply study the two societies âto compare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary society.â To achieve this goal, the researcher will strive to meet various objectives, which include identifying characteristics of religious and cultural practices in early renaissance society and contemporary society. The study seeks to examine the changes in the education system between the two societies. The researcher will also determine the chan.
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Learning ResourcesLinksFROM THIS LINK CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, &4 ht.docxcroysierkathey
Â
Learning Resources/Links
FROM THIS LINK CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, &4 http://www.aupress.ca/index.php/books/120219
This reading discusses how social scientists analyze religion in terms of what it does for the individual, community, or society.http://www.sociologyguide.com/religion/social-functions-and-dysfunctions-of-religion.php
This article talks about the allegation that some clergy are suspected of helping those causing unrest in the Ukraine. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/07/world/europe/evidence-grows-of-russian-orthodox-clergys-aiding-ukraine-rebels.html?_r=0
This article discusses the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its history and ethnic relations, architecture, food, economy, and political life. Pay particular attention to the section gender roles and statuses. http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Saudi-Arabia.html
A report that presents labor market and economic opportunities for both men and women. The report touches on significant progress towards gender equality in education around the world, but notes persistent inequalities in pay.http://www.oecd.org/social/50423364.pdf
An interactive timeline on the Middle East protests of 2011.Â
http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2011/mar/22/middle-east-protest-interactive-timeline
This article discusses the political unrest North Africa, Syria, and Middle East and how has democracy fared against the support for Islam in these regions.Â
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138479/sheri-berman/the-promise-of-the-arab-spring
This article discusses the declining birth rate of women throughout most the world and the sociological and demographic implications.
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/05/opinion/sunday/bye-bye-baby.html?_r=0
A series of articles on the ranking of US students compared to the world, based on the PISA exam. The first two articles have opposing interpretations of US test scores. The third shows where the US compares to the world in education, and the last one shows how educational rankings relate to economic performance of nations.Â
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2010-12-07-us-students-international-ranking_N.htm
http://news.stanford.edu/news/2013/january/test-scores-ranking-011513.html
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/PISA-2012-results-snapshot-Volume-I-ENG.pdf
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/46643496.pdf
This article discusses how the US students lag around the average on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test of science, math, and reading.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/us-students-lag-around-average-on-international-science-math-and-reading-test/2013/12/02/2e510f26-5b92-11e3-a49b-90a0e156254b_story.html
A podcast by Diane Rehm on a book by Amanda Ripley, The Smartest Kids In the World, where the author follows three American kids who study abroad.
http://thedianerehmshow.org/audio/#/shows/2013-08-19/amanda-ripley-smartest-kids-world/@00:00
In this module we explore the differences between philosophical and sociological approach ...
The Construction of Cultural Valuesand Beliefs in Chinese .docxrtodd643
Â
The Construction of Cultural Values
and Beliefs in Chinese Language
Textbooks: A critical discourse analysis
Yongbing Liu*
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This article examines the discourses of cultural values and beliefs constructed in Chinese language
textbooks currently used for primary school students nationwide in China. By applying story
grammar analysis in the framework of critical discourse analysis, the article critically investigates
how the discourses are constructed and what ideological forces are manifested in the textbooks.
More specifically, it analyses how story grammar and textual devices are manipulated in the
construction of selected versions of cultural values and beliefs for the child reader. Further, it
explores how the discourses position the child reader to read through the ways that the discourses
are constructed, and concludes that the discourses serve the interests of the government and its
cultural elites, but not the interests of the child reader.
Introduction
In the late 1970s China began to reform its economic system and opened its doors to
the outside world. After roughly two decades of reform, China has seen an
unmistakable emergence of activities that mark a ââcapitalist societyââ: industrializa-
tion, privatization of the means of production, commodification of labour, the rise of
a new rich class, and so on (see, for example, Eaton, 1999; Naughton, 2000). The
implementation of a free market economy has led to income gaps widening
enormously, and the unemployment rate is soaring. These have caused a psycho-
logical and ideological crisis for many Chinese people and generated untold
resentment against reform, globalization, and the government. Within China it is
publicly argued that the high unemployment rate and the gap between the rich and
poor could cause social instability (see, for example, He, Q. L., 1998; Hu, 1999).
The market economy has caused the state to lose control over society and has placed
the Chinese working class at the mercy of new capitalist exploitation.
The growth of the free market has had implications beyond the economic
structure: It has opened up a Pandoraâs box of social evils, such as corruption,
drug abuse, prostitution, and counterfeit products, which have appeared and
*Centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice, National Institute of Education, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore 637616. Email: [email protected]
ISSN 0159-6306 (print)/ISSN 1469-3739 (online)/05/010015-16
# 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/01596300500039716
Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education
Vol. 26, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 15ďż˝/30
developed at a terrifying speed (He, Q. L., 1998). Human compassion towards
the poor and underprivileged has reached a historically low level. Some scholars (for
example He, Q. L., 1998) believe that all of these problems are caused by the
ââget-rich mentalityââ driven by the free market. In.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL3Research proposalCompare and contra.docxgholly1
Â
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3
Research proposal
âCompare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary societyâ
In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, Europe experienced significant changes in history. This marked the rebirth and intellectual growth of Europe since many changes were realized during the people. Renaissance was the word used to describe the rebirths that occurred. Renaissance marked the time of significant changes in cultural, literature, philosophical, and art revolution in other nations in Europe (Kaufman, 2012). The change started in Italy and expanded to other areas in Europe. During the early Renaissance, the society had unique characteristics. However, after the occurrence of changes, contemporary society or the current society was developed. The contemporary society is also characterized by unique features compared to the early Renaissance. However, the two types of society are characterized by features that are similar, while others are different. This research is guided by a thesis statement indicating that similarities and differences between the two spread across all aspect of life, including the education system, cultural practices, and economic inventions, among others.
According to Guarnieri and Negro (2012), the difference in the two societies is marked by changes in the spread of knowledge whereby during the early renaissance society information was spread through handwritten forms. Renaissance left to the invention of the printing press. This also reformed the education system since in the ancient times, education was reserved for the rich people, but the rebirth led to the middle class and low classes are educated. This has led to early discoveries and the spread of information. Currently, society spread written material through online press whereby it reaches many people as compared to contemporary society. Renaissance has also facilitated the rise of Humanism. In the early Renaissance era, people were devoted to living a religious life. This was accompanied by fulfilling their spiritual purpose of life. In contemporary society, humanism raised such that people are now interested in filling their interests rather than religious demands. The modern society emphasize more on worldly presses as well as studied classic texts from scholars and philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato to obtain aspirating. People have developed an increased desire to travels and acquire knowledge (Kaufman, 2012).
The goal of the paper is to deeply study the two societies âto compare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary society.â To achieve this goal, the researcher will strive to meet various objectives, which include identifying characteristics of religious and cultural practices in early renaissance society and contemporary society. The study seeks to examine the changes in the education system between the two societies. The researcher will also determine the chan.
Essay about Multiculturalism In Canada
Essay On Ethnicity And Multiculturalism
The Concept Of Multiculturalism
Multicultural Identity: A Short Story
Multicultural Literature Essay
Multiculturalism In Canada Essay
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Conclusion Of Multiculturalism
Essay on Multiculturalism in Canada
Essay On Multicultural Experience
What Is Multiculturalism Essay
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
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Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
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Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasnât one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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Article Review Of Quot Research On Globalization And Education Quot By Joel Spring
1. 300243 Theory and Research in Sociology of Education
by
Prof. Dr. Clara Sabbagh
SS 15
An Evaluation
of
âResearch on Globalization and Educationâ
Ekin Yildiran, 2645753
MA Sociology â International Track
Faculty of Sociology, Bielefeld University
September, 2015
2. 1
1. Introduction
This term paper aims to analyse the review article âResearch on Globalization and Educationâ
by Spring (2008) and to organize the lecture notes during the student presentation about the
same article on July 6, 2015. Spring highlights âglobalization and educationâ as a field of
study of which the literature is divided into four overlapping major theoretical perspectives
(world culture, world systems, post-colonial, culturalist), and it involves the intertwined set of
global processes affecting education, such as worldwide discourses (human capital, economic
development, and multiculturalism), intergovernmental organizations, information and
communication technology, nongovernmental organizations, and multinational corporations
(ibid). In the following section, definitions and relevant discussions regarding globalization of
education are given. Then, the major theoretical perspectives which are discussed in relation
to the sociological paradigms, and the global educational discourses, institutions and
organizations are introduced. Following these sections, certain additional concepts which are
mostly used as criticisms against globalization and educational globalization are scrutinized.
Finally, a conclusion is drawn by building on the arguments stated all through the paper
(especially from 3rd
and 5th
sections), which is followed by the bibliography at the very end.
All through the paper APA citation rules are applied.
2. Schooling, Society and Globalization
Even though education is a relatively young institution when compared to religion or
economy, it is now central to the society and peopleâs lives. The mandatory school attendance
is longer than ever before, and most of the modern nations rely on education to rationalize and
justify social order. Indeed, the power of schooling to change lives and to predict the future
socioeconomic status, social mobility and exclusion is rising. In addition to shaping life
chances and life courses, education also shapes the organization of society in terms of playing
3. 2
an important role in nation-building and citizenship, connecting people to labour markets,
providing solutions to social problems such as violence, racism, drug use, etc. Hence, at the
most basic level, that is how schools relate to society, and why people now use the term
âschooled societyâ (Davies & Guppy, 2010).
Economy in the European Commissionâs document of 1998, the phenomenon of globalization
is described by the advent of the information society, of scientific and technical civilization,
and especially the globalization of the (as cited in Spring, ibid, p.331). Burbules and Torres
also emphasize the link between the economic restructuring and the trend toward
globalization, since this restructuring creates a new international division of labour and
economic integration of national economies, internationalization of trade reflected in the
increased capacity to connect markets, and ever-increasing financial technological and
cultural gap between nation-states (2000). All these elements of globalization have direct and
indirect impacts on education at differing levels such as formal and informal or local and
national levels, etc. Schools, schooling and education do have an effect on society, and vice
versa, but these relationships are even more important and complicated in the era of
globalization, and therefore the field of globalization and education, that is the study of the
effect of globalization on educational processes, has developed its own academic and
interdisciplinary language especially in works of Appadurai and Castells (Spring, ibid).
In his widely cited paper "Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy",
Appadurai refuses the centre-periphery models of globalization, and instead he suggests that it
should be understood as a complex, overlapping and disjunctive order. He states, â[t]he
complexity of the current global economy has to do with certain fundamental disjunctures
between economy, culture and politics which we have barely begun to theorize.â (1990,
p.296), and adds â[...] people, machinery, money, images and ideas now follow increasingly
non-isomorphic paths: of course, at all periods in human history, there have been some
4. 3
disjunctures between the flows of these things, but the sheer speed, scale and volume of each
of these flows is now so great that the disjunctures have become central to the politics of
global culture.â (p. 301). Later, Appadurai (1996) introduces five dimensions of global flows
explaining the the disjunctures in the global cultural economy: ethnoscapes, financescapes,
technoscapes, mediascapes and ideoscapes. All of these dimensions are used to understand
global educational processes, and vice versa. Powell and Steel, for example, examine the
relevance of âscapesâ, flowing across the cultural boundaries, to understand higher education
in the age of globalization (2011). Additionally, the concept of global flows (by Appadurai) is
translated into ânetworksâ, meaning that these various flows move through networks capable
of unlimited expansion (Castells, 2000). The final remark on the description of âglobalization
and education studyâ is the discussion of global societies vs. nations. Spring argues global
educational processes are analysed in contrast to autonomous nation-states, which enables the
researchers to talk about global societies. Burbules and Torres also mention âcommunityâ
beyond nation (ibid, p. 22). In these formulations of âglobalization and educationâ, the nation-
state does not disappear, but becomes a subset or subject of global societies.
3. Four Major Theoretical Perspectives of Educational Globalization
Spring categorizes the theories on globalization and education into four overlapping
theoretical perspectives which are namely world culture, world systems, post-colonial and
culturalist perspectives (ibid, p. 334). As also discussed during the presentation on July 6,
2015, I try to show the relations of these perspectives in the literature with certain sociological
paradigms.
3.a. World Culture Perspective: Scholars of this perspective posit that there exists a world
culture containing Western (and/or European) ideals of mass schooling, which serves as a
model for (non-Western) national school systems. They claim that all cultures are slowly
5. 4
integrating into a global single culture, and they show the development of common
educational structures and standard curriculum model as evidence to their claim. Moreover,
they advocate the political agenda of improving the current dominant human capital model of
schooling. In world cultural theories, the expansion of Western ideals of educability of all
people, right to education, role of education in maintaining economic and democratic rights is
also emphasized, and they believe this school model is globalized because it is the best
(Spring, ibid; Teichler, 2004).
World cultural theorists are mostly criticized on two accounts. First, even though they actually
do not say this one global single model is very rigid and applied in the same manner all over
the world, and there is only a trend or an increase toward such change; the national school
systems still vary vastly from one another. That means the school systems are still much less
homogenous than the world cultural theorist have claimed. Second, they ignore the human
agency in non-Western nations. By saying that school cultures converge because what the
decision-makers in these nations view as the modern school system is simply adopted, they
overlook the power dimension in this picture and the resistance to that power at collective
level and in everyday experience (Anderson-Levitt, 2000).
Within world culture perspective, the theories might most likely fall under structural-
functionalist paradigm. This paradigm looks at the society from the macro level and it is not
interested in individuals and everyday relations. It uses the analogy of human body to explain
the society, in which each institution has a specific function. Human capital theory also exists
within this paradigm, which sees education as a rational investment to pay off in the future
(see Hurn, 1993). Theorists of world culture say the global trend of converging school
systems happens simply because it serves a function for the nation-states and for the globe. As
stated, they tend to overlook everyday action, and apply human capital theory. Nonetheless,
Anderson-Levitt (ibid, p. 4) asserts that world culture theorists differ from functionalists on
6. 5
the point when they claim what matters is that the local actors perceive the global model of
schooling as the best way. Unlike functionalists who would tend to think that schools serve
the societyâs interests, it does not necessarily have to be the best for the nation-state.
3.b. World Systems Perspective: This approach sees the world as integrated, like in world
culture perspective, but with two major unequal zones. The centre zone (the ârichâ nations
such as the United States, the European Union and Japan) dominates the states in periphery
zone by inculcating their values and ideals of Western schooling. This inequality in terms of
power is missing in the previous perspective. In contrast to world cultural theories, world
systems theories mainly suggest that the core countries try to legitimize their power by using
aid agencies in order to teach capitalist nodes of thought and analyses, and their power to push
a global educational agenda is promoted through economic pressures. (Spring, ibid;
Anderson-Levitt, ibid).
In conflict paradigm, society is seen as a divided system in terms of power dimension, and in
this system, education serves the powerful, having a significant effect in the power relation
between the powerful and the powerless. Theories of this paradigm focus on the inequality, as
it is so in world systems theories when they elaborate the two unequal zones of the globe. In
relation to power and inequality, conflict paradigmâs argument that there is control of the
powerful over masses for their willingness to commit to schools (to global model of schools
in the case of this text) and therefore to labour force (see Hurn, ibid) can be found in world
systems perspective in promoting capitalist nodes of thinking. Certain global educational
processes might be irrational for the nation-states in periphery, but since they are powerless
(mostly economically); they have to comply with these processes and the reproduction of
capitalist power relations.
7. 6
3.c. Post-colonial Perspective: There exists a similarity of this perspective with the previous
two because in all of them the trend toward the global integration of school systems is the
basic argument. However, as Spring (ibid) names it, post-colonial analysis sees this trend as
an extension of the domination of world by European imperialism and Christian missionaries,
which is now carried out through intergovernmental organizations, multinational corporations
and trade agreements. Post-colonialist powers promote market economies, human capital
education, neoliberal school reforms designed to serve interests of the rich and powerful, and
they see education as an economic investment. In sharp contrast to world culture theories that
global schooling is fine and educational change should focus on its promotion, post-colonial
theories find it exploitive of the majority of people and harmful to the planet. They suggest
progressive forms of schooling to empower the masses.
The arguments of seeing society as divided, focusing on power relations and inequalities
between the dominated and the dominant and pointing the hegemony of global elites, which
supports that world systems perspective mostly matches conflict paradigm, can also be
applicable for post-colonial perspective.
3.d. Culturalist Perspective: The last interpretation of globalization and education also takes
power dimension into consideration, but in this perspective cultural variations and the
borrowing and lending of educational ideas from multiple models within a global context are
highlighted. Moreover, theories in this perspective reject the world cultural theories that
national elites select the best model of schooling from a world culture of schooling and that
educational models are simply imposed on local cultures. Instead, these theories suggest that
local actors choose from multiple models, and adapt them to their circumstances sometimes
against the will of the elites (Spring, ibid). Among culturalists, as Spring writes, a general
political agenda is â[âŚ] recognition of multiple knowledges, alternative cultural frameworks
8. 7
for schooling, and the importance of studying the interaction between the local and the
global.â (ibid, p. 337).
Culturalist views on educational globalization might fall under social action paradigm.
Looking at social interactions in everyday life at micro level within the context of global
education and seeing individuals as active agents of social change, unlike structural paradigm
in which the individuals are passive (see Giddens, 1997), it can be argued that social action
paradigm and culturalist perspectives have a lot in common.
4. Major Discourses, Institutions and Organizations
The first one of major global educational discourses stated in the text is the knowledge
economy and technology. The knowledge economy is described as generation of new wealth
by knowledge rather than ownership of capital, and the shift of power from owners and
managers to knowledge workers. The discourse around it penetrates the educational planning
globally, and is usually coined with the application of technology in the sense that technology
has made it easier for students (potential knowledge workers) to access the worldâs
knowledges (Drucker, 1993; Stromquist, 2002; Spring, ibid). The next discourse is lifelong
education that comes as a human capital requirement of the knowledge economy and
significantly relates to labour markets. In this discourse, primary and secondary education is
now the preparation of students for âhow to become a lifelong learnerâ by teaching skills
needed to learn other subjects, which affects the primary and secondary curricula directly
(Commission of the European Communities, 2000; Spring, ibid). The next global educational
discourse is global migration, brain circulation and multiculturalism. Even though the
migration is mostly from poorer and âless-developedâ nations to wealthier and âdevelopedâ
ones, the focus of educational globalization discussion regarding migration shifted from brain
drain to brain circulation which is the mobility of skilled and professional workers between
9. 8
wealthy nations or their return to their home countries. Migration also raises concerns of
multicultural education in host nations due to the conflict of maintaining social cohesion with
increased global migration (Report of the Global Commission on International Migration,
2005; Spring, ibid). The last discourse is neoliberalism, but this concept is elaborated in the
next section of this paper (5. Additional Concepts â Criticisms of Educational Globalization).
Also mentioned in the text, there are certain major institutions and organizations affecting the
globalization of education. One of them is the World Bank, since it provides educational loans
to developing nations and support privatization of schooling. One other is the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), since they operate important education
programs and support global standardization of education through the Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA). Additionally, education is among the services
covered by World Trade Organization/ General Agreement on Trade in Services
(WTA/GATS). ETS, for example, develops, administers and scores more than 50 million tests
annually in more than 180 countries, at more than 9,000 locations worldwide.1
Finally, there
are intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations operating globally on education-
related issues of human rights, environmentalism and womenâs education. (Spring, ibid).
5. Additional Concepts â Criticisms of Educational Globalization
In this section, certain additional concepts, such as neoliberalism, marketization, privatization,
accountability, and turbo-capitalism are discussed in a way that the concepts are not
elaborated as separate topics, but only their relevance to educational globalization is shown.
These concepts are chosen because they are mostly used in the literature to criticize the
educational globalization.
1
See https://www.ets.org/about/
10. 9
Implementation of neoliberal policies in nation states has been going hand in hand with the
global economic restructuring (Burbules & Torres, ibid, p. 5), and an important change it
brings is the withdrawal of the state from its responsibility to provide the society with social
justice regarding education. This justice; however, is being replaced by a blind faith in the
market which takes competition as the driving force. Increased calls for school privatization
are examples for such faith at macro level. Moreover, this social justice is hoped to be
provided by the economic growth which might potentially generate a spill over to help the
poor, and by the private charity which might pick up what state leaves out in educational
policies. In addition to the marketization, the neoliberal state is characterized by the cutbacks
in social spending including the spending in education. This leads to the fact that corporations
are becoming so powerful that they have started to create their own educational programs, and
all these results in that the wealth and power are retained by the privileged nations (Spring,
1998; Burbules & Torres, ibid; R. Rhoads & Torres, 2006; Spring, ibid). Apple (2000) points
out the danger of greater reliance on the free market and less state intervention in education
causing more appeal given to the individual self-interest than to the collective rights.
Regarding neoliberalism and educational globalization, Shore explains that in many
contemporary capitalist societies, processes of neoliberalism and of New Public Management
result in the âaudit cultureâ that derives its legitimacy from its claims to provide transparency
and accountability, and he asks:
How are these technologies of audit refashioning the working environment
and what effects do they have on behaviour (and subjectivity) of academics?
What does the analysis of the rise of managerialism tell us about wider
historical processes of power and change in our society? And why are
academics seemingly so complicit in, and unable to challenge, these audit
processes? (2008, p. 279)
11. 10
The misplaced faith in audit and accounting is destroying the universities, since they bear only
superficial and largely misleading resemblances to commercial companies. Once the
processes of neoliberalism are introduced in educational organizations, the effects are
irreversible, and one of these effects is the loss of room for creativity and initiative (Shore,
ibid).
Teichler (2004) is also interested in the manifestation of certain capitalist processes in
globalization of higher education. He states the debate on this topic suddenly focuses on the
issues of managerialism, resource acquisition, marketization, competition and management,
suggesting that the major "global forces" relevant to higher education are only those of
"turbo-capitalism" (cf. Currie & Newson, 1998). He asks, âIs this a social construct spreading
in higher education because of the increase in managerialism that tends to limit its view on
managerial and operational issues?â (Teichler, ibid, p. 23)
6. Conclusion
As seen in all theoretical perspectives and in additional arguments, there indeed is a global
trend on educational processes as in that schooling all over the globe has become more similar
in terms of ideal, basic structures and content and that there is an increase in global
educational institutions (Anderson-Levitt, ibid; Spring, ibid). However, it can be argued that
this paper slightly takes a stand against world culture theories, since they underestimate the
power dimension of education and globalization. In her edited book, Anderson-Levitt shows
that â[âŚ] teachers and other local actors sometimes resist and always transform the official
models they are handed.â (ibid, p.4). The effect and scope of such resistance and
transformation, in my opinion, still remain as an empirical research question, as well as the
question that how the actors including students, parents, school teachers, school and
12. 11
university administrations, academicians, etc. within specific sites resist, reshape and recreate
the global forces.
Even though the 5th
section of this paper also seems to focus on the empirical or possible
negative effects of globalization on education, I want to invite the reader not to take an easy
judgement on this issue. Although Shore gives voice to his suspicion towards audit culture, he
makes sure that he does not try to make a case against auditing or transparency per se by
saying that â[âŚ] audits, when used properly, can be very effective instruments for preventing
fraud, mismanagement and waste of public money.â (ibid, p.291).
When all the arguments are considered, it can be concluded that labelling processes within
educational globalization as âall evilâ (also as âall wellâ) might lead to a mistake. Such
processes should be scrutinized as special cases within their specific context (region, district,
school, or classroom at a time) and in relation to the global as well as national forces at play.
13. 12
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