Using Interconnected Computer Networks For Communication

Using Interconnected Computer Networks For Communication
The term internet refers to a system of billions of interconnected computers across the globe that
uses a universally accepted and standardized internet protocol suite also known as the TCP/IP. The
internet makes it possible to access extensive information resources through the World Wide Web
(WWW), supports telephony, email and file sharing (Ian, 2004). The internet started out as a
commissioned study by the United States government in the 1960s to explore the possibility of
using interconnected computer networks for communication. This was also done in Europe but real
progress came in the 1980s when funding was availed to create the needed basic infrastructure by
the USA organisation; National Science foundation and then by other private entities. From here the
interconnected computers grew in number at rapid rates. This was the case since personal,
institutional and mobile computers continue to get added to the network to date (University of
Texas, 2002). Basically the birth of the internet was necessitated by the need to communicate and to
share data and information as effectively as possible. The growth of internet use has however
continued to grow at a tremendous pace all across the world making it a part of many people's daily
lives. The internet has become such an integral part of many people's lives that they rely on it for
such activities as communicating, entertainment and even earning a living. However, as is the case
with most innovations, the internet has
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3g Wireless Access, Abstract
5G WIRELESS ACCESS Abstract: 5G technology stands for fifth Generation Mobile technology
.From era 1g to 2.5g and from 3g to 5g this world of telecommunication has seen a number has seen
upgrades along with improved performance with every passing day. This fast revolution in mobile
computing changes our everyday life. That is way we work, associate, learn and so on. This paper
also focuses on all the preceding generations of mobile communication along with fifth generation
technology. Fifth generation network provide very high speed broadband wireless connectivity. In
fifth generation researches are generally made on development of world wide wireless
web(WWWW), dynamic adhoc wireless networks (DAWN) and real wireless world. The most
critical advances for 5G technologies are 802.11 wireless Local Area networks(WLAN)and 802.16
wireless metropolitan area networks(WMAN).The Fifth generation concentrate on VOIP –
empowered gadgets that client will experience a high level of call volume and data transmission. 5G
technology will satisfy all the necessities of clients who always want progressed peculiarities in
mobile phones. The main feature in 5g mobile network is that client can simultaneously connect to
the multiple wireless technologies and can switch between them. The anticipated versatile
technology will help Ipv6 and flat Ip.fifth

Data Communication
DATA COMMUNICATION
Advancements in the information technology sector have brought many benefits to the people all
around the world. Today with computer networking, we can chat, speak and see each other over a
long distance. Data communication refers to the transmission of the digital signals over a
communication channel between the transmitter and receiver computers. Communication is possible
only with wired and wireless connectivity of the computers with each other.
All the computers, in the logically and physically networks have to follow the same rules known as
Protocols such as TCP/IP, IPX/SPX and NETBEUI etc. Today, there are many computer networking
technologies such as LAN, MAN, WAN, WLAN, ISDN, ATM, Frame Relay, X.25, Bluetooth, ...
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Well–known communications protocols are Ethernet, a hardware and Link standard that is
ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols
for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as well as host–to–host
data transfer, and application–specific data transmission formats.
Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub–discipline of electrical engineering,
telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, since it
relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that
consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to
global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the
inter–linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support
electronic mail.
Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are
reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting

Application And The Evolution Of Tcp Ip Protocol
Ronald Vongphachamk
Larry Ball
IS–3413
8 August 2016
TCP/IP
Since the Internet has been introduced to the world. There have been an increasing number of people
using the Internet for the very first time. They are using device(s) like their phone, computers, and
television to connect to the Internet. An integral of this growth is the use of Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The Transport Control Protocol and Internet Protocol are two
important communication protocols used in the network today. In this paper, I will discuss the
functionality and the evolution of TCPIP protocol.
Prior to the 1960s, computer communication consisted of basic binary data and simple text, carried
by telecommunications network ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
universities and the corporate research community to design open, standard protocols and build
multi–vendor networks. This was the first packet switching network. The experiment was successful
creating these four nodes at three different sites connecting together at 56 kbit/s circuits using
Network Control Protocol and the trial network evolved to a useful operational network, which was
called, the "ARPA Internet". The first node of the ARPANET was installed at the University of
California at Los Angeles (UCLA). Then another node was at Stanford Research Institute (SRI), the
University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), and the University of Utah.
In 1973, Vinton G. Cerf and Robert E. Kahn conducted a research on a reliable way data
communication across packet radio networks. From what Cerf and Kahn learned, they created the
next generation TCP, which is the standard protocol used on the Internet today. Since the change, the
set of communications protocols is used for the Internet and other networks. IP evolved in the 1960s
and 1970s, namely the Internet and LANS, which emerged in the late–1980s and advent of the
World Wide Web in the early 1990s. The two–network TCP/IP communication test was performed
in 1975 with Stanford and University College London. Later that year, there was test conducted
between sites in the US, UK, and Norway. There were multiple research centers conducting TCP/IP
prototypes between 1978 – 1983. The

Designing A Computer Network -such
There are many things to consider when designing a computer network –such as costs of
components, software and labor; communication, cohesion, expandability and many others.
However, the end goal in such an enterprise is to have a fully functional, harmonious, and cohesive
tiered system where duties and actions are divided, and delineated accordingly. One of the major
network architectures used to facilitate this process is known as the TCP/IP Protocol Suite. The
TCP/IP Protocol Suite was designed by scientists in the effort to support a new type of network
known as the ARAPNET that was being installed across the US in the late 60's to 70's. (White,
2013, p. 15) The challenge was to create an open system whereby all networks could freely
communicate with each other. The design was based on a layered system whereby the user would
connect at the topmost (or application) layer, while at the same time being removed or separated
from the lower (physical) layer. Although the number of layers is not exactly set, depending on the
source this number can range between five and seven layers, with each layer providing services to
the layer above it. For the purposes of this discussion however, we will address the five layer model.
The five layers of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite are: Application, Transport, Network, Network Access
(or Data Link), and Physical. (White, 2013, p. 15) Application This layer supports all of the
applications on the network. Some of the most frequent

Systems Administration and Network Administration
Systems Administration and Network Administration Systems administration and network
administration are, in many respects, very similar jobs. Both positions are highly involved in
maintaining the computer systems in an organization, and, in some smaller firms, the position may
be handled by the same individual. However, while there are significant similarities between
systems administration and network administration, there are differences in the roles as well.
Basically speaking, system administration focuses on computer systems and networks, while
network administration looks at maintenance and upkeep of the hardware and software that
composes the network (Entrance Exams 2012, 2012). Because there is obviously an overlap
between the two different job descriptions, it can be difficult to understand why it is so important for
information technology professionals to differentiate between network and systems administration.
However, when one understands the different roles of the two different positions, it becomes clear
that, why they might overlap, and why a single individual might be able to handle the position in a
small organization, there are actually substantial differences between the two positions. Particularly
in a large organization, the two jobs may need to be handled by different professionals with different
skill sets. It is because of these different skill sets that the industry has been so adamant about
differentiating between systems and network

Thesis Statement On Digital Security
Digital Security
The 21st century has been described as the "Information Age", a period in human history
characterized by the shift in traditional industry implemented through the industrial revolution to an
economy based on information computerization.
We have come a long way from paper based systems through the use of a computer for efficient data
processing. The creation of local area networks (LAN) all the way through opening channels for
communication and knowledge sharing on a much larger scale. This is where the introduction to
connecting LAN networks to the internet came about. The internet allows for seamless
communication to take place virtually right around the world. Technology with the use of the
internet has changed the way we ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
More people with malicious intent are finding new ways to infiltrate our lives through the
technology we use. While using the internet has become an essential part of everyday life, there is
an element of risk involved. We are exposing ourselves to a number of cybercrimes and need to
educate ourselves on how to identify these crimes and put the necessary protection policies and
procedures in place.
Digital Security "is the protection of your digital identity – the network or internet equivalent of
your physical identify. Digital security include the tools you use to secure your identity assets and
technology in the online and mobile world. "– Google definition
Main Statement: explaining the need for digital security when connecting your corporate computer
network to the Internet
"Internet based Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), power line communications, satellite
communications and wireless communications (wireless sensor networks, WiMAX and wireless
mesh networks) are discussed."
Malware
Malware also referred to as 'malicious software' is a piece of software that was designed to disrupt,
damage, or gain unauthorised access to a computer system.
There are various type of malware expertly designed for very specific

Router and Switches
Router and Switches II In Routers and Switches we learned several things such as: what is a Router,
why we need Routers, what is the importance of a Router. We also learned what VLSM is and how
to do it and use it. Throughout CCNA we learned how to configure a Router; the different types of
Routing protocols and most importantly what, when and how to use those protocols in the field.
Finally I will discuss Switches in how they are use to set up a LAN. Throughout this paper these
topic will be discuss to cover what was learned through class lecture and text book (CCNA study
guide by Lammle) and actually applied through hands on labs which were done with actual Cisco
Router and Switches within a working LAN and Ethernet connection ... Show more content on
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The most common of the two link state protocols is OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) it is widely
used throughout the field (#1) due to it being a non proprietor protocol as well as its ability to
interface with other networks. With OSPF you can group router into small areas and link them
through a back bone when this is done you create the following a back bone router within the area of
the back bone there is an area border router (ABR), ABR must have one interface in each area
meaning the back bone and the area trying to link to the back bone, OSPF can also connect to
multiple Autonomous System. When configuring OSPF you must assign a process number in all
router within that group must use that same number, the number can range for 1 to 65,535 you can
also have more than one each one will maintain its own separate topology table as well as manage it
independently. There is also distance vectors RIP vs. 1 and 2 (Routing Information Protocol) these
work well on small networks, IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) and EIGRP (is the
enhanced version of IGRP). The thing about these two meaning IGRP and EIGRP is that they are
proprietary protocols so they only work

Protocol Stack, Subnetting And Results
Introduction In this report, I will discuss 3 sections: Protocol Stack, Subnetting and Results. Within
the protocol stack section, I will explain how the encapsulation process works within each layer of
both TCP/IP & IOS/OSI models. The explanations will relate to the stages which occur within the
process of requesting a web page from the web server via PC0 over the Wide Area Network (WAN).
Within the subnetting section, I will produce a guide on subnetting an IP address. Within, the results
section, screenshots of composing and receiving email will be shown, also screenshots displaying
the webpage of web server and outputs of 2 show commands on routing and switching devices.
Protocol Stack There are 2 different protocol stacks; TCP/IP and ... Show more content on
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So, within the WAN connection, to request a webpage from PC0 located within the Birmingham
site, the DNS protocol is used to determine the domain name whereas the HTTP application
protocol manages the way a web server & web client interact. When requesting for the webpage,
DNS protocol sends data to the next 2 layers of the OSI Model in order to firstly encrypt the data
within the Presentation layer and then the dialogue is organized and data exchange is managed
within session layer. Data remains as one block during these 3 stages. Within the next layer
(Transport layer) of both models, data is segmented and a port number is attached to each segment
which identifies the application which should receive the data on receiving device. Port numbers are
attached when the TCP header is added. TCP & UDP are the 2 protocols functioning on this layer.
TCP is used for reliable connections whereas UDP is used for unreliable connection. When referring
back to the scenario of requesting a webpage, data will be segmented and port number 80 will be
attached in order for web server's HTTP service to receive the data then the segments will be
forwarded on using the TCP protocol (Jaro., 2010). Segments are encapsulated into packets when
forwarded to Network Layer (Internet Layer on TCP/IP Model), the Network layer implements
logical addressing to the packets. In the scenario of requesting for

Application And Application Of Cloud Computing
Introduction With the Internet, users have been able to access information faster than ever. Today,
users have the ability to utilize cloud technologies to access information and services. Users no
longer have to rely on the processing power of their personal computer (PC) to complete task or
limit the ability of accessing pictures or document to a physical location such as their hard drive on
their PC. The Internet is a large network that is continues to provide more services and
opportunities. The Internet is support by a large network of routers, switches, and servers.
Understanding how to network terms and utilization will continue to allow business and user to
optimize the utilization of the Internet and cloud computing.
Ways users use applications in the cloud in today's business environment As information technology
continues to improve, applications no longer are limited to being installed locally on a physical
computer or server. Cloud computing now allows applications be access via a virtual solution knows
as the "cloud". There are many essential characteristics of cloud computing such as on–demand
access, pay per use, connectivity, and resource pooling (Durkee, 2010). Users must be able to trust
the connectivity when relying on access an application over the internet. Today 's cloud servers are
connected to high–speed networks that allow data to flow to the Internet. These high–speed
networks improve reliability and expand accessibility. Cloud computing offers

Security And Privacy Issues Of Iots
Security and privacy issues of IoTs: A Survey K. Krishna Pradheer1, L. Raghavendar Raju2 1 BE
computer science engineering, 3rd year, Matrusri Engineering College, Saidabad, Hyderabad–59. 2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engg, Matrusri Engineering College, Saidabad,
Hyderabad–59. Abstract: The presence of smart things around us is growing rapidly. The world as
we speak now is filled with crores of smart things, collecting rich amount of data. This paper is a
general survey of all the security issues existing in the Internet of Things (IoT) along with an
analysis of the privacy issues that an end–user may face as a consequence of the spread of IoT. The
survey is mostly focused on the security loopholes arising out of the information exchange
technologies used in Internet of Things. Countermeasures are discussed for only some of these
security drawbacks in this paper. Keywords: Internet of Things; Security; Privacy. 1.
INTRODUCTION IoT technology mainly focusses on applications that are aimed at improving
quality life of people while saving costs for companies and public authorities. We live in real world
and some of activities we perform here cannot be fully implemented with the help of services
provided by virtual approaches. It is the limitation of such approaches that confines the development
of Internet to offer better services. To overcome such restrictions, a new technology has come into
limelight which integrates the features of virtual world and

Changing The Physical Layer
The physical layer specifics the function details for initiating, keeping up and turning off the
physical link when moving the bits of data over the physical media such as copper, fibre or wireless.
So it will takes your data bits of ones and zeros covert them to what is needed to transfer over that
type of media so for example change bits into electrical signals for copper cables then will covert it
back to ones and zeros once it reaches its destination to send up OSI model layers.
When changing the bits so they can be sent over different types of media this is known as signalling.
Signalling will change the bits to what it needs to be for transmission then is read by the connections
at the other end.
Protocols of the physical layer ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If there is a difference a CRC frame error is generated to state there is a corruption either on the
sending device side or the destinations device packet transmission.
For detecting and troubleshooting these issues use the different types of show commands such as
show interface and show spanning–tree.
The data link layer is responsible for controlling access to the media and formatting the data for
transmission for going across the physical network link. So it encapsulates the packets from the
network layer to suitable frames for the network media to use for transferring data frames from one
place to another error free. The addressing used at this layer is physical addressing also known as
mac addressing which is how devices are addressed at this layer instead of IP addressing. The data
link layer also does error detection at this layer as well.
The data link layer has two sub layers which are logical link control and Mac. The logical link
control sub layer gives flexibility in services to the layers above so it will let the data link layer
known what to do with a packet when gets a frame. This works by it will check the header to
establish that the packet inside the frame it received is destined for the network layer. The MAC sub
layer keeps a table with the mac addresses of the devices because each device must have a unique
Mac to be identified on the network.
At the data link layer you also

Patton-Fuller Community Hospital Networking Paper
Patton–Fuller Community Hospital has been in business in the City of Kelsey since 1975. The
hospital provides high quality medical care to the citizens of Kelsey and the surrounding area. Some
of the services the hospital offers are x–rays, pharmacy, and emergency services for children and
adults. "As one of the first hospitals in Kelsey, the staff is committed to providing a variety of
programs that will support the health and welfare of the local community populations" (Apollo
Group, 2010). The hospital's backbone network structure for the entire hospital is 1000Base T. Some
of the other individual sections of the departmental network use different standards such as
1000Base F. The areas that use the 1000Base T are responsible for the ... Show more content on
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Some of the other individual sections of the departmental network use different standards such as
1000Base F. The two networks are connected by a network bridge. The network bridge is used to
inexpensively and easily connect local area network segments (Microsoft, 2010). The reason a
network bridge is inexpensive is that there is no configuration required and you don't have to
purchase additional hardware such as routers and other bridges. The hospital's administrative
network consists of Apple iMACS and thin computers that use 1000Base T with CAT 6 cables. All
work stations belonging to Executive Management has Apple iMAC computers with 24" monitors,
2.4 GHz speed, 2 GB RAM, and a 500 MB hard drive. Human Resources, OPNS, and the Finance
Senior Managers have Apple iMACS with 20" monitors, 2 GHz speed, and a 350 MB hard drive.
All of the systems have OS virtualization and use the MAC Operating System X, Leopard, and
Windows XP. OS virtualization allows separate, isolated virtual environments to be used on a single
server. The MAC Operating System X is a UNIX system that is both simple and powerful. Leopard
further enhanced the system by making it faster and more reliable. Windows XP is a product of
Microsoft but it is able to be installed on any MAC using a native version of Microsoft Office. This
way users are able to create documents using MS Word, make presentations using PowerPoint, and

Cis Data Communications Concepts Wans
Data Communication Concepts I Instructions: Insert your answer after each question in a bold red
typeface. When complete, attach the document as your submission for this assignment. You may
name your answers document any name you choose. Once I score your document it will be named
[Last Name][First Name], and returned to you as an attachment to my feedback. When your answer
consists of a list of items, please enter only one list–item per line. This helps speed the scoring
process. Name: ________Hugo Tinoco sanchez ___________ Assignment Questions: Describe the
responsibilities and scope of authority for each of the following government organizations. You may
need to review the discussion on the ITU from chapter one: ... Show more content on
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Describe the three dedicated–circuit network architectures discussed in the textbook. Explain the
strengths and weaknesses of each. Ring Architecture. Has a closed loop with all PC's linked to the
next one. Circuits are full duplex or half duplex, which allows messaging in both directions around
the ring. The fall back is the time in which message can take to travel around the ring from the
sender to a receiver, since the messages have to pass through several different computers and
circuits, concluding in traffic delays which can pile up quickly. Star Architecture connects all the
PCs to a central PC which acts as the message router to an appropriate PC. It's easier to manage
because of the central PC receiving and routing all the messages in the desired network. This allows
the communication to be faster than ring architecture since it only travels through two circuits to
reach the receiver. However, having only one central pc can create more problems since its in
change of all the messages on the network. This creates room for overload in traffic and could
potentially decrease performance overall. Mesh Architecture has every PC connected to very other
PC. This is a Full–mesh network, and it's biggest downfall is the high price. However, partial–mesh
most PC, but not all are connected to each other. Although it combines star and ring, if

Nt2799 Oral Exam Essay examples
Nt2799 Oral Exam Topic I: The input/ output Process 1. A person wishes to purchase a personal
computer for home usage. Identify the internal hardware components this computer should contain.
a. Mother board b. Power supply c. RAM d. NIC e. Graphic card if not on mother board f. Processor
2. Explain in simple terms the I/O process. a. The Input / Output Process – simply put anything that
puts input into the computer is an Input device, such as a keyboard or mouse. Output is what comes
out such as typing on the keyboard will give you output on your display monitor and some things do
both such as a hard drive. 3. You typed "abcd", but the locally attached printer prints garbled text.
How do you go about resolving this issue? a. It appears ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
| Make sure all data is sent intact. | TRANSPORT layer 4 | Make sure all data has arrived intact. |
Keep track of how many hops; open shortest path First; Go to IP address 255.65.0.123 | NETWORK
layer 3 | Keep track of how many hops; opened the shortest path First; Went to IP address
255.65.0.123 | Is the initial connection set up? Put data into frames according to X standard. | DATA
LINK layer 2 | The initial connection set up. Decoded data in frame according to X standard. | Send
as electrical signal over the network cable at X voltage, and X Mbps. | PHYSICAL layer 1 | Receive
electrical signal over the network cable at X voltage, and X Mbps. | OSI LAYER | DEVICES |
PROTOCOLS | APPLICATION layer 7 | | SNMP, SMTP, FTP, TELNET, HTTP, NCP, SMB,
AppleTalk | PRESENTATION layer 6 | | NCP, AFP, TDI | SESSION layer 5 | | NetBIOS |
TRANSPORT layer 4 | | NetBEUI, TCP, SPX, NWlink | NETWORK layer 3 | Routers, layer 3 (or
IP) switches. | IP, IPX, NWlink, NetBEUI | DATA LINK layer 2 | Bridges and switches, Ethernet
incorporates both this layer and the Physical layer. | – | PHYSICAL layer 1 | Hubs, repeaters,
network adapters, Parallel SCSI buses. Various physical–layer Ethernet incorporates both this layer
and the data–link layer. Token ring, FDDI, and IEEE 802.11. | – | * On OSI stack: * FTAM File
Transfer and Access Management Protocol * X.400 Mail X.400 is a

Traffic Control And Congestion Control Essay
1. Increasing the router memory to infinite cannot control the congestion. Agree or disagree?
Elaborate briefly (60–100 words) Why is it true that route with infinite memory does try to
minimize congestion, this can simply get out of control and get worse if the rate of incoming packets
is far more than the outgoing packet and especially if more incoming packet from multiple input line
arriving at any given router need the same output channel. This build up a queue and before other
packet reach the beginning of the queue they have already timeout prompting re–submission of
duplicates building up the queue again leading to more congestion. A lot of other factors are in play
here, among these include router CPU and bandwidth. 2. Compare the following: Flow Control vs
Congestion Control Congestion control basically states that a network device can transmit only a
certain number of packets and can not add more packets to a network until an acknowledgement is
received. Congestion control prevents too much data from being injected into the network, causing
links and switches to be overloaded Flow control works by refusing new connections until
congestion is resolved. In serial transmissions, Xon/Xoff is used for flow control. It is a handshaking
mechanism that will keep a sender from sending data faster than a receiver can receive it. flow
control prevents senders from overrunning the capacity of the receivers Open loop congestion
control methods vs Closed Loop congestion

Communication Protocols And Functions Of Seven Layers Of...
ASSIGNMENT 6 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS Data communication allows individuals and
companies to transmit or receive information from one point to another. For two or more devices to
communicate, there should be some mechanism or medium that can link them to help them achieve
their goals. This mechanism or medium is governed by rules or laws defining a format is called a
protocol [3]. This is because all communications between devices require that the devices agree on
proper format of the data. There are variety of standard protocols from which programmers can
choose based on the resources available and mainly on the requirements. For e.g. if reliability is
very important, then reliable protocols such as TCP should be used. Each protocol has its own
advantage and restrictions. Depending on several factors such as speed, reliability, simplicity,
programmers choose these protocols. In this essay, I am going to address about the networks and
commonly used protocols, functions of seven layers of the OSI model, TCP/IP protocol, and
protocols used in wireless communication. Technologies related to internetworking is growing
rapidly day by day. "A network is a group of connected, communicating devices such as computers
and printers." [1] When two or more networks exists and communicate with each other, it is known
as an internet. We know, Internet is the most notable internet, which is composed of thousands of
interconnected networks [1]. Any individual or any organization such as

Nt1310 Unit 7
Assignment 1
2.3 Protocol:
A protocol is predefined set of rules or conventions which governs the way in which two entities co–
ordinately cooperate to exchange data, in any network.
2.4 Protocol Data Unit (PDU):
A PDU is the used to refer collection of data moving from one layer to another, higher
communications layer, with the control information for layers.
2.5 Protocol Architecture:
It is the software structure, which implements the communication function. The protocol
architecture consists of a layered set of protocols, with one or more protocols at each layer.
2.6 TCP/IP:
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) are the basic communication protocols,
which were designed to provide low level support for internetworking. This term is generally also
used to refer to a more generalised collection of protocols developed by the internet community and
U.S. Department of Defence.
2.7 Advantages of Layering in TCP/IP architecture:
Layering is the process which is used and helped to reduce the overall problem, which is huge in
size, to number of sub problems, which are manageable is size.
2.8 Router:
A router is a device that is used to connect dissimilar device. It is present and operates at the
Network layer of the OSI model.
2.9 Version of IP, that is prevalent today:

IPv4, is the version of IP that is prevalent today. It may also be expected that IPv6 may be prevalent
in the future.
2.10 Does all Traffic on internet use TCP ?
No, we cannot say

802. 11a Standard Essay
2.3 IEEE 802.11 Common modifications. At the beginning, in 1997, there was just one standard –
802.11 with 2.4Ghz frequency band and transfer rate up to 2Mbps. Recent days we have more than
10 different and more or less popular types of 802.11 standards. Figure 3. 2.3.1 IEEE 802.11a The
IEEE 802.11a standard provides data transfer rates up to 54 Mbps and was implemented in 2001.
Unlike the base standard, the 802.11a specification provides for operation in a new 5 GHz frequency
band. The IEEE 802.11a standard is incompatible with 802.11b or 802.11g. 2.3.2 IEEE 802.11b This
standard adopted in 1999. It is not recommended to use the standard at home, as same as in
corporate computing networks. The exception may be those cases when the ... Show more content
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Speed is 300 Mbps, Security protocols are WEP, WPA, WPA2, Security level can be declared as
high. This standard was approved in 2009. 802.11n is comparable in transmission speed to the wired
standards. The maximum transmission speed of the standard 802.11n is about 5 times higher than
the performance of classic Wi–Fi. The increase in the transmission speed in the IEEE 802.11n
standard is achieved, firstly, due to the doubling of the channel width from 20 to 40 MHz, and
secondly, due to the implementation of MIMO technology. MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
technology involves the use of multiple transmit and receive antennas. (Mitchell, 2017) 2.3.4 IEEE
802.11ac/ad Kldhflskdjhflskjhfdlskjdhflksjdhflksjhdflksjdhflkjshdflkjsdhf . (Triggs, 2016) 2.3.5
IEEE 802.11ah Sdkjhfksdjhflksjdhflkjsdhflksjdhflksjdhflkjsdhf. (DeLisle, 2014) 2.4 Security.
Initially, to ensure security in 802.11 standard networks WEP algorithm (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
was applied, including RC4 encryption algorithm with 40–bit or 104–bit key and means of key
distribution between users, but in 2001 it found a basic vulnerability allowing get full access to the
network for a finite (and very short time), regardless of the length of the key. Strongly not
recommended for use this security mode at the moment. Therefore, in 2003, a wireless certification
program called WPA (Wi–Fi Protected Access) was adopted, eliminating the drawbacks of the
previous

Communications Technologies
Student's Name
Case Study 1: Florida Department of Management Services, Part 1
CIS 505 Communication Technologies
Professor's name
May 5, 2013
Analyze the security mechanisms needed to protect the DMS systems from both state employees
and users accessing over the internet:
Department of Management Services (DMS) has chosen to expand their applications and services
via TCP/IP and Internet access. DMS uses a widely used proprietary scheme: IBM's Systems
Network Architecture (SNA) which provides support for TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol). SNA architecture is projected to remain important for some years to
come. Implementing standardized protocol architectures allow DMS ongoing communication with
suppliers, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, all distributed applications, including remote logon, client/server, email, file transfer, Web
access, and so on, can be secured (Stallings, 2009). Finally, Stallings (2009) has noted, "another
relatively general–purpose solution is to implement security just above TCP by using Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL) and the follow–on Internet standard Transport Layer Security (TLS). For full
generality, SSL, (TLS) could be provided as part of the underlying protocol suite and therefore be
transparent to applications. Alternatively, SSL can be embedded in specific packages.
Critique the transition process performed by the DMS in the case study. Then, recommend two (2)
alternatives to the IP Infrastructure or applications not already mentioned in the case study: By the
early 1990s, the Florida department of management services (DMS) had built up a large information
systems network that serve state government agencies in 10 regional sites and connected these to the
data center in Tallahassee. The network was based on the use of the proprietary systems network
architecture (SNA) from IBM and mainframe at the data center that housed most of the applications.
Although relatively happy with the SNA application and services by providing TCP/IP capability
and internet access. The goal was met in a remarkably short time. Over the course of 30 months,
DMS built a statewide TCP/IP network, began

Networking Standards ( Osi Layers )
ASA College CIS 125–M01: Network Concepts Networking Standards (OSI Layers) Joel
Hernandez Vasquez joelvasquez@asa.edu 02/09/2016 Nowadays everybody can get access to the
internet through networks, but according to Columbia University over the 37% of people do not
know what a network is. A network is a group of computers which are connected to share
information, files, and performs tasks. A network is built using the same common language. My
purpose of this project is to explain what a network is, and let you know how important is to know
it. The next paragraphs will explain the introduction of networking, the disadvantages of
networking, and the disadvantages. A network is a group of computer or electronic devices
connected ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A wide local area network is used to link networks in vast geographic. For instance, you can use a
WAN to connect to larger places such as the United States, China, and Japan. Another type of
network is Metropolitan area network (MAN) which is used to connect an entire city, a particular
region, and university campus. Moreover, a metropolitan area network is smaller than a wide area
network but larger than a local area network. Furthermore, there is another type of network, which is
called PAN (Personal Area Network). A Personal Area network is defined as a group of computers
or electronic devices connected to a specific range of a user. For example, when we have a group of
devices at home interconnected such as laptops, printers, tablets, and cell phones. Networks have
become a central issue for organizations, business, and universities because it provides many
advantages. One of the benefits of a network is the easiest way to share information. For example, in
a company where there are many offices around the world you can distribute information to all the
offices in short time. Moreover, having a network will give you the benefits to talking with people in
real time in a larger distance. In addition, another advantage of a network is that allow you to share
hardware. For example, in an office that you only have a printer you can use this printer connected
to multiple computers instead of having one printer for

nt1210 Essay
Roman Katoliko
NT1210
CHAPTER 3: Building TCP/IP Networks
Lab 3.1: Network Reference Models
Ex 3.1.1
What would happen if wireless devices were not governed by the Wi–Fi Alliance and each vendor
had its own standards and protocol? What impact would this have on your personal life or business
communications?
If each vendor had their own standards and protocols, we would have a harder time making devices
that we use every day to inter–operate. Imagine buying specific BRAND of ROUTER for a
SPECIFIC computer just to use the internet; so if you have a Sony computer you would also need a
Sony wireless router to connect to the internet via provided Sony made routers. We would to have
multiple routers depending on the devices we own ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables,
cards and physical aspects.
2. DATA LINK (Layer2) – divided into 2 sub layers: MAC, which controls how a computer on the
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it, and LLC which controls frame
synchronization. At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes
transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow
control and frame synchronization.
3. NETWORK (layer 3) – Provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths,
known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node.
4. TRANSPORT (layer 4) – provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and
is responsible for end–to–end error recovery and flow control.
5. SESSION (layer 5) – this layer establishes, managers and terminates connections between
applications
6. PRESENTATION (layer 6) – this layer provides independence from differences in data
representation. E.g. encryption.
7. APPLICATION (layer 7) – This layer supports application and end–user process.
Ex 3.2.2
Ex 3.2.3
Briefly explain the deencapsulation steps in the communication from host B receiving a message
from Host A destined for an active application.
A. Converts data to bits for transmission
B. Packages the data for end to end transport

C. Adds the data–link header and trailer
D.

Seven Layers in the OSI Model
1. This class made me learn quite a lot. Though it was a course I have done in my under graduate,
this class helped me to learn more about the networking. The class was interactive and fun, the lab
sessions were very helpful. The project was one of the best parts of the whole course. It made me
look into and study about various new protocols in networking and finally I could get an idea on
how I could design a protocol by myself. The most important thing I learnt in this class is the
detailed functions and uses of every later in the OSI model, and I also realized that TCP is the most
important protocol of all that I learnt. It is very reliable and provides acknowledgement, and is a full
duplex process. It provides congestion control and flow control and is also a connection oriented
service. On an overall this class made me learn a lot that would always be very helpful to me. 2. The
seven Layers in the OSI model are Physical Layer, Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer,
Session Layer, Application Layer and the presentation Layer. Each layer has a specific function to
perform and consist of different protocols. Physical layer is the lowest one and handles transmission
and reception of messages over the medium. Then comes the link layer , it allows error free
transmission of the data frames in the physical layer. The network layer takes care of processes like
routing, traffic control and fragmentation of the data. The next one is the transport layer, it takes care
of the

Elements of Communication
The Elements of Communication Communication begins with a message, or information, that must
be sent from one individual or device to another. People exchange ideas using many different
communication methods. All of these methods have three elements in common. The first of these
elements is the message source, or sender. Message sources are people, or electronic devices, that
need to send a message to other individuals or devices. The second element of communication is the
destination, or receiver, of the message. The destination receives the message and interprets it. A
third element, called a channel, consists of the media that provides the pathway over which the
message can travel from source to destination. Consider, for example, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Hardware is often the visible components of the network platform such as a laptop, a PC, a switch,
or the cabling used to connect the devices. Occasionally, some components may not be so visible. In
the case of wireless media, messages are transmitted through the air using invisible radio frequency
or infrared waves. Services and processes are the communication programs, called software, that run
on the networked devices. A network service provides information in response to a request. Services
include many of the common network applications people use every day, like e–mail hosting
services and web hosting services. Processes provide the functionality that directs and moves the
messages through the network. Processes are less obvious to us but are critical to the operation of
networks. End Devices and Their Role on the Network The network devices that people are most
familiar with are called end devices. These devices form the interface between the human network
and the underlying communication network. Some examples of end devices are: * Computers (work
stations, laptops, file servers, web servers) * Network printers * VoIP phones * Security cameras *
Mobile handheld devices (such as wireless barcode scanners, PDAs) In the context of a network,
end devices are referred to as hosts. A host device is either the source or destination of a message
transmitted over the network. In order to distinguish one host from another, each

Wireless Sensor Network Essay
I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless Sensor Network consists of highly distributed
Autonomous sensors nodes to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature,
sound, vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants and to cooperatively pass their data through the
network to a receiver (destination) [1] [7].
A sensor node consist of a radio transceiver with internal antenna or connected to external antenna, a
microcontroller and electronic circuits for interfacing with the sensors and energy source such as
battery[1][7].
A. Topologies:
Topologies used in Wireless Sensor Network are Mesh, Star, Ring, Tree, and Bus, Fully connected.
Mesh Network.
B. Characteristics:
Power consumption constrains for nodes using batteries or energy ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Wireless Sensor Network Protocols:
Physical layer: Sonet , ISDN
Data link Layer: Frame Relay, FDDI, Ethernet
Network Layer: RIP,OSPF, EGP,IPX,IPv6,ARP
Transport Layer: TCP, UDP, SPX
Application Layer: BOOTP, DHCP, HTTP, DNS
Classifications of the Protocols
Protocols are classified into the following major categories.
TCP/IP IP, TCP, UDP, SMTP, POP3, RIP, FTP, DHCP
Cellular GPRS, GSM, WAP and CDMA
VOIP SIP, RTP, MGCP and H.323
General Frame Relay, ATM, X.25, PPP[1].
II.OBSTACLES IN WIRELESS SENSOR SECURITY
Wireless sensor nodes[2] have limited resources such as limited memory and limited power. There is
unreliable communication in wireless sensor network that leads to threat to sensor security. The
security of network depend on communication which relies on protocol.

Energy Constraint: Energy requires converting input to output (sensor transducer), communication
among the sensor nodes and computation. Security levels depend upon the cost of energy.
Memory Limitations: Sensor nodes have small amount of memory and storage. Sensor nodes require
simple algo–rithms because they do not have enough space to store complicated algorithms and
executed them.
Unreliable communication: – Unreliable communication occurs due to unreliable transfer, conflict
and latency. Unreliable communication occurs due to connectionless packet based routing in
wireless sensor network. Even if channel is

Unit 3 Assignment 1 Osi Model
OSI Model OSI Model explains the transfer of data thru the network. The structure of the model
help understands where some of the protocols in the network are functioning, operating with other
workstations, servers, and switches. Mainly, I will explain how the protocols are functioning
throughout each layer. Specific protocol functions and operations interpose two layers, knowing that
part of their process start in one layer and continue in the next layer. Layers 7,6 and 5 or Application
Layer for TCP Protocol The first protocol explain is TCP. Starting with the Layer 7, 6, and 5, the
Application Layer is providing the payload (data and instructions). The web browser is an example
of initiation of Layers 7,6,5 and the payload flow. The Transport ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Note that other servers not selected will receive the information by the requesting client to ignore
the request. The device accepts the server answer and reply to it. DHCP Acknowledgement The last
phase is DHCP Acknowledgement. During this transmission, the client' message is accepted by the
DHCP server and the IP address and configuration are provided. DHCP protocol requires extra
adjustment to be safe. There is the Option 82, which is like a tattoo on the information sent from
client to DHCP server. This information is attached to the packet and allowed the device to
recognize the message and retransmitted by the DHCP server. Both client and server, need to be
configured for this safe feature effectiveness (Juniper, 2017). Bluetooth Protocol I enjoy the capacity
of my car to immediately transfer my phone functions and features. Listening to my favorites music,
answering phone calls while driving is something I saw in the movies in my youth (yes, the 90's). I
am fascinating to learn that Bluetooth is a protocol. Link Management Protocol (LMP) This
operation creates a bond with the radio connections of the

What Is Internet Of Things?
What is Internet of Things?
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of the physical objects containing embedded systems
which connects and communicate with each other internally or externally through sensors.
According to David Ahrens, it is the "network of interconnected sensor–equipped electronic devices
that collect data, communicate with each other, and can be monitored or controlled remotely over
the Internet" (Ahrens, 2014). The main goal of its development is to connect the physical world and
the environment to the Internet or wireless networks which would allow making objects, machines
and work environments interactive without any human intervention which would result in improved
efficiency and economic benefits. The word "Things" in IOT includes biochip transponders, electric
clams, automobiles, electronic appliances etc. These devices collect the data individually with the
existing technology and then share the data autonomously between each other through the internet
protocol. It includes different technology infrastructure, devices and services such as the cloud,
computing, data analytics and mobile communications. It is more about the disruptive business
models than technology. It is a trend through which the physical world is becoming a big
information system through the embedded system used in the devices over the wireless networks.
The IoT is without a doubt an increasing trend that takes the advancement of interconnectivity to a
level which was once just

Questions On Protocol And Protocol
2.3 What is a Protocol?
Protocol is nothing but set of guidelines, which supports the data exchange between the layers. The
guidelines describe what to do (the details like when and where to send the data, data format).
2.4 What is a Protocol Data Unit?
Telecommunication protocol create protocol data unit in sender side. This protocol data unit of
message is transmitted by using protocol. Each PDU have particular format and contains header
information in header information identify protocol type and send data to particular destination. The
type of data transmitted by protocol is called PDU.
2.5 What is Protocol Architecture? The protocol architecture is nothing but development of
communication protocols in network. Has multiple layers with many protocols.
2.6 What is TCP/IP?
The transmission control protocol/Internet protocol is used to transmit the data to hosts in network.
This is used in network topology communication establishment and data transmission purpose.
TCP/IP is a two layer protocol high layer is TCP and low layer is IP. Small packets data are
transmitted by TCP and it gets small packets grouped and form original data. IP protocol forward
these data to particular destination.
2.7 What are some advantages of Layering seen in TCP/IP Architecture?
The advantages to layering are as follows:
Flexible for the Extensible of applications.
Segmentation concept makes to solve the problems in easy way.
Easy to alter the network services.
2.8 What is a Router?
Router is

Oral Exam
1. Explain the I/O process. Describes any operation, program, or device that transfers data to or from
a computer. Typical I/O devices are printers, hard disks, keyboards, and mouses. 2. You typed
"abcd", but the local printer prints garbled text. How do you resolve this issue? You have the wrong
printer driver. For the printer you are using. Delete the current printer configuration and install the
right driver. If you don't have the disk with the driver go online and download the correct driver. 3.
What is the OSI model? (Open Systems Interconnection) is a model that characterizes the internal
funcions of a communication system by partitioning it into abstraction layers. It helps provide error–
free communications across a network and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Verify persistent route table entries, 8. Use the tracert command, 9. Verify server services on the
other computer, 10. Check IP security on the server. 2. Define a windows domain a windows domain
is a form of computer network in which all user accounts, computers, printers and other security
principals, are registered with a central database (called a directory service) located on one or more
clusters of central computers known as domain controllers. 3. What are the steps to determine what
domain a computer belongs to? Open system by clicking start button, right click computer, and then
click on properties. If your computer is connected to a domain, under computer name, domain, and
workgroup settings, you'll see the name of the domain your computer belongs to. If your computer
is connected to a workgroup, you'll see the nae of the workgroup your computer belongs to. 4. List 3
possible reasons why a user cannot log on to a domain. Changes to the group policy such as
blocking interactive logins on a domain member computers or by users in a certain group or OU,
Check the settings on user account because perhaps some script has placed the wrong restrictions on
the accounts, the domain name may be incorrect. 5. What function can windows server provide for a
SOHO? (NetServerDiskEnum) returns a list of locak disk drives on a server, (NetServerEnum) List
all visible servers of a particular type or types in the specified domain, (NetServerGetInfo) Returns

Computer Networking, The Transport Layer Of The Internet...
In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered
architecture of protocols in the network stack in the Internet Protocol Suite and the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI). The protocols of the layer provide host–to–host communication services for
applications. It provides services such as connection–oriented data stream support, reliability, flow
control, and multiplexing.
1.1 Protocols:
This list shows some protocols that are commonly placed in the transport layers of the Internet
protocol suite, the OSI protocol suite, NetWare 's IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, and Fibre Channel.
ATP, AppleTalk Transaction Protocol
CUDP, Cyclic UDP
DCCP, Datagram Congestion Control Protocol
FCP, Fibre Channel Protocol
IL, IL Protocol
MPTCP, Multipath TCP
RDP, Reliable Datagram Protocol
RUDP, Reliable User Datagram Protocol
SCTP, Stream Control Transmission Protocol
SPX, Sequenced Packet Exchange
SST, Structured Stream Transport
TCP, Transmission Control Protocol
UDP, User Datagram Protocol
UDP–Lite
µTP, Micro Transport Protocol
1.2 Comparison of OSI transport protocols
ISO/IEC 8073/ITU–T Recommendation X.224, "Information Technology – Open Systems
Interconnection – Protocol for providing the connection–mode transport service", defines five
classes of connection–mode transport protocols designated class 0 (TP0) to class 4 (TP4). Class 0
contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide

The Evolution of TCPIP and The Internet Essay
The Evolution of TCPIP and The Internet The Evolution of TCP/IP (and the Internet)
While the TCP/IP protocols and the Internet are different, their evolution are most definitely
parallel. This section will discuss some of the history.
Prior to the 1960s, what little computer communication existed comprised simple text and binary
data, carried by the most common telecommunications network technology of the day; namely,
circuit switching, the technology of the telephone networks for nearly a hundred years. Because
most data traffic transmissions occur during a very short period of time, circuit switching results in
highly inefficient use of network resources. In 1962, Paul Baran, of the Rand Corporation, described
a robust, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The original ARPANET gave life to a number of protocols that were new to packet switching. One
of the most lasting results of the ARPANET was the development of a user–network protocol that
has become the standard interface between users and packet switched networks; namely, ITU–T
(formerly CCITT) Recommendation X.25. This "standard" interface encouraged BBN to start
Telenet, a commercial packet–switched data service, in 1974; after much renaming, Telenet is now a
part of Sprint's X.25 service.
The initial host–to–host communications protocol introduced in the ARPANET was called the
Network Control Protocol (NCP). Over time, however, NCP proved to be incapable of keeping up
with the growing network traffic load. In 1974, a new, more robust suite of communications
protocols was proposed and implemented throughout the ARPANET, based upon the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). TCP and IP were originally envisioned
functionally as a single protocol, thus the protocol suite, which actually refers to a large collection of
protocols and applications, is usually referred to simply as TCP/IP. The original versions of both
TCP and IP that are in common use today were written in September 1981, although both have had
several modifications applied to them (in addition, the IP version 6, or IPv6, specification was
released in December 1995). In 1983, the DoD mandated that all of their computer systems would
use the TCP/IP protocol suite for

Evolution Of The Internet And Network Protocols
The Evolution of the Internet and Network Protocols The internet has revolutionized the modern
world like no other invention has before, except perhaps, electricity. The internet allows sharing and
collaboration to take place between people on opposite sides of the globe. Vinton G. Cerf, often
called the "Father of the Internet", admits that when the original idea of an "intranet" was in its
infancy, there was no possible way to imagine all of the ways we would come to use it (NDTV,
2013). But how does it work? The internet, based on the concept of "packet switching", involves the
travelling of small packets of data over one or more networks (Frenzel, 2013). This can be compared
to "electronic postcards", meaning that "a computer generates a piece of data and flings it into the
net, just like the postal system, except 100 million times faster" (Cerf, 2013). This concept allows
one computer to speak to many different computers around the network by sending out these
"electronic postcards". However, before these networks can work seamlessly together, they must use
a common protocol, or set of rules for transmitting and receiving these packets of data. There are
several protocols currently in use, including the OSI Model, the TCP/IP Model, UDP, HTTP, and
FDP (Mitchell, 2014), but the most commonly used is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) (Gilmer, 2011). Even as early as 1977, TCP/IP was being used by other networks
to link to ARPANET (Kozierok,

unit 3 assignment 3 Essay
Chapter 3 Review 1. Which of the following is true about a TCP/IP network? A) The network uses
only standards defined in TCP/IP RFCs. 2. Which of the following terms is not a common synonym
for TCP/IP model? (Choose two answers.) D) TCP/IP mapping and C) Ethernet 3. Think generically
about the idea of a networking standard, ignoring any particular standard or standards group. Which
of the following is typically true of a standard? (Choose two answers.) B) It exists as a deployed
network device, which people can visit on the Internet. C) It has been passed through some form of
review and approval or certification process. 4. Contrast an international standard as compared to a
de facto standard. (Choose two answers.) B) International ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
A) Vendor models 10. Which of the following statements is true when comparing the OSI and the
TCP/IP model as defined in RFC 1122? B) The lower four layers of TCP/IP define the same kinds of
functions as the matching layer numbers from OSI. 11. A network engineer connects two PCs (PC1
and PC2) using Ethernet NICs and an Ethernet cable that has copper wires inside. The two PCs
communicate successfully. Which of the following happens when PC1 sends bits to PC2? D)PC1
converts the bits to sound waves, and the NIC uses an A/D converter to send the data over the cable.
12. A TCP/IP network includes an Ethernet LAN with 10 PCs uses a LAN switch. PC1 sends data
intended for an app running on PC2. Which of the following mechanisms does Ethernet define so
that PC2 receives and processes the data? A)The Ethernet header lists PC2's MAC address so that
PC2 will realize that the data is meant for PC2. 13. Two network pros are having a conversation
about some issues in a network. They discuss some issues related to how PPP forwards data, so they
happen to be discussing the data structure that includes the PPP header and trailer. Which of the
following terms do they use? B) Packet 14. Which of the following are true facts about IP
addresses? (Choose two answers.) C) Are listed in the data–link trailer D) Used by routers to make a
forwarding decision 15. Which of the following answers is true about Ethernet MAC addresses? A)
48 bits in length C) Are listed

Nt1310 Unit 1 Assignment
Unit I Assignment: Open System Interconnection Reference Model
As we all know, the growth of computer networks continues to rapidly grow. The digital revolution
has changed the way we work and communicate almost beyond recognition. Provided that,
foreseeing the changes and potential compatibility problems, in the mid nineteen eighties, the
international standard organization (ISO) developed a networking reference model to standardize
how network systems communicate with each other. It is a logical model for how network systems
are supposed to communicate with each other. It breaks down the different components of the
network communication and puts them into layers which reduce complexity. This reference model
consists of seven layers: Application Layer, Presentation Layer, Session Layer, Transport Layer,
Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and the Physical Layer. Each layer provides a service to the layer
above it in the protocol specification and then communicates with the same layer's software or
hardware on other computers. It's important to realize, that these layers are separated into 2 sets:
Transportation Set (Laters 1– 4) and Application Set (Layers 5 – 7). More importantly, the OSI
model is 7 logical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Application layer within the OSI reference model is where the application and the user
communicates. In other words, the application layer is the ending of data that is transferred in visual
form to the user. This layer provides the interface between the applications we use to communicate
and the underlying network over which our messages are transmitted. The Application Layer
functions are to provide the interface for application–specific protocols commonly used such as
HyperText Transfer (HTTP), file transfer (FTP), Simple mail transfer (SMTP), Internet message
Access (IMAP),

Network Security Concepts Essay
Network Security Concepts
File security falls into two categories, encryption and access. Access to files can mean physical
access to a computer with unsecured files or access via user permissions or privileges in the form of
access control lists (ACLs) (Strengthen Your Users' File Security, 2003). The files kept on a server
with NTFS storage can be locked to prevent anyone who does not have the correct permissions from
opening them. This is secure but can be bypassed with physical access to an open computer and
should not be used for sensitive information. The other method of securing files is by encrypting the
information in the files using an Encrypting File System (EFS), which employs public key
encryption privileges (Strengthen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Secret and private keys are very similar and are often used interchangeably. The difference is that
secret keys are used for both encryption and decryption, while a private key is part of the
public/private key system and is used only for decryption (Cryptography, 2005). In both cases, the
key may be known only to a single person or a limited group of people in order to keep the key
secure.
Public–Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a method of verifying users on a network, while a digital
certificate is a reference from a neutral company that confirms the identity of an internet site (Shay,
2004, p. 321) and (Tomsho, G., Tittel, E. Johnson, D., 2004, P. 378). The digital certificate is issued
by a Certificate Authority (CA) such as Verisign, and a registration authority (RA) that acts as a
reference to identify an entity to a user of the website, and uses a directory that holds the certificate
and can revoke a company's digital status. The PKI technology is at the core of the digital
certificates used in almost all transactions on the internet. The PKI uses a cryptographic key pair,
one of which is public and one which is private, to authenticate the owner of the certificate (PKI,
2002).
In each of the layers of the OSI model, there are security risks that exist and are developing now,
and

History Of The Internet Essay example
The year is 1957 and the USSR has just launched the first artificial earth satellite. In response
America launches the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) within the Department of Defense (DOD) to create America's lead in science and
technology. The Internet had its humble beginnings here, within ARPA's many projects.
The Internet has become one of the key symbols of today's pop culture: everything has a "dot com"
address; people do not say "call me," but instead its
"I'll E–mail you;" and the new word on the stock market is "E–business." The
Internet has not always been such a key figure in American life; in fact it was mostly unheard of
until recently.
The theory for ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The final problem that ARPAnet came across was the fact that most computers did not run exactly
the same hardware or software as another. Their solution to this was to build smaller computers
(called Interface Message
Processors or IMPs) that were in direct contact with the main computer and also in connection with
the other IMPs on the network. All of the IMPs were built to the same specifications so that one
could easily communicate with the other5.
In 1968 all three of these developments were put into action when ARPA sent out proposals and
requests for contractors. Bolt, Beranek, and Newman,
Inc. (BBN) were awarded the contract to build the IMPs, University of California,
Los Angeles (UCLA) was awarded the Network Measurement Center contract, and the Network
Working Group (NWG) was formed to develop host protocols for the soon to be developed
ARPAnet. Nodes are set up as soon as BBN builds the IMP for that location. The first node was at
UCLA and installed on
August 30, 1969. It was the Network Measurement center and ran on the SDS
SIGMA7 operating system. The second node was setup on October 1, 1969, at
Stanford Research Institute. It was the Network Information Center (NIC) and ran on the
SDS940/Genie operating system. Node three was installed
November 1, 1969, at University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). It served as the
mathematical

Tcp/Ip
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is indisputably one of the most
popular networking protocol suites ever developed. TCP/IP is an industry standard designed for
large networks consisting of network segments connected by routers, and is the protocol used on the
Internet (Hillpot & Ivy, 2005).
TCP/IP's roots can be traced back to research conducted by the United States Department of
Defense (DOD) Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) as early as 1960. In the best
bureaucratic tradition, DARPAs (or ARPA, as it was called at the time) involvement in the creation
of the internet began with a memo dated April 23, 1969 that was authored by Joseph Licklider
(Waldrop, 2012). Between1970 to 1996 the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This layer compares to the Network layer of the OSI model.
TRANSPORT LAYER provides the Application layer with session and datagram communication
services. TCP and UDP are the core protocols at this layer. TCP provides a one–to–one, connection–
oriented, reliable communications service that establishes connections, sequences, and
acknowledges packets sent, and recovers packets lost during transmission. In contrast, UDP
provides one–to–one or one–to–many, connectionless, unreliable communication service which is
used when the amount of data transferred is small (Davis, 2007). For example, when the data would
fit into a single packet or when the applications or upper–layer protocols provide reliable delivery.
This layer is equivalent to the OSI Transport layer.
APPLICATION LAYER is constantly evolving and contains a vast amount of protocols. This layer
allows access, defines protocols for applications to utilize the services of the other layers, and
delineates the exchange of data. Recognizable protocols that help users exchange information are,
HTTP, which transfers files that make up the pages on the World Wide Web, FTP that transfers
individual files for interactive user sessions, and SMTP, which transfers mail messages and
attachments. Protocols that aid in the management of TCP/IP networks are DNS that resolves a host
name, such as www.distance–education.itt–tech.edu, to an IP address, RIP routers use to exchange

The Osi And Tcp Model
1. Introduction In this report, the OSI and TCP/IP models will be compared after going through a
brief history and how the models were made. The report will bring the reader a greater
understanding about the OSI and TCP model. The model shows the different layers for example for
the OSI model it has the following layers: Application layer, Presentation layer, Session layer,
Transport layer, Network layer, Data–Link layer and Physical layer. The similarities in the TCP
model would be: the Application layer and the Transport layer. This is then compared for the
differences to see which models layer has, that is different to the other. 2. The OSI Model 2.1. Brief
History In the late 1970's, two projects started separately, with the same ambitions: to characterize a
unifying standard for the architecture of networking systems. An individual was administered by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and the other was undertaken by the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee known as CCITT. In 1983, these
two documents were merged to form a criterion called The Basic Reference Model for Open
Systems Interconnection. This was too long to pronounce, so the standard is usually referred to as
the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, or more commonly known as the OSI Model.
The OSI model had two major parts: an abstract model of networking, called the "Basic Reference
Model" or the "seven–layer model", and a set of precise

Network File System Version 4.2
NETWORK FILE SYSTEM VERSION 4.2 1
Network File System Version 4.2
By:
Setu Bhatt
CWID: 802145656
Research Paper
CPSC 558 – Advance Computer Networking
Professor: Mike
Department of Computer Science
California State University, Fullerton
Fall, 2014 NETWORK FILE SYSTEM VERSION 4.2 2
Table INDEX
Abstract .4
Introduction .5
Background............................................................................................. 5
Problem statement.................................................................................... 5
Goal and Benefits of the Study................................................................5
Relevance and Significance............................................................................6

Literature Review ..............................................................................................7
Background .........................................................................................7
Differences from earlier versions of NFS ....................................................7 ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
So we can manage shared files with the help of Network File System in our network. NFS Version
4.2 extends and improves some of the features which were not included in earlier versions. For
example server side copy, space reservations and application data blocks. So NFSv4.2 provides
protocol extensions in previous versions. NFSv4.2 focuses more on security aspect by introducing
Firewalls and Access Control Lists (ACL). NETWORK FILE SYSTEM VERSION 4.2 5
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Network File System is a Distributed File System protocol developed by Sun Microsystems in 1984.
It allows a user on a client computer to access files over a computer network much like local storage
space. Network File System builds on Open Network Computing Remote Procedure Call (ONC
RPC) system.
Network File System is used to provide access of remotely located files across a network. So with
the help of Network File System we can see and access remotely

Using Interconnected Computer Networks For Communication

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