University of Nebraska - Lincoln
[email protected] of Nebraska - Lincoln
Faculty Publications: Agricultural Leadership,
Education & Communication Department
Agricultural Leadership, Education &
Communication Department
12-13-2005
Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic, and
Transformational Leadership: A Test of
Antecedents
John E. Barbuto Jr.
University of Nebraska - Lincoln, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/aglecfacpub
Part of the Other Public Affairs, Public Policy and Public Administration Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Agricultural Leadership, Education & Communication Department at
[email protected] of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications: Agricultural Leadership, Education &
Communication Department by an authorized administrator of [email protected] of Nebraska - Lincoln.
Barbuto, John E. Jr., "Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic, and Transformational Leadership: A Test of Antecedents" (2005).
Faculty Publications: Agricultural Leadership, Education & Communication Department. Paper 39.
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Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 2005, Volume 1 1, Number 4
Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic,
and Transformational Leadership: A Test of
Antecedents
John E Barbuto Jr
Relationships between leaders' motivation
and their use of charismatic, transactional, and /
or transformational leadership were examined
in this study. One hundred eighty-six leaders
and 759 direct reports from a variety of
organizations were sampled. Leaders were
administered the Motivation Sources Inventory
(MSO while followers reported leaders' full
range leadership behaviors using the Multi-
factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-rater
version). Leaders were also administered the
self-rati ...
Module 3 - HomeLeadership Styles and The TribeModular Learni.docxroushhsiu
Module 3 - Home
Leadership Styles and The Tribe
Modular Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this module, the student will be able to satisfy the following outcomes:
•Case ◦Compare transformational leadership to non-leadership (laissez-faire).
•SLP ◦Explore and discuss the impact of a transactional leadership environment on the tribal stage of an organization.
•Discussion ◦Apply the situational leadership style to tribal leadership.
◦Discuss the benefits and/or drawbacks of using situational leadership to increase an organization’s tribal stage to the next level.
◦Apply the non-leadership factor (laissez-faire) to tribal leadership.
◦Determine whether a non-leadership style (laissez-faire) impacts an organization’s tribal leadership stage negatively or positively.
Module Overview
We are at the half-way point in the course, and it is time to change gears from traits and skills; but we will continue to apply all the concepts we are studying to tribal leadership.
For Module 3, we will focus on leadership styles, including situational leadership, transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and even non-leadership (laissez-faire).
By now, the different parts of leadership theory we have studied will start to form the basis for strategic leadership decisions, especially as they apply to tribal leadership. With a large chunk of key leadership theories under our belt, we should have no trouble beginning to discern which approaches are best in certain situations and scenarios.
Module 3 - Background
Leadership Styles and The Tribe
Style Approach
Around the same time that Katz (1955) was questioning the trait theory of leadership in favor of a more skills-based approach, Stogdill (1948) was also looking for a better model to define what makes a leader. We discussed Stogdill’s work in Module 1 (his discovery that “…the traits of leaders around the world were not distinct from the traits of non-leaders”). As we discussed, this led him to explore characteristics beyond innate traits.
As the style approach was coming into focus, several important studies were conducted to learn more about “what leaders do and how they act” (Northouse, 2018, p. 69). What leaders do is classified as task behaviors, while how leaders act is classified as relationship behaviors. Among those important studies were the Ohio State Studies, which focused on the way leaders acted when they were leading, and the University of Michigan Studies, which focused on “the impact of leaders’ behaviors on the performance of small groups” (Northouse, 2018, p. 71). While both of these studies are critical parts of understanding leadership, they are covered heavily in elementary leadership studies, and will not be further explored in the context of strategic leadership. Instead, we will move on to the prevalent style-based theories that took hold as a result of these studies and the work of Stogdill and Katz (1948; 1955).
Situational Leadership
Hersey and ...
This document discusses leadership approaches and their impact on achieving organizational change. It summarizes five stages in the development of leadership theory: 1) early trait theories that focused on leader characteristics; 2) behavioral theories that examined leader styles/behaviors; 3) situational and contingency theories that emphasized how the context influences leadership effectiveness; 4) charismatic and transformational leadership theories that focus on inspiring followers and managing change; 5) current theories incorporate insights from prior approaches and recognize the complex interplay between leaders, followers, and situations. The document analyzes strengths and limitations of different theories and how they have contributed to leadership research.
The Study is titled ―Leadership Styles: A Case Study of Syria‖. The main objectives of the research work are to identify and then analyze the political leadership style in Syria, to generate a profile of past, current and emerging leaders of Syria, to study the reasons that led to the uprising in Syria and to assess the future consequences of the decisions taken by the Political Leadership. The study will be descriptive in nature. Keeping in mind the objectives of the study, appropriate data will be collected from people and organizations from both, official and non-official, taking a look at the current and emerging leadership Styles in Syria. Survey for the political, security and economic situation will be carried. Both primary and secondary sources of data will be used for present research. For analysis and conclusion of the results of the survey, appropriate statistical tools and analysis will be done
Lesson Four Leadership Behaviors and their Ethical Implications.docxsmile790243
Lesson Four: Leadership Behaviors and their Ethical Implications
Lesson Three discussed three of the most prominent ethical theories, as well as their application to The Trolley Problem in order to assess relative consequences. Lesson Four will introduce some of the most prominent behavioral theories concerning leadership as well as their ethical implications.
Behavioral Theories
In Lesson Two, we discussed some of the early leadership research, which attempted to identify qualities that were always associated with effective leaders, and which were largely unsuccessful. However, subsequent to these efforts, researchers in the field then turned their focus to the types of behaviors that leaders exhibit, hoping that this work might reveal some patterns of successful perspectives, habits, etc. These studies were conducted at some of the finest universities across the country, and while there were some very general similarities in the results of many of the major studies, the implications varied from case to case. We will now examine each of these studies in greater detail in order to understand their findings and implications.
One brief preface is helpful here. The studies discussed below each varied in their research parameters, methodology, and findings. However, one factor that was fairly consistent throughout was the way in which leadership efficacy was defined. Generally, the studies discussed herein looked at leadership effectiveness with respect to two metrics: performance, or the productivity of the teams investigated in terms of the work they do (quality and quantity), and satisfaction, or the degree to which teams were happy performing work under their respective leaders. This is not an uncommon way of measuring efficacy (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), and it goes without saying that both of these factors are quite relevant. Teams must be able to produce at an acceptable level, but if they aren’t also content with the circumstances of their work, then such teams aren’t likely to sustain performance for any extended period of time.
· University of Iowa Studies: One set of studies were conducted by researchers at the University of Iowa. The results of these studies concluded that all leaders adopted one of three different leadership styles: Autocratic, Democratic, and Laissez-Faire (Rafiq Awan & Mahmood, 2010). Autocratic leaders, as the name suggests, run their operations like dictators, making decisions unilaterally and seeking very little input or participation from followers. Democratic leaders, by contrast, adopt a very participative style of leadership, involving followers in all major decisions, either through a ‘notice and comment’ style dialogue before decisions are rendered, or through an informal voting-style procedure. Finally, “Laissez-Faire” is a French term that means to “let do” or to “let be”. It is commonly used in the phrase “Laissez-Faire Capitalism” to describe the American-style economy where governmen ...
The document discusses several theories of leadership including contingency theory, situational leadership theory, transformational leadership theory, and knowledge leadership. It summarizes key similarities and differences between the theories. Contingency theory and situational leadership theory are similar in that they both propose that the most effective leadership style depends on situational factors. Transformational leadership theory focuses more on internal organizational change driven by leaders, while other theories see change originating externally. Knowledge leadership emphasizes the leader's role in knowledge management and sharing for organizational effectiveness. Gender also plays a role, as women leaders face additional challenges due to occupational and socio-political factors.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
The White Standard Racial Bias in Leader CategorizationAs.docxssusera34210
The White Standard: Racial Bias in Leader Categorization
Ashleigh Shelby Rosette
Duke University
Geoffrey J. Leonardelli
University of Toronto
Katherine W. Phillips
Northwestern University
In 4 experiments, the authors investigated whether race is perceived to be part of the business leader
prototype and, if so, whether it could explain differences in evaluations of White and non-White leaders.
The first 2 studies revealed that “being White” is perceived to be an attribute of the business leader
prototype, where participants assumed that business leaders more than nonleaders were White, and this
inference occurred regardless of base rates about the organization’s racial composition (Study 1), the
racial composition of organizational roles, the business industry, and the types of racial minority groups
in the organization (Study 2). The final 2 studies revealed that a leader categorization explanation could
best account for differences in White and non-White leader evaluations, where White targets were
evaluated as more effective leaders (Study 3) and as having more leadership potential (Study 4), but only
when the leader had recently been given credit for organizational success, consistent with the prediction
that leader prototypes are more likely to be used when they confirm and reinforce individualized
information about a leader’s performance. The results demonstrate a connection between leader race and
leadership categorization.
Keywords: racial bias, prototypical leadership characteristics, stereotypes, leadership categorization,
diversity
Substantial progress has been made by underrepresented minor-
ities in Corporate America since the 1960s civil rights movement
knocked down opaque racial barriers and championed equal op-
portunity in organizational settings. Over time, African Americans
have come to occupy a greater percentage of entry-level positions
and more middle management roles (Tomaskovic-Devey et al.,
2006; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004). In addition, other
racial minority groups, such as Asian Americans (Takaki, 1989;
Woo, 2000) and Hispanic Americans (GAO Report, 2006), have
also made noticeable inroads at lower and middle levels in busi-
ness organizations. Although progress is evident at some positions,
racial minorities are still less visible in top leadership positions
than would be expected on the basis of population base rates (The
Alliance for Board Diversity, 2005; Corporate Board Initiative,
2006; Fortune, 2006; McCoy, 2007; Thomas & Gabarro, 1999).
Given that explicit racial barriers no longer exist, what is prevent-
ing well-trained racial minorities from advancing within the orga-
nizational hierarchy to become leaders in U.S. companies?
One important determinant for whether employees advance to
leadership positions is how their leadership skills and task com-
petencies are evaluated (Connelly et al., 2000; DeVries, 2000;
Hollander, 1960; Levinson, 1980; Lord, de Vader, & Alliger,
1986). Leadership ...
The document discusses leader-follower theory from multiple perspectives:
1) It summarizes Ira Chaleff's view that courageous followers who can stand up to leaders when needed are important for effective leadership and organizational success.
2) It proposes questions followers can ask themselves to better understand how to influence leaders and drive organizational change, such as how they can utilize their skills and build trust with leaders.
3) It argues that transforming one's own mindset and developing courage are important for followers to effectively engage with leaders and address issues that impact organizational performance. Building understanding and respect between leaders and followers is key to driving positive change.
Module 3 - HomeLeadership Styles and The TribeModular Learni.docxroushhsiu
Module 3 - Home
Leadership Styles and The Tribe
Modular Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this module, the student will be able to satisfy the following outcomes:
•Case ◦Compare transformational leadership to non-leadership (laissez-faire).
•SLP ◦Explore and discuss the impact of a transactional leadership environment on the tribal stage of an organization.
•Discussion ◦Apply the situational leadership style to tribal leadership.
◦Discuss the benefits and/or drawbacks of using situational leadership to increase an organization’s tribal stage to the next level.
◦Apply the non-leadership factor (laissez-faire) to tribal leadership.
◦Determine whether a non-leadership style (laissez-faire) impacts an organization’s tribal leadership stage negatively or positively.
Module Overview
We are at the half-way point in the course, and it is time to change gears from traits and skills; but we will continue to apply all the concepts we are studying to tribal leadership.
For Module 3, we will focus on leadership styles, including situational leadership, transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and even non-leadership (laissez-faire).
By now, the different parts of leadership theory we have studied will start to form the basis for strategic leadership decisions, especially as they apply to tribal leadership. With a large chunk of key leadership theories under our belt, we should have no trouble beginning to discern which approaches are best in certain situations and scenarios.
Module 3 - Background
Leadership Styles and The Tribe
Style Approach
Around the same time that Katz (1955) was questioning the trait theory of leadership in favor of a more skills-based approach, Stogdill (1948) was also looking for a better model to define what makes a leader. We discussed Stogdill’s work in Module 1 (his discovery that “…the traits of leaders around the world were not distinct from the traits of non-leaders”). As we discussed, this led him to explore characteristics beyond innate traits.
As the style approach was coming into focus, several important studies were conducted to learn more about “what leaders do and how they act” (Northouse, 2018, p. 69). What leaders do is classified as task behaviors, while how leaders act is classified as relationship behaviors. Among those important studies were the Ohio State Studies, which focused on the way leaders acted when they were leading, and the University of Michigan Studies, which focused on “the impact of leaders’ behaviors on the performance of small groups” (Northouse, 2018, p. 71). While both of these studies are critical parts of understanding leadership, they are covered heavily in elementary leadership studies, and will not be further explored in the context of strategic leadership. Instead, we will move on to the prevalent style-based theories that took hold as a result of these studies and the work of Stogdill and Katz (1948; 1955).
Situational Leadership
Hersey and ...
This document discusses leadership approaches and their impact on achieving organizational change. It summarizes five stages in the development of leadership theory: 1) early trait theories that focused on leader characteristics; 2) behavioral theories that examined leader styles/behaviors; 3) situational and contingency theories that emphasized how the context influences leadership effectiveness; 4) charismatic and transformational leadership theories that focus on inspiring followers and managing change; 5) current theories incorporate insights from prior approaches and recognize the complex interplay between leaders, followers, and situations. The document analyzes strengths and limitations of different theories and how they have contributed to leadership research.
The Study is titled ―Leadership Styles: A Case Study of Syria‖. The main objectives of the research work are to identify and then analyze the political leadership style in Syria, to generate a profile of past, current and emerging leaders of Syria, to study the reasons that led to the uprising in Syria and to assess the future consequences of the decisions taken by the Political Leadership. The study will be descriptive in nature. Keeping in mind the objectives of the study, appropriate data will be collected from people and organizations from both, official and non-official, taking a look at the current and emerging leadership Styles in Syria. Survey for the political, security and economic situation will be carried. Both primary and secondary sources of data will be used for present research. For analysis and conclusion of the results of the survey, appropriate statistical tools and analysis will be done
Lesson Four Leadership Behaviors and their Ethical Implications.docxsmile790243
Lesson Four: Leadership Behaviors and their Ethical Implications
Lesson Three discussed three of the most prominent ethical theories, as well as their application to The Trolley Problem in order to assess relative consequences. Lesson Four will introduce some of the most prominent behavioral theories concerning leadership as well as their ethical implications.
Behavioral Theories
In Lesson Two, we discussed some of the early leadership research, which attempted to identify qualities that were always associated with effective leaders, and which were largely unsuccessful. However, subsequent to these efforts, researchers in the field then turned their focus to the types of behaviors that leaders exhibit, hoping that this work might reveal some patterns of successful perspectives, habits, etc. These studies were conducted at some of the finest universities across the country, and while there were some very general similarities in the results of many of the major studies, the implications varied from case to case. We will now examine each of these studies in greater detail in order to understand their findings and implications.
One brief preface is helpful here. The studies discussed below each varied in their research parameters, methodology, and findings. However, one factor that was fairly consistent throughout was the way in which leadership efficacy was defined. Generally, the studies discussed herein looked at leadership effectiveness with respect to two metrics: performance, or the productivity of the teams investigated in terms of the work they do (quality and quantity), and satisfaction, or the degree to which teams were happy performing work under their respective leaders. This is not an uncommon way of measuring efficacy (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), and it goes without saying that both of these factors are quite relevant. Teams must be able to produce at an acceptable level, but if they aren’t also content with the circumstances of their work, then such teams aren’t likely to sustain performance for any extended period of time.
· University of Iowa Studies: One set of studies were conducted by researchers at the University of Iowa. The results of these studies concluded that all leaders adopted one of three different leadership styles: Autocratic, Democratic, and Laissez-Faire (Rafiq Awan & Mahmood, 2010). Autocratic leaders, as the name suggests, run their operations like dictators, making decisions unilaterally and seeking very little input or participation from followers. Democratic leaders, by contrast, adopt a very participative style of leadership, involving followers in all major decisions, either through a ‘notice and comment’ style dialogue before decisions are rendered, or through an informal voting-style procedure. Finally, “Laissez-Faire” is a French term that means to “let do” or to “let be”. It is commonly used in the phrase “Laissez-Faire Capitalism” to describe the American-style economy where governmen ...
The document discusses several theories of leadership including contingency theory, situational leadership theory, transformational leadership theory, and knowledge leadership. It summarizes key similarities and differences between the theories. Contingency theory and situational leadership theory are similar in that they both propose that the most effective leadership style depends on situational factors. Transformational leadership theory focuses more on internal organizational change driven by leaders, while other theories see change originating externally. Knowledge leadership emphasizes the leader's role in knowledge management and sharing for organizational effectiveness. Gender also plays a role, as women leaders face additional challenges due to occupational and socio-political factors.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
The White Standard Racial Bias in Leader CategorizationAs.docxssusera34210
The White Standard: Racial Bias in Leader Categorization
Ashleigh Shelby Rosette
Duke University
Geoffrey J. Leonardelli
University of Toronto
Katherine W. Phillips
Northwestern University
In 4 experiments, the authors investigated whether race is perceived to be part of the business leader
prototype and, if so, whether it could explain differences in evaluations of White and non-White leaders.
The first 2 studies revealed that “being White” is perceived to be an attribute of the business leader
prototype, where participants assumed that business leaders more than nonleaders were White, and this
inference occurred regardless of base rates about the organization’s racial composition (Study 1), the
racial composition of organizational roles, the business industry, and the types of racial minority groups
in the organization (Study 2). The final 2 studies revealed that a leader categorization explanation could
best account for differences in White and non-White leader evaluations, where White targets were
evaluated as more effective leaders (Study 3) and as having more leadership potential (Study 4), but only
when the leader had recently been given credit for organizational success, consistent with the prediction
that leader prototypes are more likely to be used when they confirm and reinforce individualized
information about a leader’s performance. The results demonstrate a connection between leader race and
leadership categorization.
Keywords: racial bias, prototypical leadership characteristics, stereotypes, leadership categorization,
diversity
Substantial progress has been made by underrepresented minor-
ities in Corporate America since the 1960s civil rights movement
knocked down opaque racial barriers and championed equal op-
portunity in organizational settings. Over time, African Americans
have come to occupy a greater percentage of entry-level positions
and more middle management roles (Tomaskovic-Devey et al.,
2006; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004). In addition, other
racial minority groups, such as Asian Americans (Takaki, 1989;
Woo, 2000) and Hispanic Americans (GAO Report, 2006), have
also made noticeable inroads at lower and middle levels in busi-
ness organizations. Although progress is evident at some positions,
racial minorities are still less visible in top leadership positions
than would be expected on the basis of population base rates (The
Alliance for Board Diversity, 2005; Corporate Board Initiative,
2006; Fortune, 2006; McCoy, 2007; Thomas & Gabarro, 1999).
Given that explicit racial barriers no longer exist, what is prevent-
ing well-trained racial minorities from advancing within the orga-
nizational hierarchy to become leaders in U.S. companies?
One important determinant for whether employees advance to
leadership positions is how their leadership skills and task com-
petencies are evaluated (Connelly et al., 2000; DeVries, 2000;
Hollander, 1960; Levinson, 1980; Lord, de Vader, & Alliger,
1986). Leadership ...
The document discusses leader-follower theory from multiple perspectives:
1) It summarizes Ira Chaleff's view that courageous followers who can stand up to leaders when needed are important for effective leadership and organizational success.
2) It proposes questions followers can ask themselves to better understand how to influence leaders and drive organizational change, such as how they can utilize their skills and build trust with leaders.
3) It argues that transforming one's own mindset and developing courage are important for followers to effectively engage with leaders and address issues that impact organizational performance. Building understanding and respect between leaders and followers is key to driving positive change.
Informative Brochure Comparison of Theories.pptxKassiliaWright1
This poster summarizes and compares the theories of transformational leadership and servant leadership. Transformational leadership focuses on motivating followers and promoting change through idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Servant leadership emphasizes empowering and developing people as well as building community. Both theories emphasize respecting followers and motivating them to achieve goals, but servant leadership places more emphasis on serving followers needs over the leaders own interests. The poster analyzes the similarities and differences between these two emerging leadership theories.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxjeremylockett77
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxcroysierkathey
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu ...
This document discusses theories of contemporary leadership. It examines leadership qualities necessary for success today, the impact of leadership on organizations, and the importance of moral leadership. The document outlines several modern leadership theories, including trait theory, situational approach, and path-goal theory. It emphasizes that leadership results from interaction between leaders and followers, and that different situations influence a leader's behavior.
Man, the different situations in which he finds himself, the diversity of aims, objectives and functions that he purpose and that are laid down for him and the many types of frames of reference in which he finds himself, are all together so complex and complicated that we cannot evolve anything like a universal formula for leadership. In fact the most that we can say and we can say it all generic elements of administration – is that the success of leadership in the final analysis is determined by the knowledge of the leader and of the people he leads. This knowledge includes knowledge of things outside the group’s own frame of reference. All this constitute the subject – matter of this article.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
This document discusses a study that examined the relationship between strategic leadership actions and success among university deans in Malaysia and the United States. The study found:
1) A survey instrument called the Strategic Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ) was found to reliably measure four strategic leadership action sets (transformational, managerial, ethical, political) and leader success.
2) Successful leaders were found to use a wider variety of strategic leadership actions than less successful leaders.
3) There were significant differences between the strategic leadership actions used by successful vs less successful deans in both Malaysian and American universities.
Relevance Of Personality And PsychopathyCarmen Martin
This document discusses leadership styles and organizational culture. It begins by defining leadership and describing Blake and Mouton's managerial grid model, which identifies five leadership styles based on concern for production and people. It then analyzes the leadership styles of Coach Krzyzewski and Coach Knight, concluding that Krzyzewski exemplifies team management while Knight alternates between country club management and authority-compliance. The document also examines organizational culture and the impact of different leadership approaches.
Running Head INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 1
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 4
Influential Leadership
Name:
Course:
Affiliation:
Instructor:
Date of Submission:
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP OUTLINE
A. Introduction
In this part of the study, we try to discuss influential leadership in the current leadership generation. The intention of this part is to make sure that the readers are aware of what the discussion is all about (Postero, 2016). Further, we try to disseminate the different kinds of leadership which are used by the influential leaders and also the impact they have on different company success. It covers some surveys which have been done on the different roles leaders have when it comes to influence. It also focuses on the impact of changes in management paradigms and how that has some impact on leadership (Bae et al., 2013).
B. Meaning of terms
i. Leadership
Covers the meaning of leadership in details. In this part, we discover there is a difference to lead and to manage (Makala & David, 2010)
ii. Influence
Identifies the meaning of influence and how one can be influential (Hilley, 2012).The paper will study an extensive study of how leaders can use their leadership styles to influence performance in organizations (Murray et al., 2011).
C. Theory
This is a study of the relationship that the leaders and the followers. The intention of this part is to give a detailed study of the relationship between the followers and how to create a shared purpose among the two (Crozier & Priestley, 2011)
. The theory meant to show how the leaders can use their abilities to create followers in the different field they are acting on (Malek et al., 2015).
D. Factors that determine influential leadership
i. Organizational factors
These are factors which are within the organization which are very pertinent and makes a leader influential (You, 2014). This part of the leadership influence is abused in the fact that a problem will come up, and the leader will find a way through which they can manage to influence he workers capitalizing on the solution to the problems (Cote et al., 2015).
ii. Group factors
These are the factors that group members of an organization do to see that the workers have a following for a leader. This factor makes a leader one who focusses on the personal traits of every member of an organization (Zhang & Chua, 2011).
iii. Individual factors
This is a study of how a leader behaves and how that influences results and how one acts about that. A leader can have a following when he or she can use the personal traits that will have the rest of members of the organization following (Eichmann, 2001).
iv. Relations with coworkers
This studies how a leader can use the influence he or she has to make sure that they command a following out of this. Any leader who does not have a ...
Running head DOCTORAL RESEARCH ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY .docxsusanschei
Running head: DOCTORAL RESEARCH: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
DOCTORAL RESEARCH: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Walden University
Faraji Edwards
Week 1 Assignment: PhD in Management: Leadership, & Power
(MGMT – 8410-1)
Ayman, R., &Korabik, K. (2010). Leadership: Why gender and culture matter. American Psychologist, 65(3), 157-170.
Majority of the leadership studies conducted in the past usually concentrated on white people. However, there exists other diverse issues affecting affecting the diversity in leadership. In this journal article, Ayman & Korabik (2010) expound on how variables of culture, gender and ethnicity affect leadership. Consequently, the authors conduct a survey on leaders from different cultural and racial backgrounds. The results of the study indicate that leaders of color and women leaders firmly grasped their ethnic and sexual orientation characters contrasted and White male leaders (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). These social personalities together with lived encounters connected with minority status were seen as affecting their activity of leadership, displaying both difficulties and qualities (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Differences in the leadership profile of this different leadership test with the Anglo bunch in the GLOBE considers propose the significance of inspecting assorted qualities in leadership (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Conceptualizations of leadership should be comprehensive of the social characters and lived encounters that leaders and devotees both convey to the connections of leadership.
Maner, J. K., & Mead, N. L. (2010). The essential tension between leadership and power: When leaders sacrifice group goals for the sake of self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(3), 482-497.
Issues of bounded rationality, mismanagement of firm resources among others are the major shortcomings witnessed in the leadership arena. There comes a time when leaders act contrary to the set principles or ignore vital information, the latter of which results to the organization deviating from its goals. At times, leaders might sacrifice team goals to pursue their selfish interests, requiring the effective use of defined frameworks to keep them in check. In a research conducted by Maner & Mead, (2010), the authors suggest the use of both linkage and climate theory to observe and analyze leadership. The study uses random sampling and experimentations to determine whether leaders often wield power with the intention of promoting self interests or team goals. However, the study is subject to various limitations. For instance, Maner & Mead, (2010), acknowledge that the studies used were designed to be rigorous, controlling group decisions in lab tests. In the real settings, group decision making is dynamic and uncontrolled.
Dixon, M. L., & Hart, L. K. (2010). The impact of Path-Goal leadership styles on work group effectiveness and turnover intention. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22(1), 52-69.
In this ...
Leadership effectiveness a multi-factorial model dr. m. roussety mba, m led,...jameskandi
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia. Maurice holds a PhD from the Griffith University in Intellectual Property and Franchise Goodwill Valuation. He also holds a Master’s degree in Leadership and a Master of Business Administration.
Knowledge has to be improved, challenged and increased constantly, or it vanishes.---Peter F. As we approach the third millennium, America cries out for leadership at all levels of society and in every organization that compose it. It must be a national priority to seek out effective leaders. We urgently need culturally sensitive women and men who can grasp the vision of the future. Leadership is the essential force behind any successful organization. Effective leaders help generate vital and viable organizations that can develop and mobilize into new visionary roles in today’s modern society. In so doing, leaders can form a more desirable future for this nation and the world. In contrast, ineffective leadership directs society into becoming a dreamless society lacking purpose, vision and cohesion. Bennis states: Leaders are the ones with vision, who inspire others and cause them to galvanize their efforts and achieve change. Managers, on the other hand, will follow standard operating procedure to their graves, if necessary, because they do not possess the ability to change course (Bennis, 1997, 17).
This document is a final reflection paper discussing the author's views on leadership ethics and styles. The author argues that ethical leadership is important in society to avoid harm caused by unethical leaders. The author feels their leadership style should incorporate servant leadership, which prioritizes others' well-being, and transformational leadership, which helps people reach their full potential. As a professor, the author believes they should practice scholarship, guide students, and serve as a role model through an ethical leadership approach.
Hi. i have research about the relationship between leadership lemodi11
This summary provides an overview of transformational leadership theory:
Transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms people through exceptional influence. It involves engaging with followers in a way that raises motivation and morality in both leader and follower. In contrast to transactional leadership which focuses on exchanges, transformational leadership focuses on inspiring followers and helping them reach their fullest potential. Examples of transformational leaders include Gandhi and Ryan White. Research shows transformational leadership can result in positive psychological gains for both leaders and followers.
Psych_240_-_Leadership_Presentation[1] class version.pptPriyaShandilya4
This document summarizes three articles on leadership and personality. The first article finds that extraversion has the strongest correlation with transformational leadership behaviors. It also finds that neuroticism is negatively correlated with transformational leadership. The second article examines how extraversion relates to emergent leadership in groups, finding extraverted men are more likely to emerge as leaders when observed by an attractive female observer. The third article discusses gender differences in the prediction of transformational leadership from personality traits, finding extraversion is a stronger predictor for women.
Women tend to exhibit a more transformational leadership style compared to men. Studies have found that women score higher than men on measures of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, and individual consideration. Women leaders describe styles that emphasize participation, communication, empowering employees, and concern for employees' well-being, consistent with transformational leadership. Transformational leadership's focus on developing people aligns with traditionally feminine, communal attributes like empathy and nurturing relationships.
A Review Of Transformational Leadership ModelsRobert Marbun
The document discusses four leadership theories (charismatic, transformational, transactional, and Schein's organizational culture model) and their relationship to the Scholarship/Practice/Leadership (SPL) model. It describes the key components of each leadership theory, including their similarities and differences. It then explains how each theory fits within the three components of the SPL model, which emphasizes scholarly, practical, and leadership perspectives. The theories are analyzed in terms of how leaders can apply critical thinking (scholarship), connect research to practice, and accomplish goals (leadership).
Theories Of Leadership And Leadership TheoriesKrystal Green
The document discusses and compares three popular leadership theories: situational leadership, trait theory, and transformational leadership. Situational leadership, developed by Hersey and Blanchard, focuses on altering leadership style based on the situation and development level of subordinates. Trait theory examines the characteristics and personality traits effective leaders possess. Transformational leadership centers on inspiring and motivating followers through empowerment and satisfaction.
AMU Leadership Skills and the Tribe Research Paper.docxwrite5
This document discusses skills-based models of leadership, specifically the three-skill approach proposed by Katz and the skills model proposed by Mumford et al. The three-skill approach focuses on technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills needed at different leadership levels. The skills model frames leadership in terms of five components: individual attributes, competencies (problem-solving, social judgment, and knowledge skills), career experiences, leadership outcomes, and environmental influences. It proposes that effective leadership depends on a leader's ability to solve complex social problems in organizations through competencies that can be developed.
AMU Leadership Skills and the Tribe Research Paper.docxwrite22
This document discusses leadership skills and theories. It summarizes Katz's three-skill approach to leadership, which focuses on technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills needed at different management levels. It also discusses the skills model of leadership proposed by Mumford et al. in 2000, which identifies five components of leadership performance: individual attributes, competencies, career experiences, leadership outcomes, and environmental influences. The document applies these skills-based leadership theories to the concepts in the book "The Tribe."
1. Is a smile a universal nonverbal form of communication Why or wh.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Is a smile a universal nonverbal form of communication? Why or why not? Provide specific examples in your answer.
2.
What are some of the ways that you, as an American or an international student, have been taught, or unconsciously learned, to synchronize your nonverbal behaviors?
Part B: Verbal
Instructions:
There are five interrelated sets of rules that combine to create a verbal code or language. In the middle column, define the five verbal rules that create the verbal code in a minimum of two sentences for each rule. In the last column, provide an example from both American culture and an international culture for each of the five rules of verbal codes. Then answer the questions on the following page.
Rule set
Definition
(2 or more sentences)
Examples
(1 American culture example and
1 international culture example)
(1) Phonology
(rules for word sounds)
(2) Morphology
(units of meaning in a word)
(3) Semantics
(distinct meaning of words)
(4) Syntax
(relationship of words to each other)
(5) Pragmatics
(effect on human perception)
1. What is one possible drawback of phonology if a nonnative speaker has poor accuracy? What might be done to master a new phonology?
2. What happens in the course of conversation when semantics causes confusion between you and the receiver? Provide a recent example.
3. what do you think Ludwig Wittgenstein meant when he said that “the limits of my language are the limits of my world”?
.
1. IntroductionWritten and Narrated by Professor Deni ElliottThe.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Introduction
Written and Narrated by Professor Deni Elliott
There are so many considerations in making ethical decisions, but what consideration is most important? Different cultures and ethical systems have produced theories that favor one consideration over others. The consideration that a theory favors is called a Fundamental Moral Unit, or FMU.
Many of the classical Western philosophers from the Greek and roman traditions favor the individual as the Fundamental Moral Unit. In these theories, the primary dictate is a negative statement: Don’t get in an individual’s way in his or her pursuit of the good life.
Feminist theories tend to determine the best choice based on how well those choices strengthen the connections among people and how well the needs of the most vulnerable are addressed. The fundamental moral unit here is relationship between people and is based on the belief that care should be given to those who can’t take care of themselves.
Some Eastern theories promote the overall good of the community first and foremost. And some indigenous theories stress human’s connection with the world as a whole, with all natural systems and species having an equal right to co-exist. People who grow up in these traditions expect that they and others will sacrifice individual self-interest for the good of the group and the environment. The Fundamental Moral Unit here is called "aggregate good."
Let’s consider a decision you might encounter if you were a member of your local city council. There is a 50 acre parcel of land in your city’s jurisdiction that was designated a hundred years ago to remain open space. Now the area contains some ancient Native burial grounds, but the tribe members a hundred years and tribe members today are happy with the designated use as long as the woodlands around the burial mounds stay intact. A developer would like to build a shopping mall there. As a city council member, you get to decide how that land will be used today: should it remain a park or become a shopping mall?
If you make your choice based only on the good that comes to individuals, you might be tempted to go with the shopping mall. The mall will provide jobs for many of the people in the community who are out of work and the additional income from the taxes from the new property owner and the businesses will allow the city to reduce taxes for individual home owners.
Which choice best advances the overall good of the community in which I live? The policy choice made previously to protect the land respected human connections to natural systems and was sensitive to the culture and history of a minority group. Affirming that decision helps all people in the community maintain trust in government.
We can see how the teachings from all of these traditions can help us in analyzing an important choice. And they can help us answer one more question: Can I find a choice that doesn’t cause harm to anyone or anything? If a shopping mall is a good idea for the .
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Informative Brochure Comparison of Theories.pptxKassiliaWright1
This poster summarizes and compares the theories of transformational leadership and servant leadership. Transformational leadership focuses on motivating followers and promoting change through idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Servant leadership emphasizes empowering and developing people as well as building community. Both theories emphasize respecting followers and motivating them to achieve goals, but servant leadership places more emphasis on serving followers needs over the leaders own interests. The poster analyzes the similarities and differences between these two emerging leadership theories.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxjeremylockett77
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxcroysierkathey
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu ...
This document discusses theories of contemporary leadership. It examines leadership qualities necessary for success today, the impact of leadership on organizations, and the importance of moral leadership. The document outlines several modern leadership theories, including trait theory, situational approach, and path-goal theory. It emphasizes that leadership results from interaction between leaders and followers, and that different situations influence a leader's behavior.
Man, the different situations in which he finds himself, the diversity of aims, objectives and functions that he purpose and that are laid down for him and the many types of frames of reference in which he finds himself, are all together so complex and complicated that we cannot evolve anything like a universal formula for leadership. In fact the most that we can say and we can say it all generic elements of administration – is that the success of leadership in the final analysis is determined by the knowledge of the leader and of the people he leads. This knowledge includes knowledge of things outside the group’s own frame of reference. All this constitute the subject – matter of this article.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
This document discusses a study that examined the relationship between strategic leadership actions and success among university deans in Malaysia and the United States. The study found:
1) A survey instrument called the Strategic Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ) was found to reliably measure four strategic leadership action sets (transformational, managerial, ethical, political) and leader success.
2) Successful leaders were found to use a wider variety of strategic leadership actions than less successful leaders.
3) There were significant differences between the strategic leadership actions used by successful vs less successful deans in both Malaysian and American universities.
Relevance Of Personality And PsychopathyCarmen Martin
This document discusses leadership styles and organizational culture. It begins by defining leadership and describing Blake and Mouton's managerial grid model, which identifies five leadership styles based on concern for production and people. It then analyzes the leadership styles of Coach Krzyzewski and Coach Knight, concluding that Krzyzewski exemplifies team management while Knight alternates between country club management and authority-compliance. The document also examines organizational culture and the impact of different leadership approaches.
Running Head INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 1
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 4
Influential Leadership
Name:
Course:
Affiliation:
Instructor:
Date of Submission:
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP OUTLINE
A. Introduction
In this part of the study, we try to discuss influential leadership in the current leadership generation. The intention of this part is to make sure that the readers are aware of what the discussion is all about (Postero, 2016). Further, we try to disseminate the different kinds of leadership which are used by the influential leaders and also the impact they have on different company success. It covers some surveys which have been done on the different roles leaders have when it comes to influence. It also focuses on the impact of changes in management paradigms and how that has some impact on leadership (Bae et al., 2013).
B. Meaning of terms
i. Leadership
Covers the meaning of leadership in details. In this part, we discover there is a difference to lead and to manage (Makala & David, 2010)
ii. Influence
Identifies the meaning of influence and how one can be influential (Hilley, 2012).The paper will study an extensive study of how leaders can use their leadership styles to influence performance in organizations (Murray et al., 2011).
C. Theory
This is a study of the relationship that the leaders and the followers. The intention of this part is to give a detailed study of the relationship between the followers and how to create a shared purpose among the two (Crozier & Priestley, 2011)
. The theory meant to show how the leaders can use their abilities to create followers in the different field they are acting on (Malek et al., 2015).
D. Factors that determine influential leadership
i. Organizational factors
These are factors which are within the organization which are very pertinent and makes a leader influential (You, 2014). This part of the leadership influence is abused in the fact that a problem will come up, and the leader will find a way through which they can manage to influence he workers capitalizing on the solution to the problems (Cote et al., 2015).
ii. Group factors
These are the factors that group members of an organization do to see that the workers have a following for a leader. This factor makes a leader one who focusses on the personal traits of every member of an organization (Zhang & Chua, 2011).
iii. Individual factors
This is a study of how a leader behaves and how that influences results and how one acts about that. A leader can have a following when he or she can use the personal traits that will have the rest of members of the organization following (Eichmann, 2001).
iv. Relations with coworkers
This studies how a leader can use the influence he or she has to make sure that they command a following out of this. Any leader who does not have a ...
Running head DOCTORAL RESEARCH ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY .docxsusanschei
Running head: DOCTORAL RESEARCH: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
DOCTORAL RESEARCH: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Walden University
Faraji Edwards
Week 1 Assignment: PhD in Management: Leadership, & Power
(MGMT – 8410-1)
Ayman, R., &Korabik, K. (2010). Leadership: Why gender and culture matter. American Psychologist, 65(3), 157-170.
Majority of the leadership studies conducted in the past usually concentrated on white people. However, there exists other diverse issues affecting affecting the diversity in leadership. In this journal article, Ayman & Korabik (2010) expound on how variables of culture, gender and ethnicity affect leadership. Consequently, the authors conduct a survey on leaders from different cultural and racial backgrounds. The results of the study indicate that leaders of color and women leaders firmly grasped their ethnic and sexual orientation characters contrasted and White male leaders (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). These social personalities together with lived encounters connected with minority status were seen as affecting their activity of leadership, displaying both difficulties and qualities (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Differences in the leadership profile of this different leadership test with the Anglo bunch in the GLOBE considers propose the significance of inspecting assorted qualities in leadership (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Conceptualizations of leadership should be comprehensive of the social characters and lived encounters that leaders and devotees both convey to the connections of leadership.
Maner, J. K., & Mead, N. L. (2010). The essential tension between leadership and power: When leaders sacrifice group goals for the sake of self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(3), 482-497.
Issues of bounded rationality, mismanagement of firm resources among others are the major shortcomings witnessed in the leadership arena. There comes a time when leaders act contrary to the set principles or ignore vital information, the latter of which results to the organization deviating from its goals. At times, leaders might sacrifice team goals to pursue their selfish interests, requiring the effective use of defined frameworks to keep them in check. In a research conducted by Maner & Mead, (2010), the authors suggest the use of both linkage and climate theory to observe and analyze leadership. The study uses random sampling and experimentations to determine whether leaders often wield power with the intention of promoting self interests or team goals. However, the study is subject to various limitations. For instance, Maner & Mead, (2010), acknowledge that the studies used were designed to be rigorous, controlling group decisions in lab tests. In the real settings, group decision making is dynamic and uncontrolled.
Dixon, M. L., & Hart, L. K. (2010). The impact of Path-Goal leadership styles on work group effectiveness and turnover intention. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22(1), 52-69.
In this ...
Leadership effectiveness a multi-factorial model dr. m. roussety mba, m led,...jameskandi
Dr. Maurice Roussety is an Executive Consultant at DST Advisory and Lecturer in Small Business, Franchising and Entrepreneurship at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia. Maurice holds a PhD from the Griffith University in Intellectual Property and Franchise Goodwill Valuation. He also holds a Master’s degree in Leadership and a Master of Business Administration.
Knowledge has to be improved, challenged and increased constantly, or it vanishes.---Peter F. As we approach the third millennium, America cries out for leadership at all levels of society and in every organization that compose it. It must be a national priority to seek out effective leaders. We urgently need culturally sensitive women and men who can grasp the vision of the future. Leadership is the essential force behind any successful organization. Effective leaders help generate vital and viable organizations that can develop and mobilize into new visionary roles in today’s modern society. In so doing, leaders can form a more desirable future for this nation and the world. In contrast, ineffective leadership directs society into becoming a dreamless society lacking purpose, vision and cohesion. Bennis states: Leaders are the ones with vision, who inspire others and cause them to galvanize their efforts and achieve change. Managers, on the other hand, will follow standard operating procedure to their graves, if necessary, because they do not possess the ability to change course (Bennis, 1997, 17).
This document is a final reflection paper discussing the author's views on leadership ethics and styles. The author argues that ethical leadership is important in society to avoid harm caused by unethical leaders. The author feels their leadership style should incorporate servant leadership, which prioritizes others' well-being, and transformational leadership, which helps people reach their full potential. As a professor, the author believes they should practice scholarship, guide students, and serve as a role model through an ethical leadership approach.
Hi. i have research about the relationship between leadership lemodi11
This summary provides an overview of transformational leadership theory:
Transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms people through exceptional influence. It involves engaging with followers in a way that raises motivation and morality in both leader and follower. In contrast to transactional leadership which focuses on exchanges, transformational leadership focuses on inspiring followers and helping them reach their fullest potential. Examples of transformational leaders include Gandhi and Ryan White. Research shows transformational leadership can result in positive psychological gains for both leaders and followers.
Psych_240_-_Leadership_Presentation[1] class version.pptPriyaShandilya4
This document summarizes three articles on leadership and personality. The first article finds that extraversion has the strongest correlation with transformational leadership behaviors. It also finds that neuroticism is negatively correlated with transformational leadership. The second article examines how extraversion relates to emergent leadership in groups, finding extraverted men are more likely to emerge as leaders when observed by an attractive female observer. The third article discusses gender differences in the prediction of transformational leadership from personality traits, finding extraversion is a stronger predictor for women.
Women tend to exhibit a more transformational leadership style compared to men. Studies have found that women score higher than men on measures of transformational leadership such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, and individual consideration. Women leaders describe styles that emphasize participation, communication, empowering employees, and concern for employees' well-being, consistent with transformational leadership. Transformational leadership's focus on developing people aligns with traditionally feminine, communal attributes like empathy and nurturing relationships.
A Review Of Transformational Leadership ModelsRobert Marbun
The document discusses four leadership theories (charismatic, transformational, transactional, and Schein's organizational culture model) and their relationship to the Scholarship/Practice/Leadership (SPL) model. It describes the key components of each leadership theory, including their similarities and differences. It then explains how each theory fits within the three components of the SPL model, which emphasizes scholarly, practical, and leadership perspectives. The theories are analyzed in terms of how leaders can apply critical thinking (scholarship), connect research to practice, and accomplish goals (leadership).
Theories Of Leadership And Leadership TheoriesKrystal Green
The document discusses and compares three popular leadership theories: situational leadership, trait theory, and transformational leadership. Situational leadership, developed by Hersey and Blanchard, focuses on altering leadership style based on the situation and development level of subordinates. Trait theory examines the characteristics and personality traits effective leaders possess. Transformational leadership centers on inspiring and motivating followers through empowerment and satisfaction.
AMU Leadership Skills and the Tribe Research Paper.docxwrite5
This document discusses skills-based models of leadership, specifically the three-skill approach proposed by Katz and the skills model proposed by Mumford et al. The three-skill approach focuses on technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills needed at different leadership levels. The skills model frames leadership in terms of five components: individual attributes, competencies (problem-solving, social judgment, and knowledge skills), career experiences, leadership outcomes, and environmental influences. It proposes that effective leadership depends on a leader's ability to solve complex social problems in organizations through competencies that can be developed.
AMU Leadership Skills and the Tribe Research Paper.docxwrite22
This document discusses leadership skills and theories. It summarizes Katz's three-skill approach to leadership, which focuses on technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills needed at different management levels. It also discusses the skills model of leadership proposed by Mumford et al. in 2000, which identifies five components of leadership performance: individual attributes, competencies, career experiences, leadership outcomes, and environmental influences. The document applies these skills-based leadership theories to the concepts in the book "The Tribe."
Similar to University of Nebraska - Lincoln[email protected] of Nebrask (20)
1. Is a smile a universal nonverbal form of communication Why or wh.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Is a smile a universal nonverbal form of communication? Why or why not? Provide specific examples in your answer.
2.
What are some of the ways that you, as an American or an international student, have been taught, or unconsciously learned, to synchronize your nonverbal behaviors?
Part B: Verbal
Instructions:
There are five interrelated sets of rules that combine to create a verbal code or language. In the middle column, define the five verbal rules that create the verbal code in a minimum of two sentences for each rule. In the last column, provide an example from both American culture and an international culture for each of the five rules of verbal codes. Then answer the questions on the following page.
Rule set
Definition
(2 or more sentences)
Examples
(1 American culture example and
1 international culture example)
(1) Phonology
(rules for word sounds)
(2) Morphology
(units of meaning in a word)
(3) Semantics
(distinct meaning of words)
(4) Syntax
(relationship of words to each other)
(5) Pragmatics
(effect on human perception)
1. What is one possible drawback of phonology if a nonnative speaker has poor accuracy? What might be done to master a new phonology?
2. What happens in the course of conversation when semantics causes confusion between you and the receiver? Provide a recent example.
3. what do you think Ludwig Wittgenstein meant when he said that “the limits of my language are the limits of my world”?
.
1. IntroductionWritten and Narrated by Professor Deni ElliottThe.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Introduction
Written and Narrated by Professor Deni Elliott
There are so many considerations in making ethical decisions, but what consideration is most important? Different cultures and ethical systems have produced theories that favor one consideration over others. The consideration that a theory favors is called a Fundamental Moral Unit, or FMU.
Many of the classical Western philosophers from the Greek and roman traditions favor the individual as the Fundamental Moral Unit. In these theories, the primary dictate is a negative statement: Don’t get in an individual’s way in his or her pursuit of the good life.
Feminist theories tend to determine the best choice based on how well those choices strengthen the connections among people and how well the needs of the most vulnerable are addressed. The fundamental moral unit here is relationship between people and is based on the belief that care should be given to those who can’t take care of themselves.
Some Eastern theories promote the overall good of the community first and foremost. And some indigenous theories stress human’s connection with the world as a whole, with all natural systems and species having an equal right to co-exist. People who grow up in these traditions expect that they and others will sacrifice individual self-interest for the good of the group and the environment. The Fundamental Moral Unit here is called "aggregate good."
Let’s consider a decision you might encounter if you were a member of your local city council. There is a 50 acre parcel of land in your city’s jurisdiction that was designated a hundred years ago to remain open space. Now the area contains some ancient Native burial grounds, but the tribe members a hundred years and tribe members today are happy with the designated use as long as the woodlands around the burial mounds stay intact. A developer would like to build a shopping mall there. As a city council member, you get to decide how that land will be used today: should it remain a park or become a shopping mall?
If you make your choice based only on the good that comes to individuals, you might be tempted to go with the shopping mall. The mall will provide jobs for many of the people in the community who are out of work and the additional income from the taxes from the new property owner and the businesses will allow the city to reduce taxes for individual home owners.
Which choice best advances the overall good of the community in which I live? The policy choice made previously to protect the land respected human connections to natural systems and was sensitive to the culture and history of a minority group. Affirming that decision helps all people in the community maintain trust in government.
We can see how the teachings from all of these traditions can help us in analyzing an important choice. And they can help us answer one more question: Can I find a choice that doesn’t cause harm to anyone or anything? If a shopping mall is a good idea for the .
1. IntroductionThe objective of this video is to introduce studen.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Introduction:
The objective of this video is to introduce students to the fundamental attribution error and its implications. One implication is that we often have a tendency to judge others unfairly because we do not take into account the situational factors that may have caused them to make unethical decisions. We jump to the conclusion that they are bad people because they did a bad thing. That said, it is important to remember that situational factors are usually explanations for while people err, they are not excuses. The best way to avoid this error, experts say, it to put ourselves in the shoes of others and try to envision the pressures they might have faced.
The other implication of the fundamental attribution error is that we may be too easy on ourselves, if we are not careful. We may too readily find situational factors, organizational pressures and the like and then simply excuse our own conduct.
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute "causes of behavior to actors (i.e., internal, dispositional factors) rather than the situation (i.e., external, environmental factors." We see that other people have done bad things, and we assume that it is because of their character rather than the fact that they were, perhaps, striving so hard to please their superiors that they did not even notice the ethical issue that they flubbed.
According to some psychologists, the other side of the coin from the fundamental attribution error is the actor-observer bias which is people’s tendency to over-emphasize the role of the situation in their own behaviors. They insist there’s nothing wrong with their character, because their errors are accounted for by some situational factor—the boss’s pressure, the need to feed their families, etc.
Francesca Gino writes: "In particular, one mistake we systematically make is known as the correspondence bias. When making attributions as we evaluate others, we tend to ascribe too little influence to the situation and too much to their dispositions. In simpler terms, we tend to believe that people’s behavior reflects their unique dispositions and skills, when many times it actually reflects aspects of the situation in which they find themselves." This sounds a lot like a different name for the fundamental attribution error.
2. Task – Watch the videos:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mDhiyPAD6NQ
3. Activities:
1. If you met a famous white-collar criminal, what would you expect him (or, occasionally, her) to be like?
2. Why do you think it is so common to hear white collar criminals described by their neighbors as "the nicest guy," "a real family man," etc.?
3. Can you think of things that you have done in the past that you wish you hadn’t and that you do not believe represent your true character?
4. How can we endeavour to judge people’s character more accurately?
.
1. In the following sentence, which words are used as adjectivesT.docxcorbing9ttj
1. In the following sentence, which words are used as adjectives?
The golden rays of the bright sun reflected off the clear waters of the calm lake.
A. The, of, in, clear, and calm
B. Golden, rays, clear, and waters
C. The, rays, the, sun, the, waters, the, and lake
D. The, golden, the, bright, the, clear, the, and calm
2. In the following sentence, identify the prepositional phrase, and tell whether it acts as an adjective or
adverb.
The children found the pictures in the book interesting.
A. The children; adjective
B. in the book; adjective
C. found the pictures; adverb
D. the pictures in; adjective
3. In the following sentence, which words are nouns?
During their vacation, Sarah and Matthew read the same book.
A. vacation, Sarah, Matthew, and book
B. their and book
C. vacation and book
D. Sarah, Matthew, the, and book
4. A common term for photographs, cartoons, advertisements, illustrations, drawings, PowerPoint slides,
and graphics used to help present information is
A. representers.
B. sight perks.
C. ocular enhancements.
D. visuals.
5. Which of the following is not a common sentence error?
A. Mixed construction
B. Prepositional phrase
C. Fragment
D. Run-on
6. Which of the following words would require the article a, instead of an?
A. Hotel
B. Honest
C. Elderly
D. Igloo
7. Which of the following correctly describes connotation?
A. An implied meaning of word understood by language users
B. The meaning of a word that has never changed
C. A new word added to the dictionary
D. The pronunciation of a word
8. What is the difference between abstract nouns and concrete nouns?
A. Abstract nouns describe something, but concrete nouns don't.
B. Concrete nouns can be identified by the senses, but abstract nouns can't.
C. There is no difference.
D. Abstract nouns are specific, but concrete nouns aren't.
9. Which of the following is an antonym of the word happy?
A. Joyful
B. Miserable
C. Jovial
D. Blissful
10. Which of the following is a false statement about a basic dictionary?
A. In a basic dictionary, pictures are provided of every word.
B. Various types of words are included a basic dictionary.
C. The pronunciation of words is provided in a basic dictionary.
D. A basic dictionary is organized in alphabetical order.
11. Which of the following is not a synonym of the word beautiful?
A. Gorgeous
B. Attractive
C. Gritty
D. Stunning
12. In the following sentence, to which antecedent is the pronoun referring?
After Denise went to the grocery store, she stopped at the gas station.
A. store
B. Denise
C. she
D. station
13. Which of the following is an example of a third-person pronoun?
A. Ourselves
B. Yourselves
C. Them
D. Us
14. Which of the following is a correct statement about punctuation?
A. Each direct question should end with a period.
B. Punctuation marks show pauses, inflection, and emphasis.
C. Punctuation is usually an extra, unnecessary part of a sentence.
D. The two types of punctuation are beginning and external.
15. Which of the following is.
1. In the song Tonight from the musical West Side Story, the compo.docxcorbing9ttj
1. In the song "Tonight" from the musical West Side Story, the composer distributed two basic melodies
among different characters to create a kind of _______, in which nothing disappears but new layers are
constantly introduced.
A. dissonant form
B. layered presence
C. additive form
D. consonant counterpoint
2. The type of music that blended the musical styles of jump blues and honky-tonk was
A. rock 'n' roll.
B. hip hop.
C. jazz.
D. Motown.
3. _______ works are often playful in spirit, a reaction against the unrelenting seriousness of much
modernist art.
A. Postmodern
B. Neoclassical
C. Minimalist
D. Concerto
4. A modern-day retelling of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is carried out in the musical
A. My Fair Lady.
B. The Mikado.
C. H.M.S. Pinafore.
D. West Side Story.
5. Which of the following musicals was the first to tackle the issue of racism?
A. Show Boat
B. My Fair Lady
C. Rent
D. South Pacific
6. A musical style that combines traditional and modern elements is called
A. exhibitionism.
B. postmodernism.
C. minimalism.
D. modernism.
7. Minimalist techniques have been applied in many different kinds of music, including
A. reggae.
B. hip-hop.
C. rock ‘n' roll.
D. techno.
8. Aaron Copland varies the _______ throughout his movement "Hoe-Down" to create variety.
A. theme
B. scene
C. movements
D. orchestration
9. Public Enemy's abrasive rap recording "Fight the Power" has a basic pulse of _______ beats per minute.
A. 60
B. 120
C. 106
D. 86
10. The _______ were interested in the hypnotic quality of the repeated melodic fragments and interlocked
patterns created by the gamelan.
A. minimalists
B. nationalists
C. impressionists
D. neoclassicists
11. Which of the following composers wrote the music for West Side Story?
A. Cole Porter
B. George M. Cohan
C. Jerome Kern
D. Leonard Bernstein
12. A chromatic scale consists entirely of
A. whole steps.
B. quarter steps.
C. half steps.
D. tonal centers.
13. Notes that begin a phrase before a downbeat are known as pick-up notes, or a/an
A. anacrusis.
B. shuffle groove.
C. call and response.
D. duck walk.
14. Which composer engaged in scholarly studies that focused on the social dimension of music and the
ways it's used within and between cultures?
A. John Williams
B. Béla Bartók
C. Leonard Bernstein
D. John Cage
15. Debussy's Voiles was inspired by a Javanese ensemble known as a
A. gong.
B. wave.
C. quartet.
D. gamelan.
16. On whose show did Elvis Presley make his famous debut?
A. Dick Clark
B. Ed Sullivan
C. Milton Berle
D. Steve Allen
17. Which composer's work has been likened to Brahms and Dvořák?
A. John Cage
B. Austin Wintory
C. John Williams
D. Philip Glass
18. Which of the following works can be likened to program music?
A. Sonata II
B. Concerto for Orchestra
C. "Nascence"
D. Concertino for Harp and Orchestra
19. What does the word kebyar mean?
A. Explosive
B. Ensemble
C. Shimmering
D. Interlocking
20. Which of the following is used in Sonata II's prepared piano?
A. Small pieces of rubber
B. Copper w.
1. IT Diffusion Models Please respond to the followingReview th.docxcorbing9ttj
1. "IT Diffusion Models" Please respond to the following:
Review the IT diffusion models, select two models, then compare and contrast how these models would facilitate a company in the country and business sector of your choice. Be sure to state your business sector. Then, explain how the IT diffusion models may affect it.
Describe the process of how a non-IT senior manager would arrive at the decision to support one IT diffusion model over another. List the factors that would have to be considered. Determine which model you would choose and explain why.
.
1. In many ways the underworld was considered dangerous, but there w.docxcorbing9ttj
1. In many ways the underworld was considered dangerous, but there were also benefits for the deceased. Explain how it was important for kings to build their funeray toms as part of the sun god's cycle.
2. explain how king hatsheput came into rule during the 18th dynasty
3. which king had the largest funerary complex at thebes?
a. KING THUTMOSEIII B KING HATSHEPSSET C KING AMENHOTEP D KING THUTMOSEI
4. red quartzite shrines were build into temples to ser down the sacred_________ caarying the cult statue of the deity.
5, Red graniti was used in status as a symbolic statement about the kings connections to deities and the sun. a True B False
6. King amenhotep's depictions underwent a phyical change after his first sed--------festival at the temple of luxor. what was different about his characteristic, and what did he own wear?
7. Both palaces and temples were built as microcosms of the world fromits very beggining A True B False
8. In contrast to the temples, there was little decorating relating directly to the deites instead, what type of images would your find in a palace?
9. durinf the festival of the wadi the living crossed to the west bank to visit their tombs of their relatives during this cisit, they would share meals and drink, hunt and fish perform the openning of the mouth ceremony manufacture jewelry and other precious objects.
10. often the store in rock-cut tombs was too poor in quality to create reliefs.describe the decoration technique used in these situations.
11. pleasted garments, such as those shown on this wooden statue, became fashion able in the late ________dynasty
a. 16th
b 18th
c 20th
d 21st
12. this eye symbol called a______ is associated with the god hours and was often depicted on amulets on coffins. the drop and spiral imitate the making of a falcon, and represents healing and making whole.
13. the goddess_______ is represented as a vuhiere with outstretched wings and included in funerary at the temple of king hatsheppsut basket, nekhbet, ma'at, sekment
14. many time statues would be holding nujars, and the hieroglyph of the nu-jar generally meantr what? protection, re-birth, to offer, sacred sun
15. why does king hat shepsut generally dissapear from sources, even after her reign was considered succeeeful?
16. describe what a stelophorous statue looks like.
17. due to king, amenhotp's increased on the solar aspects of deites, large open,________ counts were now individual in many temple complexes.
18. On stela depictions in the 18th dynasty only royal and divine figures would be placed below the sun disk a True B False
Please anser each question and send it back by each question
.
1. In Jules Henry’s view, how are values and drives related to e.docxcorbing9ttj
1.
In Jules Henry’s view, how are values and drives related to each other? (Points : 1)
Values determine how people behave, while drives are ways of acting that are required by circumstances.
Values are what people care enough to follow through on, while drives are followed out of necessity.
Values are ideals that people do not necessarily pursue, while drives are the motives people actually pursue.
They are synonyms.
Question 2.
2.
Which of the following best characterizes culture? (Points : 1)
A culture is a homogeneous system.
A culture can best be described as a simple listing of various characteristics.
A culture is a dynamic system.
Some cultures are dynamic, while others are stable.
Question 3.
3.
Which of the following theoretical perspectives distinguishes cultural anthropology from other disciplines? (Points : 1)
Humanism
Holism
Materialism
Ethnocentrism
Question 4.
4.
Which of the following is true of a belief system’s influence on how people think? (Points : 1)
Beliefs have no relationship to feelings.
In every culture, some beliefs are set forth as proper ways of thinking.
Beliefs are controlled by reality, not by culture.
Individuals may freely deviate from others in their beliefs with no likelihood of punishment.
Question 5.
5.
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor’s concept of survivals is best defined by which of the following? (Points : 1)
Cultural traits change the least because they are the means by which a society copes with its environment.
Primitive cultures have avoided extinction as more complex ways of life developed.
Evidence of major catastrophic events in the past.
Remnants of earlier social customs and ideas aid in reconstructing the evolutionary past of societies.
Question 6.
6.
Which of the following best defines culture? (Points : 1)
Learned system of beliefs, feelings, and rules that organize people’s lives
The pattern of a people’s customs
A people’s rules for living, based on a pattern of legal concepts
Biologically predetermined behavior patterns
Question 7.
7.
Ruth Benedict’s major contribution to the history of anthropology was which of the following ideas? (Points : 1)
Cultural traits have functions.
Ways of life are integrated wholes.
Cultures are dynamic.
Not all customs are functional.
Question 8.
8.
Values are (Points : 1)
descriptions of what is true or false.
feelings about what is true or false about the world.
feelings about what should or should not be considered good or bad.
feelings about personal likes and dislikes.
Question 9.
9.
Which of the following is NOT true of how children learn their culture? (Points : 1)
Acceptable behavior is often contrasted with unacceptable behavior.
Children observe and imitate others.
A sense of cooperation with.
1. If I wanted to test a certain chemical to see if it made mice run.docxcorbing9ttj
1. If I wanted to test a certain chemical to see if it made mice run faster. What steps would I take to test that? What would be my control? Form a hypothesis.
2. Which requires more energy? A reaction with an enzyme or a reaction without an enzyme?
3.Which has more energy? ATP or ADP?
4. Which has more potential energy? A ball on the ground or a ball at the top of a slide?
5. If I had an unknown liquid, how could I test to see if it was polar or non polar?
6. What are three characteristics of water that are
essential
to life on earth? And what makes them essential to life?
7. Which has more calories? 1 gram of carbohydrate, 1 gram of protein, or 1 gram of lipids?
8. If a scientist asks you to have "faith" in his science, what would you tell them?
9. Which requires more energy? Passive transport or active transport?
10. If cells lacked cholesterol, what would be the consequences to the cell membrane?
11. If I wanted to make a bean plant with a gene from a apple tree in it- What would be the first few steps I would have to take in the lab?
12. If I was given an unknown liquid and asked to find it's density, how could I do that?
13. If I put pure water into a bag made of a semi permeable membrane and place it into salt water. What will happen to the volume of the water in the bag and why?
14. What is the highest level of protein folding?
15. Why is the lipid bilayer referred to as a fluid and mosaic?
16.How many bonds can carbon make?
17. How many protons are in a Helium atom? And where in the atom are the protons?
18. If something is acidic, does it have a high or low pH? A high or low H+ concentration? Name an acidic liquid in your house.
19. What is something that has some of the characteristics of life, but, is not alive. Describe it and what characteristics of life it might have.
20.Why is it important to test insecticides and chemicals before releasing them into the environment?
.
1. Identify a community or aggregate you are currently involved wi.docxcorbing9ttj
1.
Identify a community or aggregate you are currently involved with at home (personal life) or at work. Cite some major value, major strengths, and health needs of your community or aggregate. How could a nurse work collaboratively with a community to build on these strengths and facilitate community empowerment? Keep in mind the different methods of community outreach the nurse could utilize.
2. Assurance is one of the three core functions of public health. Knowing what resources are available is part of this function. Find a resource in your community that could be used as a referral source and share information about the services provided. Who is eligible for the services? What could be done in order to improve the accessibility, acceptability, affordability, or availability of this resource in your community? Make sure to address all four of the A’s.
3. Spend time either walking around or sitting and watching people in a very busy public place. Look for things that you associate with people from race/ethnic, cultural, gender, and social-class backgrounds that are different from your own. Look for the kinds of common interactions or behaviors between different groups and those like your own. For example, do they acknowledge the other's presence if eye contact happens to occur? Do any behaviors change in the presence of other groups?
Consider what you expect to see based on your assumptions and understandings about persons of different backgrounds (how you expect them to dress, walk, talk, interact with each other, interact with others, etc). Make note of those things that catch your attention. Pay special attention to what you don't see as well. In two to three paragraphs, share your observations with the class. Please begin with, "In my observation..."
4. When traveling to other countries for business, it is important to know the male/female roles in each country. Not knowing these roles could cause problems in discussions and negotiations. If you were traveling to Saudi Arabia, New Zealand, Brazil, Thailand, the Czech Republic, Russia, or Rwanda, what would you need to know about the traditional male/female roles? Search the Internet for one or more of the above countries to find out about male/female roles. Share your findings with the class.
.
1. Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method. Which o.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method. Which observations do you think the scientists made leading up to this research study? Given your understanding of the experimental design, formulate a specific hypothesis that is being tested in this experiment. Describe the experimental design including control and treatment group(s), and dependent and independent variables. Summarize the results and the conclusion
.
1. How many time zones are there across the world2. Which map wou.docxcorbing9ttj
1. How many time zones are there across the world?
2. Which map would have the largest scale? a) city b) continent c) state d) world
3. Which method of data acquisition is not considered to be in the class of remote sensing? a) aerial photography b) weather satellite data c) landsat satellite data d) rain gauge data
4. Lines of latitude run (N/S or E/W) around the globe and are measured (N/S or E/W) of the Equator. Lines of longitude run (N/S or E/W) around the globe and are measured (N/S or E/W) of the Prime Meridian.
5. The world soil map has strong resemblance to the world climate map. Discuss the reasons for the similarities and differences between the two.
6. What is the external fuel that drives the atmosphere?
7. At the Tropic of Cancer the Sun is directly overhead at noon on the a) vernal equinox b) summer solstice c) autumnal equinox d) winter solstice
8. Which area receives the most seasonal variation in incoming radiation? a) equator b) high latitudes c) low latitudes d) tropics
9. What is word that means "the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold"?
10. What is an urban heat island?
11. Precipitation occurs because air is warmed adiabatically as it rises. (True or False)
12. Periods of increasing glacier mass would likely be accompanied by decreasing ocean levels. (True or False)
13. Describe the greenhouse effect in terms of radiant energy exchanges.
14. What is "an extremely long ocean wave created by an underwater earthquake"?
15. Earthquakes are most likely to occur: a) in the center of tectonic plates b) at the equator c) where two tectonic plates meet d) none of the above
16. The place where the Earth's crust actually moves is the ____________ of an earthquake.
17. Most rivers have relatively gentle gradients in the headwaters and steep gradients in their downstream portions. (True or False)
18. Would one expect to find more soluble materials in the soil of an arid region or the soil of a humid region? Why?
19. What is the difference between mass movement and erosion?
20. What type of vegetation is dominant in savannas? (Be specific.)
.
1. How has society responded to coastal changes initiated by sand tr.docxcorbing9ttj
1. How has society responded to coastal changes initiated by sand transportation, and have these responses been wise environmentally and economically?
2.
What is the major danger of hurricanes to coastal areas and how has the federal government historically responded? Explain.
******Answers must be in APA format. Please cite reference(s) and page number for each question. Thanks
.
1. How has the economic geography of this region changed over the .docxcorbing9ttj
1. How has the economic geography of this region changed over the past few decades? Please discuss how globalization and outsourcing has impacted this entire region in terms of geography.
PART I: MAP ACTIVITY
Use the map below to identify all numbered areas.
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PART II: SHORT ESSAY
Please answer the following question in a 1-2 page short essay using APA Format.
Please be sure to use the course readings and/or other outside documented research to support all of your ideas, facts, and opinions.
Pick any individual country in
South, East, or Southeast Asia Realms and Regions
and then describe and explain its individual physical, historical, economic, political, cultural/human, and religious/spiritual geography.
How and why is it different than the countries it borders?
What future challenges do you see for this country?
Have you ever visited this country before?
Would you like to if you have not?
Why or why not?
PART III: GEOGRAPHY JOURNAL
Task #1.
Please utilize LIRN (you may visit the Academic Resource Center for a guide on how to utilize LIRN successfully) and search for one peer reviewed research article that covers any of the following:
identify the defining criteria for geographic realms and regions.
analyze geography’s spatial perspective as it applies to human activity.
differentiate among the major elements of the natural environment and their general geographic characteristics.
name and locate the three largest world population clusters.
examine the concept of cultural landscape.
explain the meaning of state.
analyze the spatial dimensions of economic development and the World Bank’s global classification scheme.
Then write a 1-2 page review/reaction/reflection paper describing that article using APA format (please visit the Academic Resource Center for a concise guide on APA format).
Be sure to include the following:
Goals/Objectives
: What is the purpose of the article?
What does it attempt to solve, determine, or demonstrate?
Data
: Which data are assessed or analyzed to determine if the goals/objectives are met?
Methods
: What specific methodology is used to analyze the data in the context of the goals?
Analysis/Conclusion
: What resulted from methods being applied to the data?
What do the author(s) conclude from the analysis or how do they interpret the analysis/results?
Your critical review of the article must include the following:
Assessment
: Were the goals and objectives clearly stated?
Did the goals match the methods and results?
Was the article easy to follow?
Importance
: What, in your view, is the importance of this research?
What impact
does
knowing this have on geography?
Improvement
: What, if anything, could the author(s) have done to impro.
1. Important nurses of the 19th century are often overshadowed by Ni.docxcorbing9ttj
1. Important nurses of the 19th century are often overshadowed by Nightingale’s prominence. Select one 19th century nurse other than Nightingale and describe his/her contributions to the profession.
2. Usability and interoperability are major issues to consider in the development of healthcare information systems (HIS). How does your organization address these issues? Does the transfer of information occur smoothly, or do you need to re-enter data from one application to the next—such as patient information from the emergency room that does not transfer—along with the patient who is admitted to the critical care unit? Or what happens when the patient is discharged and the home care nurses have to start from scratch as they prepare the patient’s plan of care?
3. This week's lesson points out key concepts in searching the National Library of Medicine's PubMed/MEDLINE database, your schools Library's EBSCO/CINAHL database, and Google Scholar. This week’s lesson directs you to links and resources on the basics of searching these three information sources. The tutorials are very helpful. You are strongly urged to view them prior to posting.
Locate one article in each of the data sources and briefly summarize each article.
.
1. In what ways did the Columbian Exchange impact the Americas, .docxcorbing9ttj
1. In what ways did the Columbian Exchange impact the Americas, Europe, and Africa?
2. The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay fled an established church and religious persecution in England. Why, then, did they promptly establish their own church and persecute dissenters?
3. What role did the colonies play in the British mercantilist system?
4. In what ways did “Salutary Neglect” influence future calls for independence?
Need at least 270 words and at least 2 citations
.
1. How did the conditions of life among descendants of African Slave.docxcorbing9ttj
1. How did the conditions of life among descendants of African Slaves in post-colonial Jamaica contribute to the origins of the Rastafarian tradition?
2. Mention and describe into details two ritual processes associated with the Rastafarian tradition.
3. In what ways are the Rastafarians counter-hegemonic?
Each question needs to be no less than 500 words each for a total of 1,500 words.
***Assignment is due Sunday April 19th, 2015 at 10:00pm EASTERN TIME***
.
1. If you adopt the _______ perspective, youll reject an emphasis o.docxcorbing9ttj
1. If you adopt the _______ perspective, you'll reject an emphasis on what goes on in people's minds in
favor of focusing on measurable behaviors that can be objectively measured.
A. psychodynamic
B. cognitive
C. behavioral
D. neuroscience
2. Among his oil-field buddies, Conrad was known as a cheerfully profane hard drinker who was seldom
averse to a barroom scrap. But, after he suffered a head injury in a car accident he returned to work as a
docile, timid man who could no longer deal with the violent activity of a drill rig platform. His physicians
determined that damage to his __________ was the likely cause of his changed behavior.
A. amygdala
B. cerebellum
C. thalamus
D. hippocampus
3. The left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is more specialized in language functions and processing
information sequentially. The right hemisphere tends to specialize in spatial perception and distinguishing
patterns. These are examples of cortex
A. lateralization.
B. adaptation.
C. neuroplasticity.
D. evolution.
4. Among the advanced technologies used to study the brain's structure and functions, which one provides
detailed three-dimensional images of the brain's structures and activities?
A. Positron emission tomography
B. Functional magnetic resonance imaging
C. Electroencephalogram
D. Transcranial magnetic stimulation
5. A reflex, like automatically removing your hand from a hot stove, involves pain messages sent to the
spinal cord by way of _______ neurons, while the movement of your hand is controlled by _______
neurons.A. somatic; sensory
B. somatic; sympathetic
C. motor; sensory
D. sensory; motor
6. I study a sample of 100 high school students and find that student IQ scores increase significantly as the
level of reported parental income increases. I can conclude from this that
A. there's a negative relationship between parental income and children's IQ scores.
B. there's a positive correlation between parental income and children's IQ scores.
C. higher parental income causes an increase in children's IQ scores.
D. students get smarter when their parents earn more money.
7. Regarding the association areas of the cerebral cortex, which of the following statements is most
accurate?
A. Changes in personality may indicate damage to the association areas.
B. Most association areas are located in the left cerebral hemisphere.
C. The association areas are largely responsible for neurogenesis.
D. Association areas are to thinking as neuroplasticity is to language.
8. Under Weber's law, we'll notice a stimulus difference such that it will be a constant proportion of the
intensity of the initial stimulus. Thus, for weight, we'll notice a one-ounce difference in a weight of 50
ounces. Weber's law applies most directly to the concept of
A. perceived stimulus.
B. difference threshold.
C. absolute threshold.
D. sensory adaptation.
9. Agatha maintains that people are capable of freely making voluntary choices. Constance is mainly
focused on .
1. How are information systems transforming business and what is the.docxcorbing9ttj
1. How are information systems transforming business and what is their relationship to globalization? Give examples to illustrate your answer.
2. How do enterprise applications, collaboration and communication systems, and intranets improve organizational performance? Give examples to illustrate your answer
.
1. How can Fiedlers theory of the least preferred coworker help man.docxcorbing9ttj
1. How can Fiedler's theory of the least preferred coworker help managers become more effective? Provide specific examples.
2. Understanding Work Team
3. Power and Politics
4. Conflict and Negotiation
No more than 150 words for each topic - reference please
Due Date 4/18/15
Thanks!
.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
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You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
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Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
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This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRM
University of Nebraska - Lincoln[email protected] of Nebrask
1. University of Nebraska - Lincoln
[email protected] of Nebraska - Lincoln
Faculty Publications: Agricultural Leadership,
Education & Communication Department
Agricultural Leadership, Education &
Communication Department
12-13-2005
Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic, and
Transformational Leadership: A Test of
Antecedents
John E. Barbuto Jr.
University of Nebraska - Lincoln, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at:
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/aglecfacpub
Part of the Other Public Affairs, Public Policy and Public
Administration Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the
Agricultural Leadership, Education & Communication
Department at
[email protected] of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted
for inclusion in Faculty Publications: Agricultural Leadership,
Education &
Communication Department by an authorized administrator of
[email protected] of Nebraska - Lincoln.
Barbuto, John E. Jr., "Motivation and Transactional,
Charismatic, and Transformational Leadership: A Test of
Antecedents" (2005).
2. Faculty Publications: Agricultural Leadership, Education &
Communication Department. Paper 39.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/aglecfacpub/39
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu?utm_source=digitalcommons.unl.
edu%2Faglecfacpub%2F39&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign
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ommons.unl.edu%2Faglecfacpub%2F39&utm_medium=PDF&ut
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Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 2005,
Volume 1 1, Number 4
Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic,
and Transformational Leadership: A Test of
3. Antecedents
John E Barbuto Jr
Relationships between leaders' motivation
and their use of charismatic, transactional, and /
or transformational leadership were examined
in this study. One hundred eighty-six leaders
and 759 direct reports from a variety of
organizations were sampled. Leaders were
administered the Motivation Sources Inventory
(MSO while followers reported leaders' full
range leadership behaviors using the Multi-
factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-rater
version). Leaders were also administered the
self-rating version of the Multi-factor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-rater version).
The Motivation Sources Inventory subscales .
subsequently signzjkantly correlated with leader
self-reports of inspirational motivation,
idealized influence (behavior) and
individualized consideration (range, r = .10 to
.29), as well as with raters' perceptions of
inspirational motivation, idealized influence
(behavior) and individualized consideration
(range, r = .18 to .19). The Motivation Sources
Inventory subscales significantly correlated with
leaders' self-reports of charisma, transactional
and laissez-faire leadership (range, r = .12 to
.28), with rater-reports of the same variables
(range, r = .16 to .29).
Antecedents of transformational behavior
have been examined sparsely since the concept
was first articulated and researched (Burns,
1978; Bass, 1985). Those few studies that have
4. examined the construct as a criterion variable
have included Avolio's (1 994) examination of
life events and experiences, Bass's (1985)
exploration of early career challenges, Howard
and Bray's (1988) study of personality variables,
Atwater and Yammarino's (1993) study of
personal attributes as precedents to
transformational leader behaviors, and Barbuto,
Fritz, and Marx's (2000) study of work
motivation and transformational leadership.
Results of these inquiries demonstrate that
dispositional variables play some role in
transformational leadership, but much research
is necessary to ascertain which variables explain
the greatest variance in data. This study tests the
relationship between leaders' sources of
motivation and their use of transactional,
charismatic, and transformational leadership.
Literature Review
Full Range Model of Leadership
Transformational leadership theories grew
from Bums's (1978) work in political
leadership. Bums (1 978) described the
transforming leader as one who is able to lift
followers up from their petty preoccupations and
rally around a common purpose to achieve
things never thought possible. Bass (1 985)
developed a typology of leadership behaviors
fitting into the broad categories of transactional
and transformational leadership. Bass (1 985)
identified laissez-faire, management-by-
exception, and contingent reward as the key
5. types of transactional leadership. Most
conceptualizations of transactional leadership,
however, exclude laissez-faire because it
represents the absence of leadership.
Transformational leadership was
operationalized at the time to include charisma,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration (see Avolio, Waldman & Einstein,
1988; Bass, 1990). Through theory refinements
and research, a fourth component of
transformational leadership was identified -
inspirational motivation. Later, after one of the
key components - charisma - received increased
scrutiny and criticism as potentially
A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 27
incompatible with transformational ideals (see
Barbuto, 1997; Hunt, 1999), the term 'charisma'
in the full range leadership model was
eventually changed to idealized influence. The
full range leadership model describes the
distribution of leadership behaviors, ranging
from completely inactive (laissez-faire) to
transactional behaviors to transformational
behaviors.
Transactional Leadership
Bradford and Lippitt (1 945) described
laissez-faire leadership as a leader's disregard of
supervisory duties and lack of guidance to
subordinates. Laissez-faire leaders offer little
6. support to their subordinates and are inattentive
to productivity or the necessary completion of
duties. Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939) studied
boys' clubs in which adults were taught to lead
each group as either a laissez-faire leader or a
democratic leader. Laissez-faire leaders gave
their groups complete freedom and offered little
guidance. These groups proved to be confused
and disorganized, and their work was less
efficient and of poorer quality than the work of
groups whose leaders exhibited different
behaviors. From the outset, laissez-faire has
demonstrated itself to be the most inactive, least
effective, and most frustrating leadership style.
Katz, Macoby, Gurin, and Floor (1951) studied
railroad section groups that were deemed to be
unproductive. The leaders of these groups gave
complete control to the group members and the
members did not respond to the challenge.
Studies show that policies and practices that
reflect non-involvement of supervisors lead to
low productivity, resistance to change, and low
quality of work (Argyris, 1954; Berrien, 1961;
Murnigham & Leung, 1976).
Management-by-exception has it roots in
contingent reinforcement theories (Bass, 1990)
whereby subordinates are rewarded or punished
for a designated action. Leaders practicing
management-by-exception do not get involved
with subordinates until failures or deviations in
workflow occur (Bass, 1985; 1990).
Intervention by the leader occurs only when a
failure takes place and punishment or corrective
action is necessary. The leader sets up pre-
determined actions for specific failures and
7. enforces the punishments when necessary.
Passive leaders tend to get involved only when
necessary and refuse to set a plan of action.
Such leaders expect only the status quo from
subordinates, do not encourage exceptional work
(Hater & Bass, 1988), and wait to be notified of
failures. Active leaders, unlike their passive
counterparts, regularly search for failures and
devise systems that warn of impending failures
before they occur (Hater & Bass, 1988).
Leaders who practice management by
exception routinely provide negative feedback
because they only initiate contact with
subordinates when failures occur. This action
stimulates subordinates to maintain the status
quo and strive for perfection at their job.
However, the behavior does not encourage or
foster growth of the person or job performance.
In a management-by-exception environment,
any non-routine circumstances will require
leader intervention, because employees have not
been encouraged to solve problems and have not
been given the autonomy to develop confidence
or to learn fiom experiences (See Bass, 1985;
1990).
Leaders and followers both participate in a
contingent rewards approach to management,
because it reflects behavior that is reciprocal in
nature (Howell & Avolio, 1993). Each party
agrees to a system of rewards and works to meet
mutual expectations for certain achievements or
behaviors (Bass, 1990; Seltzer & Bass, 1990).
This approach stems partly from reinforcement
8. theory and has been central to leadership theory
and practice for many years. Bass (1990)
described many examples from early Greek
mythology in which contingent rewards were
used by the gods. Kelman (1958) discussed
instrumental compliance and instrumental
inducements in early discussions of this type of
leadership. Blanchard and Johnson (1 985)
described transactional management as a simple
process of creating strong expectations with
employees, along with clear indications of what
they will get in return for meeting these
expectations. Most research has linked
contingent rewards to positive organizational
outcomes (Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe,
Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).
28 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto,
Jr.
Charismatic Leadership
Charisma is believed to be the fundamental
factor in the transformational process and is
described as the leader's ability to generate great
symbolic power. Weber (1 947) first described
the concept of charismatic leadership as
stemming from subordinates' (or followers')
perceptions that the leader is endowed with
exceptional skills or talents. In its origins,
charismatic leadership was a focus in studying
political and world leaders (Bums, 1978; House,
Spangler & Woycke, 1991). Research of
charismatic leadership has consistently found
9. significant relationships with follower trust,
effort, and commitment (Howell & Frost, 1989;
Lowe et al., 1996).
Transformational Leadership
Bass (1985) espoused a theory of
transformational leadership that built on the
earlier works of Burns (1978). The degree to
which leaders are transformational was
measured in terms of the leader's effect on
followers. Followers of transformational leaders
feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect
toward leaders and are motivated to perform
extra-role behaviors (Bass, 1985; Katz & Kahn,
1978). Transformational leaders have been
shown to increase followers' trust satisfaction
and citizenship (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Morrman & Fetter, 1990). Leaders high in
transformational behaviors achieve maximum
performance from followers because they are
able to inspire followers to raise their criteria for
success and develop innovative problem solving
skills (Bass, 1985; Yammarino & Bass, 1990).
The transformational leader-follower
relationship is viewed as one of mutual
stimulation and is operationalized with three
distinct characteristics: intellectual stimulation,
individualized consideration, and inspirational
motivation (Barbuto, 1997; Bass, 1985; Bass &
Avolio, 1990). Individualized consideration
describes leaders acting in the role of employee
mentors (Bass, 1 985). Inspirational motivation
describes leaders passionately communicating a
future idealistic organization that can be shared
10. (Hater & Bass, 1988). Intellectual stimulation
describes leaders encouraging employees to
approach old and familiar problems in new ways
(Bass, 1985; Deluga, 1988).
The motives inherent in the full-range
leadership model have been examined
surprisingly little during the past 20 years of
transformational leadership research. This
project, therefore, tests the specific relationships
between leaders' sources of work motivation
and the full range leadership behaviors used by
leaders in the workplace. The next section
reviews the motivation literature and develops
the expected relationships between the variables
of interest.
Sources of Motivation in the
Workplace
Toward a Meta-Theory of Work
Motivation
Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1999)
proposed a new typology of motivation sources,
which was later operationalized with scales to
measure the taxonomy (Barbuto & Scholl,
1998). This taxonomy was further developed
and tested to predict leaders' behaviors (Barbuto
& Scholl, 1999; Barbuto, Fritz & Marx, 2000).
In two independent research studies examining
antecedents of leaders' behaviors (using these
two motivation taxonomies), the five sources of
motivation (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998; Leonard,
Beauvais & Scholl, 1999) were better able to
predict behavior than McClelland's (1 985)
11. three-need model (see Barbuto, Fritz & Marx,
2000; 2002). These five sources of motivation
include intrinsic process, instrumental, self-
concept-external, self-concept-internal, and goal
internalization.
The Five Sources of Work Motivation
Intrinsic Process Motivation
If people are motivated to perform certain
kinds of work or to engage in certain types of
behavior for the sheer fun of it, then intrinsic
process motivation is occurring. For this source
of motivation, the work itself acts as the
incentive because workers enjoy what they are
doing. Similar constructs to intrinsic process
motivation can be found extensively in the
literature. Developmental theorists have
described a similar motive using the terms
heteronymous morality (Kohlberg, 1976),
A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 29
impulsive (Loevinger, 1976; Kegan, 1982), and,
to a lesser extent, pre-operational (Piaget,
1972). Other need-based descriptors similar to
intrinsic process include early existence needs
(Alder fer, 1969), intrinsic pleasure needs
(Murray, 1 964) and physiological needs
(Maslow, 1954). Bandura (1 986) describes
sensory intrinsic motivation and physiological
intrinsic motivation in terms similar to those
used to describe intrinsic process motivation.
12. This motive also has been articulated as intrinsic
motivation to obtain task pleasure (Deci, 1975)
and intrinsic task motivation devoid of external
controls or rewards (Staw, 1976).
Past researchers (Deci, 1975; Katz & Kahn,
1978; Staw, 1976) have used the term intrinsic
motivation to represent personal satisfaction
derived from achievement of goals or tasks.
Intrinsic process motivation is distinct from the
classical interpretation of intrinsic motivation
because the emphasis with the former is on
immediate enjoyment or pleasure during the
activity, rather than on the satisfaction that
results from its achievement. The classic
intrinsic motivation is better represented in this
motivation taxonomy as self-concept-internal, to
be explained in more detail in this paper.
Intrinsically motivated leaders find
enjoyment and pleasure in the work they do
(Barbuto, Fritz, & Mam, 2002). The leaders'
enjoyment of their work environment could
inspire the followers to emulate the leaders'
behavior and incorporate enjoyment with work
(Avolio, Waldman, & Einstein, 1 988).
Hypothesis 1: Leaders' intrinsic process
motivation will be positively related to
charismatic and transformational leadership
behaviors.
Instrumental Motivation
Instrumental rewards motivate individuals
when they perceive their behavior will lead to
13. certain extrinsic tangible outcomes, such as pay,
promotions, bonuses, etc. (Kelman, 1958). This
source of motivation integrates Etzioni's (1 96 1)
alienative and calculative involvement,
Barnard's (1938) exchange theory, and Katz and
Kahn's (1978) legal compliance and external
rewards. Developmental theorists have described
a similar motive as concrete operational (Piaget,
1972), instrumental (Kohlberg, 1976), imperial
(Kegan, 1982), and opportunistic (Loevinger,
1976). Similar instrumental motives have been
described by need theorists as a need for power
(Murray, 1964; McClelland, 1961), a need for
safety (Maslow, 1954), or late stages of
existence needs (Alderfer, 1969).
Instrumental motivation is different from
the classic extrinsic or external motivation
(Deci, 1975; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Staw, 1976) in
that this motive derives from tangible external
rewards, whereas the classic definition includes
social rewards and interpersonal exchanges (in
this typology, motivation that derives from these
rewards is termed self-concept-external).
Extrinsic motivation is further divided in this
meta-theory into two categories of motives:
tangible (instrumental) and social (self-concept-
external). This motivation is characterized by
optimizing self-interests, but with the
recognition that every thing or want has its
tangible price.
Instrumentally motivated leaders see the
value in a reward system for employees
(Barbuto, Fritz, & Mam, 2002). Similarly,
14. transactional leaders work within a system of
reward/punishment for employees (Bass, 1 990).
We expect that leaders high in instrumental
motivation will likely also be higher in
transactional behaviors.
Hypothesis 2: Leaders' instrumental
motivation will be positively related to
transactional leadership behaviors.
Self-Concept-External Motivation
This source of motivation tends to be
externally based when individuals are other-
directed and seek affirmation of traits,
competencies, and values from external
perceptions. The ideal self is adopted from the
role expectations of reference groups, explaining
why individuals high in self-concept-external
motivation behave in ways that satisfy reference
group members, first to gain acceptance, and
after achieving that, to gain status.
This source of motivation is similar to
Etzioni's (1 96 1) social moral involvement,
extrinsic interpersonal motivation described by
Deci (1975) and Staw (1976), and Barnard's
(1938) social inducements, conformity to group
30 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto,
Jr.
attitudes, and communion. This source of
motivation also resembles social identity theory,
15. in which the focus is on establishing and
maintaining social reference and standing
(Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Developmental
theorists have described a similar motivational
stage as interpersonal (Kohlberg, 1976; Kegan,
1982), early formal operational (Piaget, 1972),
and conformist (Loevinger, 1976).
Other researchers have described similar
motivation as a need for affiliation (McClelland,
1961; Murray, 1964), need for love, affection,
and belonging (Maslow, 1954), and as
relatedness needs (Alderfer, 1969). Katz and
Kahn (1978) describe employees seeking
"membership and seniority in organizations,"
"approval from leaders," and "approval fi-om
groups" in terms similar to those used to
describe self-concept-external motivation.
Classic articulations of social rewards or social
exchanges are consistent in concept and
motivational explanation with self-concept-
external motives.
Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) propose links
between interpersonal motivations and high-
order transactions, described here in terms
similar to charismatic leadership. Barbuto and
Scholl(1999) examined the relationship between
work motivation and influence tactics used and
found significant correlations between self-
concept-external motives and social tactics, such
as ingratiating and personal appeals. Barbuto et
al. (2000) examined motivation and
transformational leadership and reported
negative relationships between self-concept-
external motivation and transformational
16. leadership. We expect that self-concept-external
motivation will share many characteristics with
transactional leadership, but also will
demonstrate some relationship with social
transactions, such as those commonly described
in the referent influences of charismatic
leadership.
Hypothesis 3: Leaders' self-concept
external motivation will be positively related to
leaders' transactional and charismatic leadership
behavior.
Self-Concept-Internal Motivation
Self-concept-based motivation will be
internal when individuals are inner-directed. In
this type of motivation, the individuals set
internal standards for traits, competencies, and
values that become the basis for their ideal
selves (Leonard, Beauvais, & Scholl, 1999).
Persons are then motivated to engage in
behaviors that reinforce these standards and later
achieve higher levels of competency.
This source is similar to McClelland's
(1 96 1) need for achievement, Deci's (1 975)
internal motivation to overcome challenges, and
Katz and Kahn's (1978) ideal of internalized
motivation derived from role performance.
Bellah et al. (1985) describe individualism in
terms similar to those used to describe self-
concept internal motivation. Developmental
theorists have described a similar stage using
such terms as full formal operational (Piaget,
17. 1972), social system (Kohlberg, 1976),
institutional (Kegan, 1982), and conscientious
(Loevinger, 1976). Similar motives are
described as a need for achievement
(McClelland, 196 1 ; Murray, 1964), need for
esteem (Maslow, 1954), motivating factors
(Herzberg, 1968), and growth needs associated
with developing one's potential (Alderfer,
1969).
Bandura (1 986) describes self-evaluative
mechanisms, self-regulation, and personal
standards in terms similar to those used to
describe self-concept-internal motivation. Katz
and Kahn (1978) describe a motive similar to
internalized motivation as "self-expression
derived from role performance." This motive
also has been described as "intrinsic motivation
to overcome challenges" (Deci, 1975) and
"intrinsic motivation to pursue personal
achievement" (Staw, 1976).
A leader who is inspired by self-concept-
internal motivation is likely to value individual
employees and the inherent strengths and
contributions each makes. This leader's use of
individualized consideration is likely to inspire
followers to see the goals of the leader as well as
goals for personal growth (Bass, 1985). Kuhnert
and Lewis (1987) proposed relationships
between Kegan's (1982) institutional stage of
ego development, where the focus is on self-
authorship and self-determination, and
transformational leadership. Barbuto and Scholl
(1 999) tested relationships between motivation
and influence tactics and found some
18. A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 3 1
relationships between self-concept-internal
motivation and inspirational appeals,
consultation tactics, and rational persuasion. Of
Yukl's (1998) ten influence tactics, these three
seem to share the strongest behavioral
similarities to transformational leadership.
Barbuto et al. (2000) expected to find
relationships between self-concept-internal and
transformational leadership, but weren't able to
demonstrate a relationship. We cautiously
expect a relationship to exist between this
motive and transformational leadership
behaviors.
Hypothesis 4: Leaders' self-concept
internal motivation will be positively related to
leaders' charismatic and transformational
leadership behaviors.
Goal Internalization Motivation
Behavior motivated by goal internalization
occurs when individuals adopt attitudes and
behaviors congruent with their personal value
systems. Strong ideals and beliefs are
paramount in this motivational source (Barbuto
& Scholl, 1998). Individuals motivated by goal
internalization believe in the cause and have
developed a strong sense of duty to work toward
the goal of the collective.
19. This source of motivation is similar to
Kelman's (1 958) value system, Katz and Kahn's
(1978) internalized values, Deci's internal
valence for outcome (1 975), and Etzioni's
(1961) pure moral involvement. Each of these
perspectives emphasizes a virtuous character and
a desire not to compromise these virtues. Bellah
et al. (1985) describe habits of the heart in terms
similar to goal internalization. Developmental
theorists describe a similar motivational stage as
post-formal operational (Piaget, 1972)'
principled orientation (Kohlberg, 1976), inter-
individual (Kegan, 1982)' and autonomous
(Loevinger, 1976). Need theorists describe a
similar motive as self-actualization (Maslow,
1 954).
Goal internalization is different from the
previous four sources of motivation because it is
clearly marked by the absence of self-interest
(Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). Motivation from this
source occurs when individuals believe in the
cause. By contrast, individuals motivated by
intrinsic process need to enjoy the work being
performed. Those with high levels of
instrumental motivation are driven to perform
the work because of an incentive or contingent
reward. Individuals with high levels of self-
concept-external motivation desire to enhance
their reputation or image, while those with high
levels of self-concept-internal motivation are
stimulated by personal challenge and self-
regulation. All of these reflect some degree of
self-interest; on the other hand, those with high
levels of goal internalization motivation are
20. driven solely by a belief that the goals of the
organization are both worthwhile and
achievable.
Transformational leader behaviors are most
typically seen in persons who trust and believe
in the goal of the organization (Bass, 1985; Katz
& Kahn, 1978), naturally expanding to belief in
the organization's cause. Barbuto and Scholl
(1 999) examined motivation's predictive value
for influence tactics and found significant
correlations between goal internalization
motivation and both inspirational appeals and
rational persuasion. From a transformational
leadership perspective, it is expected that goal
internalization will relate to inspirational
leadership and charismatic behaviors. Barbuto
et al. (2000) found significant relationships
between leaders' goal internalization and use of
transformational leadership behaviors. We
expect similar findings in this study.
Hypothesis 5: Leaders' goal internalization
motivation will be positively related to leaders'
use of transformational leadership behaviors.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
For the purpose of this study, we further
divided the five sources of motivation into two
categories: intrinsiclinternal (Deci, 1975; Staw,
1976)' comprised of intrinsic process, self-
concept-internal and goal internalization; and
extrinsiclexternal (Deci, 1975; Staw, 1976),
comprised of instrumental and self-concept-
external. Intrinsiclinternal motivation embodies
21. the person and his or her emotions,
encompassing h, trust, and self-worth, all of
which are derived from internal influences.
These qualities are similar to those needed for
transformational behaviors (Bass, 1985; Burns,
32 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto,
Jr.
1978; Bass, 1990). An extrinsiclexternal Hypothesis 6: Leaders'
intrinsiclinternal
combined process really derives from the motivation will be
positively related to
surroundings of the person (Barbuto & Scholl, charismatic and
transformational leadership
1998). People influenced by an behaviors.
intrinsiclexternal process are motivated by Hypothesis 7:
Leaders' extrinsic/external
prestige, rewards and status, perhaps more motivation will be
positively related to
suitable to transactional and charismatic transactional
leadership behaviors.
leadership (Hater & Bass, 1988; Bass, 1990).
Figure 1 Summary of Hypotheses
Motivation Sources Direction of Influence Leadership
Behaviors
Intrinsic Process Positive Charismatic Leadership
Motivation
Instrumental Motivation
Self-concept External
Motivation
Self-concept Internal
23. an average age of 39 years. Raters had an
average tenure of 5.8 years with their companies
and were generally as well educated as their
leaders (57% had earned a bachelor's degree;
12% had earned a master's degree).
Measures
Transformational Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
passive and active), charismatic (idealized
influence, behavior, and attributed), and
transformational behaviors (inspirational
motivation, individualized consideration, and
intellectual stimulation) were measured using
the Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ-short form) (Bass, 1985). These
behaviors were assessed by both leaders (self-
report) and raters (rater form). Sample items
and coefficient alphas for the items measured for
the h l l range of leadership were (leader self-
report alpha appears first): laissez-faire ("Avoids
getting involved when important issues arise," a
= .89 & .76); contingent reward ("Provides me
with assistance in exchange for my efforts," a =
.77 & .77); management by exception - passive
24. ("Fails to interfere until problems become
serious," a = .73 & .72); management by
exception - active ("Focuses attention on
irregularities, mistakes, exceptions, and
deviations from standards," a = .70 & .71),
charismatic - behavior ("Talks about their most
important values and beliefs," a = .78 & .71);
attributed charisma ("Instills pride in me for
Leaders' Behavior being associated with himlher," a = .73 &
.79);
Leaders' laissez-faire, transactional inspirational motivation
("Talks optimistically
(contingent reward, management by exception - about the
hture," a = .72 & .82); individualized
A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 33
consideration (Spends time teaching and
coaching," a = .69 & .73); and intellectual
stimulation ("Seeks differing perspectives when
solving problems," a = .76 & .7 1).
Leaders' Motivation
Leaders' sources of motivation were
measured using the Motivation Sources
Inventory (MSI) (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). The
Inventory contains 30 items, six for each
subscale, measured on a six point Likert-type
scale. Motivation scores were obtained by
calculating the mean response for each subscale.
Sample items and coefficient alphas for the five
25. sources of motivation were: intrinsic process ("I
would prefer to do things that are fun" a = .71);
instrumental ("I like to be rewarded when I take
on additional responsibilities" a = .78); self-
concept external ("It is important to me that
others appreciate the work I do" a = 35); self-
concept internal ("Decisions I make reflect
standards I've set for myself' a = 32); and goal
internalization ("I work hard for a company if I
agree with its mission" a = .73).
Procedures
Leaders completed and returned by mail to
the researchers the Motivation Sources
Inventory (MSI) and the Multi-factor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ) four weeks prior to the
workshop. Each leader also was provided the
rater version of the Multi-factor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ) to distribute to six
employees. These instruments were coded and
returned by mail directly to the researchers
between six and three weeks prior to the
respective workshops.
All leaders participating in this study were
engaged in leadership development workshops
being offered through university extension
efforts. Leaders participating in the research
project and workshop were provided with a two-
day training session on both work motivation
and full range leadership. The intact groups (+I-
15 leaders) met for monthly follow-up sessions
in cohort support teams to address issues and
challenges they faced in the leadership
development process.
26. Participation was optional and both leaders
and raters were given the opportunity to
withdraw from the study at any time, even after
the workshop(s). To date, nobody has requested
to be removed from the study. However, not all
leaders had six raters return the forms, so full
participation was not achieved. Leaders had
been instructed to distribute the forms to those
individuals most capable of assessing behaviors,
but also were urged to select a wide variety of
individuals, to avoid selecting favorable
employees. An average of 4.1 usable rater forms
per leader was returned to the researchers.
Analysis
Results of the study were analyzed using
the computer program SPSS. Analysis of the
Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire of both
raters' reports and leaders' self-reports began by
calculating subscales of the full range leadership
behaviors. Several subscales also were
combined into broader categories of
transformational leadership (inspirational
motivation, individualized consideration, and
intellectual stimulation), transactional leadership
(contingent reward, management by exception -
active and management by exception - passive),
charismatic leadership (idealized influence,
attributed, and behavior) and laissez-faire
leadership.
Analysis of the Motivation Sources
Inventory included parceling the 30 motivation
items into five individual subscales and two
27. additional subscales. The two additional
subscales combined individual motivations for a
generic intrinsic (intrinsic process, self-concept-
internal, and goal internalization) and extrinsic
(self-concept -external and instrumental)
classification to allow for emergence of broad
trends between internally driven and externally
driven motivation patterns (Deci, 1975). Simple
statistics and correlation analysis were used to
interpret the data and test the hypothesized
relationships among leaders' motivations and
transformational, charismatic, transactional and
laissez-faire leadership.
34 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto,
Jr.
Results
Several significant findings emerged from
the analysis of the relationship between the
Motivation Sources Inventory subscales
(intrinsic, extrinsic, intrinsic process,
instrumental, self-concept-external, self-
concept-internal, and goal internalization) and
leaders' transformational behavior subscales
(individualized consideration, inspirational and
intellectual stimulation), charismatic leadership
(idealized influence attributed and behavior),
transactional leadership (contingent reward,
management by exception - active and passive)
and laissez-faire leadership. Simple statistics,
reliability estimates, and Pearson (2-tailed)
28. correlations were computed for the hypothesized
variables (See Tables 1 , 2 and 3).
Table 1
Motivation Subscales Inter-Correlations
Directional
Motivation
Meta-Theory of
Motivation Sources
- - - - ---
Motivation M SD Intrinsic Extrinsic 1nt.Proc Instrum SCE SCI
GI
Intrinsic/Internal 67.30 9.64 .91
ExtrinsicIExternal 33.16 10.38 .43** .87
Intrinsic Process 15.96 3.18 .20** .04 .71
Instrumental 16.71 5.68 . .37** .89** .03 .78
Self-concept External 16.46 6.05 .4 1 ** .90** .04 .60** .85
Self-concept Internal 29.47 3.98 .67** .08 .18** .O 1 .13* .82
Goal Internalization 23.23 5.16 .81** .23** .13* .19** .23**
.40** .73
Note: N = 186, ** p < .O1 (two-tailed), * p < .05 (two-tailed).
1nt.Proc = Intrinsic Process), Insrum = Instrumental, SCE
=Self-Concept
External, SCI =Self-Concept Internal, GI=Goal Internalization.
Coefficient alphas (a ) on diagonals.
Table 2
Motivation Subscales and Leaders' Self-Reported Full Range
Leadership
31. Exception Passive, MBE Active=Management-by-Exception
Active, Int.Proc.= Intrinsic Process, Instrum = Instrumental,
SCE = Self-
Concept External, SCI = Self-concept Internal, GI = Goal
Internalization
A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 35
Table 3
Motivation Subscales and Raters' Reported Full Range
Leadership
Motivational
Direction
Meta-Theory of
Motivation
Rater MLQ M SD a Intrinsic Extrinsic 1nt.Proc Instrum SCE
SCI GI
Transformational 2.95 0.60 .85 .06 -.I2 .16 -.09 -.I2 .04 -.04
Inspir. Motivation
Indiv. Consideration
Intellect. Stimulation
Charisma
Attributed Charisma
Charismatic Behavior
Transactional
Contingent Rewards
MBE
MBE P assive
MBE Active
Laissez-Faire
32. Note:N = 594, ** p < .O1 (two-tailed), * p < .05 (two-tailed).
MBE= Management-by-Exception, MBE Passive= Management-
by-
Exception Passive, MBE Active=Management-by-Exception
Active, Int-Proc = Intrinsic Process, Instrum = Instrumental,
SCE =Self
Concept External, SCI =Self Concept Internal, GI = Goal
Internalization
Motivation as an Antecedent of
Transformational Leadership
Leaders' intrinsic process motivation
significantly correlated with their self-reported
transformational behaviors (r = .29; p < .01),
inspirational motivation (r = .29; p< .01),
individualized consideration (r = .26; p < .01),
and intellectual stimulation (r = .lo; p< .05)
(HI). Leaders' intrinsic process motivation also
demonstrated several significant relationships
with raters' perceptions of leader behaviors.
Leaders' intrinsic process motivation also
proved to be significantly related to inspirational
motivation (r = .18; p < .05). Taken together,
these results demonstrate several significant
relationships between leaders' intrinsic process
motivation and their use of transformational
leadership (H 1).
Leaders' instrumental motivation shared a
negative relationship with their self-reported
individualized consideration (r = -. 16; p < .05).
Leaders' self-concept external motivation
was negatively related to their self-reported
individualized consideration (r = -.13; p < .05
33. and to raters' perceptions of leaders'
individualized consideration (r = -.19; p < .01).
There was no significant relationship between
self-concept-external motivation and charismatic
leadership behaviors (H3).
Leaders' self-concept-internal motivation
significantly correlated with their self-reported
transformational behaviors (r = .32, p < .01),
inspirational motivation (r = .27, p < .01),
individualized consideration (r = .23, p < .01),
and intellectual stimulation (r = .27, p < .01)
(H4). However, there were no significant
relationships between self-concept-internal
motivation and raters' perceptions of
transformational leadership.
Goal internalization significantly correlated
with leaders' self-reported intellectual
stimulation (r = .15, p < .01) (H5). Leaders'
combined intrinsic motivation significantly
correlated with their self-reported
transformational behaviors (r = .18, p < .01),
inspirational motivation (r = .17, p < .01), and
intellectual stimulation (r = .23, p < .01) (H6).
Leader's combined extrinsic motivation was
negatively related to their self-reported
individualized consideration (r = -. 16; p < .01)
and rater-reported individualized consideration
(r = -.19; p < .01).
3 6 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto,
Jr.
34. Motivation as an Antecedent to
Charismatic Leadership
Relationships also were found between
leaders' intrinsic process motivation and their
self-reports of each of the charismatic subscales:
charisma (r = .24; p < .01), attributed charisma (r
= .18; p < .01), and charismatic behavior (r =
.24; p < .01) (HI). Intrinsic process motivation
also significantly correlated with attributed
charisma (r=. 16; p<.05).
Leaders' instrumental motivation
negatively related to two of the three self-
reported charismatic subscales: charisma (r = -
.19; p < .01) and charismatic behavior (r = -.20;
p < .01).
Leaders' self-concept-external motivation
negatively related to their self-reported
charismatic behavior (r = -.17, p < .01) (H3).
Leaders' self-concept-internal motivation
significantly related to three of their self-
reported charismatic subscales: charisma (r =
.26, p < .01), attributed charisma (r = .27, p <
.01), and charismatic behavior (r = .18, p < .01)
(H4)-
As expected, goal internalization shared no
significant variance with any of the charismatic
leadership subscales.
Leaders' combined intrinsic group
significantly correlated with two of the leaders'
self-reported charismatic behaviors: charismatic
35. behavior (r = .15, p< .05) and attributed
charisma (r = .16, p < .01) (H6). Leaders'
extrinsic combined group was negatively related
to their self-reported charisma (r = -. 17; p < .01)
and charismatic behavior (r = -.20; p < .01)
037).
Motivation as an Antecedent to
Transactional Leadership
Leaders' intrinsic process motivation
positively related to their self-reported use of
contingent rewards (r = .31; p < .01) and to
rater-reported transactional leadership (r = .30; p
< .01), management by exception (r = .25; p <
.0 I), passive management by exception (r = .16;
p < .05), and active management by exception (r
= .23; p < .01).
Leaders ' instrumental motivation
significantly correlated with leaders' self-
reported transactional behaviors (r = .14, p <
.01), passive management by exception (r = .13,
p < .0 I), and laissez-faire leadership(r = .13, p <
.0 1). Leaders' instrumental motivation also
demonstrated significant relationships with
raters' perceptions of transactional leadership (r
= .25, p < .01), management by exception (r =
.26, p < .01), and active management by
exception (r = .24, p < .01).
Leaders' self-concept-external motivation
showed significant relationships with three of
their self-reported transactional behaviors:
transactional leadership (r = .17, p < .01),
36. management by exception (r = .19, p < .01),
passive management by exception (r = .16, p <
.01), and laissez-faire leadership (r = .16, p <
.0 1). Leaders' self-concept-external motivation
also demonstrated significant relationships with
raters' perceptions of transactional leader
behaviors: transactional leadership (r = .26, p <
.01), management by exception (r = .23, p <
.01), and active management by exception (r =
.23, p < .01).
Leaders' self-concept-internal motivation
showed negative relationships with their self-
reported use of contingent rewards (r = -.28; p <
.01), management by exception (r = -.18; p <
.01), and passive management by exception (r =
-.23; p < .01). Goal internalization shared no
significant variance with any of the transactional
leadership subscales.
The leaders' combined intrinsic group
significantly related to rater perceptions of
transactional leadership (r = -23; p < .01),
management by exception (r = .18; p < .05), and
passive management by exception (r = .17; p <
.05).
The leaders' combined extrinsic group
significantly correlated with leaders' self-
reported transactional behaviors: transactional r
= .18, p < .01), management by exception (r =
.19, p < .01), passive management by exception
(r = .16, p < .01), active management by
exception (r = .12, p < .05), and laissez-faire
leadership (r = .16, p < .01) (H7). Leaders'
combined extrinsic motivation was significantly
37. related with transactional leadership (r = .29, p <
.01), management by exception (r = .27, p <
.01), active management by exception (r = .27, p
< .01), and laissez-faire leadership (r = .18, p <
.05).
.01), management by exception (r = .15, p <
A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 37
Discussion
The leaders ' self-reports of
transformational leadership had a higher
correlation to the five sources of motivation than
did the raters' reports of full range leadership.
Leaders' work motivation demonstrated some
correlations with leadership behaviors, but the
relationships generally accounted for less than
5% variance. Other general trends noted were
that self-concept-internal motivation related to
transformational behaviors, while self-concept-
external motivation related more closely to
transactional behaviors.
This study distinguished charismatic
behaviors fiom transformational ones as
criterion variables, but, in most cases, those
behaviors that were significantly correlated with
transformational subscales also were
significantly correlated with charismatic
subscales. This result may be explained by the
nature of the measure itself, which was not
designed to distinguish between inspirational
38. and charismatic influences. It may also reflect
the operational definitions used for charismatic
leadership (idealized influence) in the original
development of the subscale (Bass, 1985). Bass
(1990) reported that no empirical distinction had
yet been between inspirational and charismatic
leadership subscales, which remain true in light
of this study.
Intrinsic process motivation correlated with
transformational behaviors, indicating that
leaders motivated by fun at work are more likely
to self-report an ideology consistent with
transformational and charismatic leadership.
Intrinsic process motivation was related to rater
perceptions of transactional leadership,
indicating that those high in intrinsic process
tend to view selves as more transformational,
while those around them tend to view them as
more transactional.
Instrumental motivation correlated with
transactional behaviors, contingent rewards,
management by exception, management by
exception - active and laissez-faire leadership.
This correlation may have been expected since
prior work reported a similar result (Barbuto,
Fritz & Mam, 2000). However, this same result
indicates that instrumental motivation shares
little variance with transformational leadership
behaviors, consistent with propositions
developed in the ego constructive development
literature (Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). Self-
concept-external motivation correlated with
some charismatic behavior and transactional
39. behavior, but didn't share significant variance
with transformational behaviors in the study.
This result may have been expected, given the
social rewards and interpersonal or referent
nature of charismatic leadership behaviors and
the focus on interpersonal feedback attributed to
self-concept external motivation. This result
also moderately supports the premise that
charismatic and transformational leadership may
be distinct constructs and necessitate different
motives from leaders (See Barbuto, 1997).
Since individuals with high self-concept-
external motivation appear to exhibit more
charismatic behaviors, some support for Kegan's
(1982) lens perspective is found, by which
leaders may naturally assume the extent to
which followers require self-concept external
motives to be satisfied will be similar to their
own.
Overall, motivation has provided some
evidence for promise as an antecedent to full
range leadership. Most relationships proved to
move in the expected directions and the effect
sizes compared favorably to previous antecedent
research conducted in the area of
transformational leadership (Atwater &
Yammarino, 1993; Avolio, 1994; Barbuto et al.,
2000; Bass, 1985; Howard & Bray, 1988). Still,
the relationships leave the field open to many
more questions of how to identify the best
antecedents of transformational leadership.
Because motivation explains a small amount of
variance in full range leadership, continued
search for other salient variables is necessary.
40. Implications for Practice
The results of this study have some
selection and leadership development
implications. If specific leadership styles (i.e.,
transformational) are sought in organizations,
some motivation profiling may prove conducive
to selecting individuals who have a greater
likelihood of displaying these behaviors.
However, we caution practitioners to be leery of
3 8 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto,
Jr.
overestimating the relevance of leaders' sources
of motivation to their leadership style, as the
results of this study showed a relatively small
effect. The source of motivation may provide
one of many pieces of information to consider
when making recruiting and leadership
development decisions. Other important factors,
such as academic preparation, job fit,
experiences, and work philosophies - which
were not tested in this study - may play a large
role in determining behaviors and likely will
have a role in recruiting leaders.
The result of this study is consistent with
Kegan's (1 982) constructive developmental
view of human motivation and its role in
leadership formation and development. The lens
perspective offers a guideline for understanding
limitations of leaders, essentially that leaders see
the world through their own paradigm or "lens"
41. and assume others share a similar lens. Kuhnert
and Lewis (1987) advocate a similar perspective
in their conceptual work linking Kegan's (1982)
levels of ego development with transactional and
transformational behaviors. However, stronger
effect sizes would be necessary to generalize
Kegan's work to this study.
Opportunities for Future Research
The results of this study provide several
opportunities for future research. The
relationships between motivation and full range
leadership were consistent, but also produced
generally small effects. Studying human
motivation in combination with other salient
variables may be necessary to glean the best
antecedents of full range leadership. It appears
that motivation explains some variance in the
construct, but greater explanation is possible.
Greater attention is needed in testing other
dispositional variables and their relations to
transformational leadership. Alternative
measurement strategies for capturing
charismatic leadership may be developed to
discover charismatic effects distinct from
transformational ones.
More rigorous procedures will also improve
research in this area. The common data
collection method for antecedent research of
transformational leadership has been to use
leaders and designated raters, chosen by leaders.
This snowball effect produces a non-random
sample, which likely impacts response bias and
42. confounds results. More random rater selection
will address this concern, as will the inclusion of
social desirability in the research design. By
controlling for and assessing response bias,
antecedent research will have more functional
credibility. Additionally, in instances where
research participation is part of a leadership
development initiative, the impact of such
training on the data collection processes and
responses needs to be planned and assessed.
Other antecedents of full range leadership
behavior need to be tested to better understand
the construct. To date, early childhood
experiences, locus of control, early career
challenges, personality, and motivation all have
been explored as dispositional antecedents of
full range leadership with relatively small effect
sizes. To explain greater variance, future
research may test other salient variables, such as
political skills, mental boundaries or flexibility,
self-presentation, and other attitudinal constructs
that may provide valuable exploration into the
field of leadership antecedents. Additionally,
other leadership frameworks need to be
examined to ascertain the dispositional role that
work motivation plays as an antecedent to
leadership. Motivation links with other
leadership perspectives, such as leader-member
exchange quality, servant leadership, authentic
leadership, ideological leadership, political
leadership, and others, may provide a rich test
and contribution to the antecedent field. We
believe that greater attention to the antecedents
of leadership will prove valuable to field.
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University of Nebraska - Lincoln[email protected] of Nebraska -
Lincoln12-13-2005Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic,
and Transformational Leadership: A Test of AntecedentsJohn E.
Barbuto Jr.
www.asq.org/pub/jqp 25
Management techniques
focusing on communication
processes can help you avoid
disruptive team-based conflict.
Conflict Leadership
Navigating Toward Effective
and Efficient Team Outcomes
Ana Shetach
Teams are becoming more common as workers join virtual,
autono-
mous, cross-functional, action-learning,
and many other kinds of teams. By their
51. very nature, working teams are poten-
tial settings for varied professional as
well as personal, ego-based conflicts.
This article posits that management and
team decisions, behaviors, and outcomes
are a direct consequence of the nature
of conflict-management—throughout
overall team management and teamwork
processes. It suggests easily applicable
managerial techniques for harnessing
conflict situations toward effective and
efficient overall team results.
The following questions are discussed
as well as some proposed insights:
• Can you learn processes and acquire
skills to produce increasingly efficient
and effective team results?
• What are potentially positive conflicts?
• What makes the difference between
positive and negative conflict
outcomes?
• How can you develop conflict-
management skills?
• What is the role of team leadership
in positive conflict navigation?
This article also considers the issue
of interests and intentions underlying
the management of conflict situations
during the various stages of team
52. leadership, within and among organi-
zational units and teams. It provides
insights to support the argument that
team decisions, behaviors, and out-
comes, are a direct consequence of how
well conflicts are handled throughout
the overall team process.
The Nature of Conflict
Conflicts within working teams—
often stemming from differences of
opinions or incongruent interests—are
fairly common. In particular, teamwork
settings associated with assignment and
project processes create suitable condi-
tions for conflicts. Their nature, depth,
complexity, the rate of the partners’
involvement in those situations, and,
especially, how well the conflicts are
handled may all have a significant effect
on the overall, ultimate results of the
associated projects.
Handling conflict always has been a
central factor in human life and history
that determined the consequences of
the particular venture. This applies to
http://www.asq.org/pub/jqp
The Journal for QualiTy & ParTiciPaTion July 201226
all levels of human existence, whether political,
organizational, or personal. Human nature, on a
53. basic behavioral level, has not changed. Conflicts,
with their direct and indirect consequences, still
continue to affect the results of our doings on a
day-to-day basis, thus impacting our lives. Within
organizational settings, the fashion by which con-
flicts are managed has a direct impact on the overall
directions taken by management and teams.1
Conflict is a normal state of affairs and is neither
negative nor positive by nature. For the purpose of
this article it is defined as “differences of opinions
and/or contradiction of interests among two or
more people, parties, or factors” (departments,
organizations, nations, etc.). This definition is
based on the assumption that differences among
human beings present themselves continuously in
all communication settings due to the following
two basic reasons:
• First, interpersonal differences exist on every
possible dimension—age, sex, race, looks, feel-
ings, education, upbringing, experience, attitude,
opinions, cultures, nations, religion, etc.
• Second, contradictory interests often are due to
the affiliation of people with differing cultures,
positions, roles, status, and hierarchy levels.
They also are a result of association and/or
commitment to a specific firm, department,
organization, level, group, country, culture,
religion, etc. On a deeper level, another factor
might be people’s personal ego needs.
Conflicts are assumed to arise consistently
among human beings who work with each other
in any setting on the basis of one or both of the
54. above reasons.1 Whether the disagreement and/
or the contradiction of interests will be dealt with
constructively or steered in a destructive direction
depends on the parties involved and how they
handle and manage the situation. This is particu-
larly critical in teamwork and project settings, where
effectively handling each team assignment may
affect or even determine ultimate success.
When two parties are communicating and a
conflict occurs, as long as both sides continue to
concentrate on the issue, they are headed toward
a satisfactory solution. As they do their best not to
get personally involved—and thereby lose their
ability to clearly see their mutual objectives and
interests—the process is bound to be resolved
constructively. The same is true for managing
any discussion within a team regarding any issue
or mutual interest. Keeping the discussion on a
matter-of-course level increases the probability of
a high-level, creative solution that is acceptable
to all parties involved. Additionally, it ensures a
cooperative relationship among the parties for
the involvement of all in the future progress of
the project.
Politics and power play a major role among
people in any setting or level at work. The condi-
tions for personally evoked emotional conflicts
abound in team settings. Such conditions may
include the following:
• As members of workgroups promote their ideas
and opinions at decision-making stages.
55. • When highly cooperative activities are needed
during implementation stages.
• During times of pressure-filled deadlines.
• When various stakeholders have high expecta-
tions for the team.
People who are able to develop their awareness
and focus on their personal position vis-à-vis the
conflict-evolvement process have a higher chance
of controlling the direction in which the conflict
will evolve and, therefore, effectively direct the
final result of the process.
Team Management and Conflict Leadership
Managing teams is a highly complex assignment,
often involving high organizational stakes and
expectations, vast financial investments, involve-
ment of numerous factors/stakeholders, and the
ability to handle professionally heterogenic and
diversified teams.
Yet, at the bottom line, everyday assignments
and long-term projects are about attaining two
basic objectives: arriving at optimal decisions and
implementing them efficiently, toward obtain-
ing goals and destinations.2 Figure 1 (as well as
Figure 4A) shows this basic conceptualization of
team management.
Project Decision-Making Processes
Adizes proposes that managers can be cat-
egorized according to their capability to view,
56. analyze, and understand situations, problems,
and assignments.2 These different outlooks deter-
mine their managerial styles. The four critical
factors by which managers can be categorized
include the following:
www.asq.org/pub/jqp 27
• P—Doer, performer, seeing the world in con-
crete terms
• A—Organizer, bureaucrat, by-the-rules person
• E—Entrepreneur, creative, full-spectrum (macro)
points of view, long-term perspective
• I—A people person, natural facilitator, good
communications
A person’s managerial style is composed of a
different combination of these four traits. Each
manager could be stronger in some of these traits
and weaker in the others. The managerial capabili-
ties constitute four different managerial dimensions
or points of view. Combined, they create a whole
multidimensional perspective on any issue. No one
individual, according to Adizes, is capable of a bal-
anced perspective at all times, or for a long time,
regarding all situations. Team thinking and team
planning are often required, especially in complex
processes, such as project management. All four
aspects of thinking are necessary to produce quali-
tative and workable decisions. Decisions, which
are both qualitative and workable, require all of
57. the aforementioned four capabilities: concrete and
practical planning, organizational perspectives,
a long-term creative and macro initiative, and
people-oriented thinking.
Conflicts naturally arise when people with dif-
ferent managerial personalities are discussing an
issue or an assignment. Different points of view
and opinions are essential for problem-solving
and decision-making practices within projects.
They inspire and eventually bring about creative,
quality solutions. The process by which these solu-
tions are derived is bound to be complex, however.
It will inevitably be “conflictual.” Whether these
conflicts will eventually contribute better solu-
tions to problems and excellent project results,
rather than accelerating toward disastrous situa-
tions, depends on how they are handled. Thus, the
effective management of team decision-making
processes requires high-level conflict-resolution
awareness and skills to promote the required
collaboration among decision makers to make
quality decisions.
Adizes’ basic managerial conception (see
Figure 1) implies that decision-making processes
are cardinal in project management, but that
without efficient implementation processes, proj-
ects may risk not materializing as expected.
Team Implementation Processes
One of the critical managerial acts that can help
overcome difficulties that may arise within teams
during management processes of assignments
58. and projects is the preliminary “mapping-out”
of processes. This singles out in advance the
potential difficulties and conflicts that may sur-
face throughout the project. Shetach3 proposes
Adizes’ “CAPI” model4 as an efficient tool for this
pre-mapping analysis (see Figure 2). CAPI stands
for coalesced authority, power, and influence. It is
believed that to manage assignments and projects
effectively and efficiently, leading them toward
successful completion, it is essential to coalesce
these three forces (or energy sources.)4 Coalescing
these forces implies getting all the stakeholder
representatives to collaborate in managing the
project from its beginning to the end. This is nec-
essary to ensure efficient implementation of all
subsequent decisions and actions.
The CAPI model does this primarily by shed-
ding light on all potential conflict zones and
junctions and by proposing the optimal processes
Figure 1: The Goals of Management
Management
Ef�cient Implementation
of Decisions
Effective Decision
Making
Adizes, 2004
Figure 2: The “CAPI” Model
AUTHORITY
59. A
POWER
(of Cooperation)
P
C
INFLUENCE
I
http://www.asq.org/pub/jqp
The Journal for QualiTy & ParTiciPaTion July 201228
for extracting better
solutions and higher
levels of support and
cooperation in those
potentially hazardous
situations. These opti-
mal processes ensure
both the quality of
the decisions taken
within the project and
the smooth process of
their implementation.
This applies whether
the decision is a solu-
tion to a problem
within a project or the
promotion of a project
as a whole. The ele-
ments within this tool
are elaborated in the following:
60. • The factor of “authority”—The CAPI model
advises users to verify in advance whether
the project manager has the full authority
to act independently upon decisions taken
within the project. Likewise, any particular deci-
sion regarding a specific aspect of the project
requires a similar advance verification to ensure
its efficient implementation.
• The factor of “power of cooperation”—To ensure
maximum success in any decision, the CAPI
model recommends taking initial steps to
ensure full cooperation of all “power holders”
in the future. This ensures that cooperators
have the necessary know-how and/or capabili-
ties and/or resources as well as the willingness
and interest to cooperate. In politics these
steps are termed “lobbying” or getting your
potential cooperators to willingly and fully
cooperate when their cooperation is needed
in the future.
• The factor of “influence or information”—You
should also make sure in advance that the
decision you are taking is a qualitative, suit-
able, and workable one; otherwise you might
discover (often too late), that the decision was
not based on the full volume of data regarding:
• The nature of the assignment/project and/or
its objectives.
• The relevant environment within which it
prevails.
61. • The limitations and constraints on its
“smooth” application.
• The resources available for the project
(budget, manpower etc.).
A CAPI team includes the figure of authority,
representatives of all cooperating factors, and all
the people who have the necessary know-how and
expertise to solve the problems and arrive at qual-
ity decisions. Such a composition of assignment/
project teams ensures on one hand both quality
decisions and efficient implementation processes.
On the other hand, it is bound to evoke profound
differences of opinions and contradictory inter-
ests among its members. CAPI teams are potential
settings for varied and profound professional, as
well as personal, ego-based conflicts.
To maximize efficient implementation,
the CAPI model is coupled with the Revised
Decision-Square model (RDSM).5 The RDSM
provides team managers with simple techniques
to ensure efficient follow-up and control during
decision-implementation processes throughout
the project. This tool minimizes destructive
ego-evoked conflicts and maximizes smooth,
cooperative implementations.
It collapses all the possible variety of decision
aspects into four categories that constitute the
four sides of a square. Those decision aspects
include the goals, a detailed operative descrip-
tion of the final project/decision results, a
detailed implementation timetable, resources
62. Figure 3: The Decision-Square Model—An Elaborated Example
WHAT
HOW WHO
Sarah
WHEN
March 11
10:00-11:00
Decision
A clear and
detailed list
of assignments
for each team
member:
John:......
Sarah:.....
Ruth:......
A detailed
list of
resources
(including
plans for
obtaining
them)
– Project/decision goals
– Manifested operative description
– Schedule for application: March 15
April 2
May 1
63. www.asq.org/pub/jqp 29
and processes for their attain-
ment, and the distribution of
assignments among committee
members, as well as agreed-upon
dates for future follow-up meet-
ings of the team/committee. It
also includes the name of the
team-nominated project/decision
coordinator. Figure 3 presents a
detailed RDSM.
The RDSM states that the
more thoroughly, clearly, and
unequivocally you “seal” (specify
in detail) all decision aspects, the
better your chance of efficient
implementation. It recommends
sealing at least one decision
square regarding that task or proj-
ect before the end of every team
meeting. Usually, more than one
will be appropriate (e.g., a square
per each topic or aspect of the
overall issue or project aspect).
This tool touches on extremely
basic issues, such as tying up
all loose ends, ensuring clear
and unambiguous communi-
cations within teams, setting
follow-up meetings and dates,
etc. Following the RDSM lead
64. has significance in limiting
situations that may evoke un-
necessary conflicts centering
on various misunderstandings,
power struggles, and interper-
sonal differences.
The potential contribution of
the CAPI model, coupled with
the RDSM, is the combined abil-
ity to lead managers and teams
through a comparatively safe
route to successful assignment/
project finalization and achieve-
ments. The two models meet
this objective by maximizing
opportunities for constructive
and potentially creative conflict
resolution processes while simul-
taneously minimizing time- and
energy-consuming conflicts.
Figure 4: The Interwoven Team-Leadership—Conflict-
Management
Model (TLCM)
Management
Con�icts
A
Taking Quality Decisions Ef�cient Implementation
of the Decisions
CAPI Teams
65. Contradictory Interests
PAEI Complementary Teams
Different Points of View
Management
Management
of Con�icts
B
Taking Quality Decisions Ef�cient Implementation
of the Decisions
CAPI Teams
Contradictory Interests
PAEI Complementary Teams
Different Points of View
Management
Management
of Con�icts
C
Taking Quality Decisions Ef�cient Implementation
of the Decisions
CAPI Teams
66. Contradictory Interests
PAEI Complementary Teams
Different Points of View
De�ning clear
agreed-upon
goals
A tight “sealing”
of all “decision
squares”
Matter-of-course
(rather than
personal-level)
discussion
Ef�cient
management of
team decision-
making processes
Identifying the
appropriate con�ict-
coping style for the
particular situation
Based on Adizes, 1992, 2004, 2011
67. http://www.asq.org/pub/jqp
The Journal for QualiTy & ParTiciPaTion July 201230
The Interwoven Team-Leadership—
Conflict-Management Model
Team management, in all its complexity and
variations, is basically about the efficient han-
dling of conflict situations. Figure 4 illustrates
this notion. Team leadership is intertwined with
conflict management as follows:
• The management of teamwork, assignments,
and projects is about effective and efficient
decision-making and decision-implementation
processes.
• Decision-making processes are about cre-
ative team processes, which are based on the
“richness” of variations in team members’
interpersonal and professional know-how and
experiences along with their differing points
of view.
• Decision-implementation processes are about
handling conflicts, which tend to center on
various misunderstandings, power struggles,
and interpersonal differences in the inter-
pretation of details within decisions and
instructions, etc.
Figure 4C points out possible directions and
tools that can efficiently direct the positive han-
dling of conflict situations toward creative and
68. suitable goal-oriented solutions and the promo-
tion of overall successful team results:
• Defining a clear set of project and sub-project
goals, testing, and retesting them at every junc-
tion for handling dilemma and conflict along
the project process.
• Trying to handle conflict situations on a matter-
of-course level (rather than letting them deteri-
orate toward ego-controlled power struggles).
• Identifying suitable conflict-coping styles for
attaining the destined goals within each and
every particular conflict situation along the
project process.
• Leading efficient and collaborated team decision-
making processes.
• Tightly sealing each and every decision using the
RDSM 5 approach.
Summary
Successful team management, regardless of
the content or professional occupation involved,
is about extracting and maximizing the potential
essence of conflicts and of conflict situations
within teams. Communication processes within
teams are inlaid with conflicts—potential under-
lying differences, as well as overt contradictions
of opinions and interests. Monitoring those and
navigating toward desirable results is mastering
team leadership to perfection.
69. References
1. Ana Shetach, “The Four-Dimensions Model: A
Tool for Effective Conflict Management,” Journal of
International Studies of Management and Organization,
Fall 2009, pp. 82-106.
2. Ichak Adizes, Leading the Leaders: How to Enrich Your
Style of Management and Handle People Whose Style is
Different From Yours, The Adizes Institute Publishing, 2004.
3. Ana Shetach, “Obstacles to Successful Management of
Projects and Decision and Tips for Coping With Them,”
Team Performance Management, Fall 2010, pp. 329-342.
4. Ichak Adizes, Mastering Change, The Adizes Institute
Publishing, 1992.
5. Ana Shetach, “The Revised Decision-Square Model
(RDSM): A Tool for Effective Decision-Implementation
in Teams,” Team Performance Management, Spring 2009,
pp. 7-17.
Ana Shetach
Ana Shetach is an organizational consultant specializing
in team processes and team development. She works with
management groups, teams, and individual managers,
focusing on strategically effective decision-making and
decision-implementation processes. A resident of Haifa,
Israel, Shetach is also currently lecturing in The Max-Stern
Academic College of Emek-Yezreel. Contact Shetach at
[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
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