The document introduces C++ templates and exceptions. It discusses three approaches to functions that implement identical tasks for different data types: the naïve approach with unique function names, function overloading with the same name, and function templates where the compiler generates individual functions. It also covers class templates where the compiler generates distinct class types, and how to instantiate class and function templates by substituting the template argument. Finally, it discusses exception handling in C++ using try, throw, catch blocks to handle errors and exceptions thrown during program execution.

1. Introduction to
C++ Templates and Exceptions
C++ Function Templates
C++ Class Templates
Exception and Exception Handler

2. C++ Function Templates
Approaches for functions that implement
identical tasks for different data types
Naïve Approach
Function Overloading
Function Template
Instantiating a Function Templates

3. Approach 1: Naïve Approach
create unique functions with unique
names for each combination of data
types
difficult to keeping track of multiple
function names
lead to programming errors

4. Example
void PrintInt( int n )
{
cout << "***Debug" << endl;
cout << "Value is " << n << endl;
}
void PrintChar( char ch )
{
cout << "***Debug" << endl;
cout << "Value is " << ch << endl;
}
void PrintFloat( float x )
{
…
}
void PrintDouble( double d )
{
…
}
PrintInt(sum);
PrintChar(initial);
PrintFloat(angle);
To output the traced values, we insert:

5. Approach 2:Function Overloading
(Review)
• The use of the same name for different C++
functions, distinguished from each other by
their parameter lists
• Eliminates need to come up with many
different names for identical tasks.
• Reduces the chance of unexpected results
caused by using the wrong function name.

6. Example of Function Overloading
void Print( int n )
{
cout << "***Debug" << endl;
cout << "Value is " << n << endl;
}
void Print( char ch )
{
cout << "***Debug" << endl;
cout << "Value is " << ch << endl;
}
void Print( float x )
{
}
Print(someInt);
Print(someChar);
Print(someFloat);
To output the traced values, we insert:

7. Approach 3: Function Template
• A C++ language construct that allows the compiler
to generate multiple versions of a function by
allowing parameterized data types.
Template < TemplateParamList >
FunctionDefinition
FunctionTemplate
TemplateParamDeclaration: placeholder
class typeIdentifier
typename variableIdentifier

8. Example of a Function Template
template<class SomeType>
void Print( SomeType val )
{
cout << "***Debug" << endl;
cout << "Value is " << val << endl;
}
Print<int>(sum);
Print<char>(initial);
Print<float>(angle);
To output the traced values, we insert:
Template parameter
(class, user defined
type, built-in types)
Template
argument

9. Instantiating a Function
Template
• When the compiler instantiates a template,
it substitutes the template argument for the
template parameter throughout the function
template.
Function < TemplateArgList > (FunctionArgList)
TemplateFunction Call

10. Summary of Three Approaches
Naïve Approach
Different Function Definitions
Different Function Names
Function Overloading
Different Function Definitions
Same Function Name
Template Functions
One Function Definition (a function template)
Compiler Generates Individual Functions

11. Class Template
• A C++ language construct that allows the compiler
to generate multiple versions of a class by allowing
parameterized data types.
Template < TemplateParamList >
ClassDefinition
Class Template
TemplateParamDeclaration: placeholder
class typeIdentifier
typename variableIdentifier

12. Example of a Class Template
template<class ItemType>
class GList
{
public:
bool IsEmpty() const;
bool IsFull() const;
int Length() const;
void Insert( /* in */ ItemType item );
void Delete( /* in */ ItemType item );
bool IsPresent( /* in */ ItemType item ) const;
void SelSort();
void Print() const;
GList(); // Constructor
private:
int length;
ItemType data[MAX_LENGTH];
};
Template
parameter

13. Instantiating a Class Template
• Class template arguments must be
explicit.
• The compiler generates distinct class
types called template classes or
generated classes.
• When instantiating a template, a
compiler substitutes the template
argument for the template parameter
throughout the class template.

14. Instantiating a Class Template
// Client code
GList<int> list1;
GList<float> list2;
GList<string> list3;
list1.Insert(356);
list2.Insert(84.375);
list3.Insert("Muffler bolt");
To create lists of different data types
GList_int list1;
GList_float list2;
GList_string list3;
template argument
Compiler generates 3
distinct class types

15. Substitution Example
class GList_int
{
public:
void Insert( /* in */ ItemType item );
void Delete( /* in */ ItemType item );
bool IsPresent( /* in */ ItemType item ) const;
private:
int length;
ItemType data[MAX_LENGTH];
};
int
int
int
int

16. Function Definitions for
Members of a Template Class
template<class ItemType>
void GList<ItemType>::Insert( /* in */ ItemType item )
{
data[length] = item;
length++;
}
//after substitution of float
void GList<float>::Insert( /* in */ float item )
{
data[length] = item;
length++;
}

17. Another Template Example:
passing two parameters
template <class T, int size>
class Stack {...
};
Stack<int,128> mystack;
non-type parameter

18. Exception
• An exception is a unusual, often
unpredictable event, detectable by
software or hardware, that requires
special processing occurring at runtime
• In C++, a variable or class object that
represents an exceptional event.

19. Errors can be dealt with at place error occurs
Easy to see if proper error checking implemented
Harder to read application itself and see how code works
Exception handling
Makes clear, robust, fault-tolerant programs
C++ removes error handling code from "main line" of
program
Common failures
new not allocating memory
Out of bounds array subscript
Division by zero
Invalid function parameters

20. Exception handling - catch errors before they occur
Deals with synchronous errors (i.E., Divide by zero)
Does not deal with asynchronous errors - disk I/O
completions, mouse clicks - use interrupt processing
Used when system can recover from error
– Exception handler - recovery procedure
Typically used when error dealt with in different place than
where it occurred
Useful when program cannot recover but must shut down
cleanly
Exception handling should not be used for program
control
Not optimized, can harm program performance

21. Exception handling improves fault-tolerance
Easier to write error-processing code
Specify what type of exceptions are to be caught
Most programs support only single threads
Techniques in this chapter apply for multithreaded OS as well
(windows NT, OS/2, some UNIX)
Exception handling another way to return control from
a function or block of code

22. Handling Exception
• If without handling,
• Program crashes
• Falls into unknown state
• An exception handler is a section of program
code that is designed to execute when a
particular exception occurs
• Resolve the exception
• Lead to known state, such as exiting the
program

23. Standard Exceptions
Exceptions Thrown by the Language
– new
Exceptions Thrown by Standard
Library Routines
Exceptions Thrown by user code,
using throw statement

24. When Exception Handling Should Be
Used
Error handling should be used for
Processing exceptional situations
Processing exceptions for components that cannot handle
them directly
Processing exceptions for widely used components (libraries,
classes, functions) that should not process their own
exceptions
Large projects that require uniform error processing

25. Basics of C++ Exception Handling: try,
throw, catch
A function can throw an exception object if it detects
an error
Object typically a character string (error message) or
class object
If exception handler exists, exception caught and
handled
Otherwise, program terminates

26. Basics of C++ Exception Handling:
try, throw, catch (II)
Format
Enclose code that may have an error in try block
Follow with one or more catch blocks
– Each catch block has an exception handler
If exception occurs and matches parameter in catch
block, code in catch block executed
If no exception thrown, exception handlers skipped and
control resumes after catch blocks
throw point - place where exception occurred
– Control cannot return to throw point

27. throw - indicates an exception has occurred
Usually has one operand (sometimes zero) of any type
– If operand an object, called an exception object
– Conditional expression can be thrown
Code referenced in a try block can throw an exception
Exception caught by closest exception handler
Control exits current try block and goes to catch
handler (if it exists)
Example (inside function definition)
if ( denominator == 0 )
throw DivideByZeroException();
– Throws a dividebyzeroexception object

28. The throw Statement
Throw: to signal the fact that an
exception has occurred; also called
raise
ThrowStatement throw Expression

29. Exception handlers are in catch blocks
Format: catch( exceptionType parameterName){
exception handling code
}
Caught if argument type matches throw type
If not caught then terminate called which (by default)
calls abort
Example:
catch ( DivideByZeroException ex) {
cout << "Exception occurred: " << ex.what() <<'n'
}
– Catches exceptions of type DivideByZeroException

30. Catch all exceptions
catch(...) - catches all exceptions
– You do not know what type of exception occurred
– There is no parameter name - cannot reference the
object
If no handler matches thrown object
Searches next enclosing try block
– If none found, terminate called
If found, control resumes after last catch block
If several handlers match thrown object, first one found
is executed

31. catch parameter matches thrown object when
They are of the same type
– Exact match required - no promotions/conversions
allowed
The catch parameter is a public base class of the
thrown object
The catch parameter is a base-class pointer/
reference type and the thrown object is a derived-class
pointer/ reference type
The catch handler is catch( ... )
Thrown const objects have const in the parameter
type

32. Unreleased resources
Resources may have been allocated when exception
thrown
catch handler should delete space allocated by new
and close any opened files
catch handlers can throw exceptions
Exceptions can only be processed by outer try blocks

33. The try-catch Statement
try
Block
catch (FormalParameter)
Block
catch (FormalParameter)
TryCatchStatement
How one part of the program catches and processes
the exception that another part of the program throws.
FormalParameter
DataType VariableName
…

34. Example of a try-catch Statement
try
{
// Statements that process personnel data and may throw
// exceptions of type int, string, and SalaryError
}
catch ( int )
{
// Statements to handle an int exception
}
catch ( string s )
{
cout << s << endl; // Prints "Invalid customer age"
// More statements to handle an age error
}
catch ( SalaryError )
{
// Statements to handle a salary error
}

35. Execution of try-catch
No
statements throw
an exception
Statement
following entire try-catch
statement
A
statement throws
an exception
Exception
Handler
Statements to deal with exception are executed
Control moves
directly to exception
handler

36. Throwing an Exception to be
Caught by the Calling Code
void Func4()
{
if ( error )
throw ErrType();
}
Normal
return
void Func3()
{
try
{
Func4();
}
catch ( ErrType )
{
}
}
Function
call
Return from
thrown
exception

37. Practice: Dividing by ZERO
Apply what you know:
int Quotient(int numer, // The numerator
int denom ) // The denominator
{
if (denom != 0)
return numer / denom;
else
//What to do?? do sth. to avoid program
//crash
}

38. int Quotient(int numer, // The numerator
int denom ) // The denominator
{
if (denom == 0)
throw DivByZero();
//throw exception of class DivByZero
return numer / denom;
}
A Solution

39. A Solution
// quotient.cpp -- Quotient program
#include<iostream.h>
#include <string.h>
int Quotient( int, int );
class DivByZero {}; // Exception class
int main()
{
int numer; // Numerator
int denom; // Denominator
//read in numerator
and denominator
while(cin)
{
try
{
cout << "Their quotient: "
<< Quotient(numer,denom) <<endl;
}
catch ( DivByZero )//exception handler
{
cout<<“Denominator can't be 0"<< endl;
}
// read in numerator and denominator
}
return 0;
}

40. Take Home Message
Templates are mechanisms for generating functions and
classes on type parameters. We can design a single class
or function that operates on data of many types
– function templates
– class templates
An exception is a unusual, often unpredictable event that
requires special processing occurring at runtime
– throw
– try-catch

41. Rethrowing exceptions
Used when an exception handler cannot process an
exception
Rethrow exception with the statement:
throw;
– No arguments
– If no exception thrown in first place, calls terminate
Handler can always rethrow exception, even if it
performed some processing
Rethrown exception detected by next enclosing try block

42. 1. Load header
1.1 Function prototype
1 // Fig. 23.2: fig23_02.cpp
2 // Demonstration of rethrowing an exception.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 #include <exception>
9
10 using std::exception;
11
12 void throwException()
13 {
14 // Throw an exception and immediately catch it.
15 try {
16 cout << "Function throwExceptionn";
17 throw exception(); // generate exception
18 }
19 catch( exception e )
20 {
21 cout << "Exception handled in function throwExceptionn";

43. 2. Function call
3. Output
22 throw; // rethrow exception for further processing
23 }
24
25 cout << "This also should not printn";
26 }
27
28 int main()
29 {
30 try {
31 throwException();
32 cout << "This should not printn";
33 }
34 catch ( exception e )
35 {
36 cout << "Exception handled in mainn";
37 }
38
39 cout << "Program control continues after catch in main"
40 << endl;
41 return 0;
42 }
Function throwException
Exception handled in function throwException
Exception handled in main
Program control continues after catch in main

44. Exception specification (throw list)
Lists exceptions that can be thrown by a function
Example:
int g( double h ) throw ( a, b, c )
{
// function body
}
Function can throw listed exceptions or derived types
If other type thrown, function unexpected called
throw() (i.e., no throw list) states that function will not throw any
exceptions
– In reality, function can still throw exceptions, but calls unexpected
(more later)
If no throw list specified, function can throw any exception

45. Function unexpected
Calls the function specified with set_unexpected
– Default: terminate
Function terminate
Calls function specified with set_terminate
– Default: abort
set_terminate and set_unexpected
Prototypes in <exception>
Take pointers to functions (i.E., Function name)
– Function must return void and take no arguments
Returns pointer to last function called by terminate or unexpected

46. Uncaught Exception
Function-call stack unwound when exception
thrown and not caught in a particular scope
Tries to catch exception in next outer try/catch
block
Function in which exception was not caught
terminates
–Local variables destroyed
–Control returns to place where function was
called
If control returns to a try block, attempt made to
catch exception
–Otherwise, further unwinds stack
If exception not caught, terminate called

47. Constructors, Destructors and
Exception Handling
What to do with an error in a constructor?
A constructor cannot return a value - how do we let
the outside world know of an error?
– Keep defective object and hope someone tests it
– Set some variable outside constructor
A thrown exception can tell outside world about a
failed constructor
catch handler must have a copy constructor for
thrown object