Light was originally thought to behave as waves, but evidence showed it also behaves as particles. Max Planck's work established that light transfers energy in discrete packets called quanta. Albert Einstein later proposed that light consists of small particles called photons that exhibit wave-like properties. The photoelectric effect provided further evidence that light behaves as both waves and particles. Electrons also exhibit dual wave-particle properties, with wavelengths determined by the de Broglie equation. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states the exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be known simultaneously. Quantum theory describes electrons as existing in distinct energy levels around an atom's nucleus.
Quantum Mechanics: Electrons, Transistors, & LASERS. Paul H. Carr
Quantum Mechanics, QM, has enabled new technologies that impact our daily lives. Yet, there have been at least 14 different QM interpretations in the last century. “If you think you understand QM, you don’t,” said Richard Feynman. Our macroscopic language is inadequate to describe the wave-particle duality of microscopic QM particles. Mathematics works better. This talk illuminated the production of the play Copenhagen, in which German physicist Werner Heisenberg, who directed the German attempt to make an atom bomb, visited Niels Bohr in Denmark during WWII.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Quantum Mechanics: Electrons, Transistors, & LASERS. Paul H. Carr
Quantum Mechanics, QM, has enabled new technologies that impact our daily lives. Yet, there have been at least 14 different QM interpretations in the last century. “If you think you understand QM, you don’t,” said Richard Feynman. Our macroscopic language is inadequate to describe the wave-particle duality of microscopic QM particles. Mathematics works better. This talk illuminated the production of the play Copenhagen, in which German physicist Werner Heisenberg, who directed the German attempt to make an atom bomb, visited Niels Bohr in Denmark during WWII.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
2. LIGHT and its PROPERTIES
Pre-1900
Issac Newton explained light and its behavior
by assuming light moved in waves
1900 and beyond
Experimental evidence began to convince
scientists that that light consists of particles
(after the 1902 experiment of Max Planck)
1905-Einstein
Dual Wave Particle Theory
3. LIGHT and its PROPERTIES
Wavelength: distance between two points on
two adjacent waves, symbol is l (Greek symbol
for lamda)
Frequency: number of waves that pass a given
point in a given amount of time, symbol is n
(Greek symbol nu). Units for frequency are
cycles per second which SI speaking is a Hertz,
Hz (Hz is also a reciprocal seconds-1).
4. LIGHT and its PROPERTIES
The frequency and wavelength of light are inversely
proportional to each other.
As the wavelength of light increases, the frequency
decreases
As the wavelength of light decreases, the frequency
increases
Amplitude: Wave’s height from zero to crest or wave’s
height from zero to trough (can be positive or negative)
A complete wave cycle starts at zero goes through its
highest point, back through zero, reaches its lowest
point, and back to zero again.
One wave cycle starts at zero and has one crest
and one trough
5. LIGHT and its PROPERTIES
According to the Wave Model, light
consists of electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic radiation: light moving in
waves through space
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible
light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma
raysElectromagnetic spectrum
Speed of light: depending on the wavlength
and frequency, speed of light changes
C = ln
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3.0 x 108 m/s
6. SPEED of LIGHT PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 1:
Determine the speed of light if the wavelength
is 3.5 x 10-9 m/s and the frequency is 3.5 Hz.
7. SPEED of LIGHT PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 2:
If light has a speed of 5.6 x 103 m/s and a
frequency of 2.3 Hz, what is the wavelength.
8. SPEED of LIGHT PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 3:
What is the wavelength of radiation with a
frequency of 1.5 x 1013 Hz? Does this radiation
have a longer or shorter wavelength than red
light?
9. SPEED of LIGHT PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 4:
What frequency is radiation with a wavelength
of 5.00 x 10-8 m? In what region of the
electromagnetic spectrum is this radiation?
10. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
(supporting work for Atomic Spectra)
The photoelectric effect is a quantum
electronic phenomenon in which electrons are
emitted from matter after the absorption of
energy from electromagnetic radiation such as
x-rays or visible light. The emitted electrons can
be referred to as photoelectrons in this context.
{Wikipedia.org}
11. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT (supporting
work for Atomic Spectra)
Expected: Since all light is energy moving
in waves, all colors of light should knock
electrons off a metal
Shine different color lights on a metal
Measure the number of electrons knocked off
the metal
Found that no electrons were knocked off when
light was below a certain frequency
12. MAX PLANCK
(his work used in Atomic Spectra)
German Physicists, founder of quantum theory
Studied the way light came off hot objects
(diffusion of hydrogen through heated
platinum)
Concluded that light comes off in small burst of
particles, NOT WAVES
Quantum-minimum amount of energy that can
be lost or gained by an atom
To calculate quantum/energy: E = hn
E = energy of the photon
h = Planck’s constant
n = frequency of the incident photon
13. ATOMIC SPECTRA
As atoms absorb energy, electrons move
into higher energy levels. When the
atoms release energy (lose the energy),
the electron return to the lower energy
levels.
The frequencies of light emitted by an
element separate to give the atomic
emission spectrum of the element
No two elements have the same emission
spectrum
14. ATOMIC SPECTRA
Atomic line spectra and its existence was
known before Bohr’s atomic model of
hydrogen was produced. What Bohr did
was explain why hydrogen had the specific
frequencies it had, why it “produced/broke
down” into the colors it did; it predicted the
values that agreed with the experiements.
15. ATOMIC SPECTRA
Hydrogen Atom Line Emission Spectrum
ACTUAL:
Current passed through tube with
Hydrogen gas.
Pink light is given off.
Light passed through spectrum.
Found only specific frequencies
of light given off.
EXPECTED:
Continuous spectrum of
light to be given off. (Since
e- are moving around
nucleus randomly and using
different levels of energy.)
16. ATOMIC SPECTRA
Lowest possible energy of the electron is
referred to as its ground state
Normal location of an electron
Electrons circle the nucleus in specific
orbits
If an electron absorbs energy, moves up
an energy level (absorption)
If an electron gives off energy, moves
down an energy level (emission)
17. QUANTUM MECHANICS
EINSTEIN, AGAIN!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Debate between whether light is waves or
particles
Einstein creates dual waves particle theory
(1905)
Light is small particles (photons) that move in
wave shapes
Thought electrons moved around the nucleus
in wave shapes (since electrson are small
particles like photons)
18. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Louis de Broglie: Given that light behaves as waves and
particles, can particles of matter behave as waves?
Referred to the wavelike behavior of particles as matter
waves
Came up with an equation that predicts all moving objects
have wavelike behavior:
mv/l = h
Thanks to experiments conducted by 2 scientists, his theory
was proven correctNobel Prize
Waves Waves have specific frequencies and electrons have
specific orbits/energy levels
Waves and electrons can both be bent (diffraction)
Waves and electrons can both overlap and interfere with
each other (interference)
Creator of Wave Mechanics
19. QUANTUM MECHANICS
DeBroglie’s equation combines Einstein
and Planck’s equations
mv/l = h
(Anything with mass and velocity has a
wavelength, so electrons have wavelengths)
DeBroglie Problems:
What is the wavelength of an electron that has a
mass of 1.5 X 10-30 kg and a velocity of 2.5 X 104
m/s?
20. QUANTUM MECHANICS
DeBroglie Problems:
What is the velocity of an electron with a mass of
8.3 X 10-29 kg and a wavelength of 400 nm? (Hint:
convert nm to m)
What is the mass of an electron with a velocity of
4.6 X 103 m/s and a wavelength of 5.6 X 10-2
meters?
What is the wavelength of an electron that has a
mass of 2.8 X 10-31 kg and a velocity of 3.0 X 108
m/s?
21. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Heisenberg
2 Goals in Life:
find the location of an electron
find the velocity of an electron
Problem: Electrons cannot be seen under a microscope
Only way to find an electron is to shoot a photon
(particle of light) at the electron
Problem: when the photon hits the electron, it knocks
the electron off course
So with this photon method, you can only know the
position of an electron for a split second, but you still
don’t know the velocity
22. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Heisenberg
DeBroglie: Tries to help Heisenberg and offers
his equation l = (mv)/h
If you know mass and wavelength of an
electron, equation could help you find velocity
Problem: Equation does not show location!
Equation method will only tell you velocity NOT
location
24. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Schrodinger
Working with Hydrogen atom that only has 1 electron
Wants to find general location/area of the one electron in
Hydrogen
Creates quantum theory
Quantum theory – uses math to describe the wave
properties of an electron (frequency, wavelength, etc)
Once he plugged his data into the quantum theory, he
found that electrons do not travel in nice, neat orbits
(Bohr model)
Instead, found that electrons travel in 3D regions around
the nucleus
26. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Quantum Theory
Ground State-normal location of an electron
Excited State-one ring up from the normal location
When excited electron falls back to the ground state, a
photon is given off
Energy of the photn is equal to the difference in energy
between the excited state and ground state
Hydrogen gives off specific colors because its electrons
move from ring 2 to ring 1; Neon gives off a different
color because its electrons move from ring 3 to ring 2
27. LIGHT AND ELECTRONS REVIEW
Light was first thought to be wavelike
Equation for the speed of light is c = ln
Photoelectric effect challenges this because only certain
frequencies of light could knock off electrons
Max Planck’s experiment proved that light could be a
particle
Einstein’s dual wave particle theory says that light is
ACTUALLY small particles (photons) that move in wave
like patterns
Equation for energy of a photon is E = hn
Bohr found that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific
orbitals/energy levels
28. LIGHT AND ELECTRONS REVIEW
Electrons as Waves:
1924 – Louis de Broglie asked “Could electrons have a
dual wave particle nature like light?”
Similarities between waves and electrons
Waves have specific frequencies and electrons have
specific orbits/energy levels
Waves and electrons can both be bent (diffraction)
Waves and electrons can both overlap and interfere with
each other (interference)
DeBroglie’s equation combines Einstein and Planck’s
equations
mv/l = h
(Anything with mass and velocity has a wavelength, so
electrons have wavelengths)
29. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
REVIEW
Energy levelsSpecific energies electrons can have
Quantum of energyamount of energy required to
move an electron from one energy level to another
energy level
The amount of energy an electron gains or loses in an
atom is not always the same
Energy levels in an atom are not equally spaced
Higher energy levels are closer together
Modern description of the electrons in atoms, quantum
mechanical model, comes from the mathematical
solutions to the Schrodinger equation
The quantum mechanical model determines the allowed
energies an electron can have and how likely it is to find
the electron in various locations
30. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers are used to describe the
location and behavior of an electron (zip code
for electrons)
First quantum number = Principal = n
Second quantum number = Angular Momentum
Third quantum number = Magnetic Quantum
Fourth quantum number = Spin Quantum
31. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
Principal (first) quantum number = n
Main quantum number
Describes the size of the electron cloud (the smaller the number, the
smaller the cloud)
ALSO, shows the distance from the nucleus, the smaller the
number, the closer the cloud is to the nucleus
Called energy levels or shells
Positive integers (1,2,3,4,…)
Symbol is n
Each energy level has a maximum number of electrons it can hold
n # Electrons
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
Example: Energy level 1
2 electrons
close to the nucleus
small electron cloud
32. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
Second Quantum Number:
Each energy level has sublevels
The number of sublevels is equal to n
Example: Energy level 1 has 1 sublevel
Sublevels are called: s,p,d,f
33. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
Third Quantum Number
Divides sublevels into orbitals
Also tells the shape the electron is moving in
The number of orbitals for each level is:
S has 1
P has 3
D has 5
F has 7
The number of orbitals for an energy level is equal to n2
Example: 2nd Energy level
n2 = 4
1s, 3p
Each orbital can only hold a maximum of 2 electrons
Shapes of orbitals:
S is spherical
P is peanut shaped
D is daisy shaped
F is unknown
34. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
Fourth Quantum Number:
Describes the electron spin
Both electrons in an orbital are negative, so
they repel each other and spin in opposite
directions
Use arrows to represent electrons
35. QUANTUM NUMBERS and ATOMIC ORBITALS
Pauli Exclusion Principle:
No two electrons in an atom can have the
same set of 4 quantum numbers because
electrons repel each other
Example: 2 electrons may both be:
in the first energy level (same first number)
sitting in an s sublevel (same second #
moving in a sphere shape (same third #)
BUT one electron spins clockwise and one
spins counter clockwise ( which means they
have different fourth #s)
36. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Example 1: Map out the quantum
numbers for all the electrons in Hydrogen
Find the # of electrons in hydrogen (atomic
number will give you this number)
What order do you fill in s, p, d, f in the rings?
37. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Diagonal RulePattern that shows the order the
electrons fill in the orbitals: Some People Do Forget
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
Notice that the electrons do
not fill in all of the level 3
first (3s, 3p, 3d) and then
move to level 4
Instead, electrons fill in the
orbitals in the order that is
easiest to them (easier for
an electron to fill in a 4s
before it fills in a 3d)
Aufbau Principle: Electrons have to fill in the lowest
(easiest) energy level or orbital first
38. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Hund’s Rule:
Every orbital must get
one electron first,
before you double up.
“Cookie Rule”
Example 2: Helium
40. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Orbital Notation
drawing out
configurations with
arrows
Electron
Configuration
Notation/Superscript
Notation:
writing configurations
with superscripts to
represent electrons
41. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Do Orbital Notation and Electron
Configuration for the following:
Zn
I
Cl
Mg
As
42. NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATIONS
Noble Gas Configurations:
Write out the superscript notations for:
Neon:
Sulfur:
Sulfur has the same configuration as Neon plus a 3s23p4
So, you could use the noble gas as a shortcut and write
Sulfur’s configuration as
[Ne] 3s23p4 OR [Ne]
Noble gas configuration: write the noble gas (group 18) that comes
directly before the element in question and then add the rest of the
configuration
Practice:
Write the noble gas superscript notation for the following elements.
C Np
W Sn
43. DOT DIAGRAMS
Lewis Dot Diagrams:
Way to show the number and position of
electrons on the outermost energy level
Since the energy levels all overlap and cover
one another, only the outermost energy level is
able to bond with other elements
The electrons involved in bonding are called the
valence electrons (to get these electrons look at the
column number)
44. DOT DIAGRAMS
Lewis Dot Diagrams:
Chemical symbol + Number of valence
electrons
The rules for orbitals still apply, so no side can
have more than two dots, and each “p” orbital
side gets one dot, before you double up
X
p1
p3
p2 s
p orbitals
s orbital
45. DOT DIAGRAMS
Noble gases have a full valence
There are no empty spaces so the
element does not need any more electrons
Stable octet – 8 electrons in the valence
so the element does not want to bond (this
means it is stable)
Only the noble gases have a stable octet
46. DOT DIAGRAMS
Practice: Write the noble gas superscript
notation and then draw the dot diagram for
the following:
V
Br
Al
K