LO1 Understand fermentation systems Microbial groupings: microbial range and form Unicellular fungi: importance to the fermentation process especially Saccharomyces species History of fermentation advances: metabolic pathways of respiration; dynamics of anaerobic respiration/fermentation; methods of controlling fermentation (top and bottom); principal steps in the brewing process LO2 Understand the biochemistry of malting, mashing and conversions in the copper Barley physiology: choice of cereal; biochemical changes affected by the malting process Wort composition: biochemical/biophysical conversions Malting process: the enhancement of diastatic power; control of N2-content; development of colour Mashing process: the ionic balance of the liquor (Burtonization); factors affecting extraction and enzymatic conversion in the grist; importance of temperature and time controls; monitoring ‘run-off’ from the mash tun for turbidity and specific gravity Hop variety: varieties of hops available (including brief histories and geographical location); characteristic properties of each variety; hop additions to brews (biochemistry of action); hop quality (appearance, feel and aroma) Hop biochemistry: the ratio of α and β-acids; oxidative conversions to humulones and hulupones; the effect of seed content on hop property and the principle contributors to aroma The copper: inactivation of enzymes; precipitation of proteins, polyphenols and some lipids; production of hop-derived flavours and aromas; sterilisation of the wort; further precipitation of calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] and its effect on pH; the distillation of volatile materials; water evaporation and subsequent wort concentration; enhancement of colour (caramelization, melanoidin formation, oxidation of tannins); reduction of surface tension Practical control: timescales involved in boiling and the stage points of hop introduction