Download to read offline
![Surface charging: which can lead to electrostatic
discharges (ESD)
ESD: can lead to a variety of problems,
including component failure and phantom commands in
spacecraft electronics [Purvis et al., 1984].
76
Purvis, C. K., H. B. Garrett, A. C. Wittlesey, and N. J. Stevens (1984),
Design guidelines for assessing and controlling spacecraft charging
effects, NASA Tech. Pap. 2361
https://standards.nasa.gov/documents/detail/3314877
Surface Charging (1)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/unit2onlinelecture-241120125925-29f28dff/75/Unit-2-Online-lecture-jsad-ofjsdL-FNKSnmdf-lsDM-LF-76-2048.jpg)
![Total Dose Effects
• Total Ionizing Dose (TID) –
cumulative damage resulting
from ionization (electron-hole
pair formation) causing
• Threshold voltage shifts
• Timing skews
• Leakage currents
• Displacement Damage Dose
(DDD) – cumulative damage
resulting from displacement of
atoms in semiconductor lattice
structure causing:
• Carrier lifetime shortening
• Mobility degradation
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 2 4 6 8 10
Total Dose [krad(Si)]
Voltage
During
Erase
Function
Failed to erase
Solar Array Degradation
128 Mb Samsung Flash Memory
DDD can also be referred to in the context of
Non-Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) CREDIT: NRL & JPL
Messenger, S. R., Summers, G. P., Burke, E. A., Walters, R. J. and
Xapsos, M. A. (2001), Modeling solar cell degradation in space: A
comparison of the NRL displacement damage dose and the JPL
equivalent fluence approaches. Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., 9: 103–
121. doi: 10.1002/pip.357](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/unit2onlinelecture-241120125925-29f28dff/75/Unit-2-Online-lecture-jsad-ofjsdL-FNKSnmdf-lsDM-LF-95-2048.jpg)
Unit 2 Online lecture jsad;ofjsdL;FNKSnmdf;lsDM;LF
- 1. Unit - II Spacevs Earth Environment Presented by Mr. G. Madhan Kumar, AP/Aero SATHYABAMA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SAEA3017 MANNED SPACE MISSION
- 2. Outline Atmosphere: Structureand Composition, Atmosphere: Air Pressure, Temperature, and Density, Atmosphere: Meteoroid, Orbital Debris & Radiation Protection, Human Factors of Crewed Spaceflight, Safety of Crewed Spaceflight, Magnetosphere, Radiation Environment: Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR), Solar Particle Events (SPE), Radiation and the Human Body, Impact of microgravity and g forces on humans, space adaptation syndrome.
- 3. Overview of theEarth’s Atmosphere • The atmosphere, when scaled to the size of an apple, is no thicker than the skin on an apple. • The atmosphere is a gas. • The atmosphere is a fluid. • There is a surface but no “top” – the atmosphere gradually thins out with increasing altitude
- 4. Earth's Atmosphere 99% ofatmospheric gases, including water vapor, extend only 30 kilometer (km) above earth's surface. Most of our weather, however, occurs within the first 10 to 15 km. Thin Gaseous envelope
- 5. Composition of the Atmosphere permanentgases variable gases trace gases aerosols • roles of nitrogen, oxygen and argon • role of water vapor • carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, CFCs, et al.
- 6. Composition of the Atmosphere •The “dry atmosphere”: 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% Ar • N2 is primordial – it’s been part of the atmosphere as long as there’s been an atmosphere • O2 has been rising from none at all about 2.2 Gy – comes from photosynthesis • Ar40 /Ar36 tells us that the atmosphere has been outgassed from volcanoes
- 7. Composition of the Atmosphere •Water Vapor: H2O 0-4% • H20 can exist in all three phases at the surface of the Earth – solid, liquid and gas • Liquid or solid H2O can be suspended by atmospheric winds (clouds) or fall to the surface (precipitation) • VERY powerful greenhouse gas (both in vapor form and as clouds)
- 8. Composition of the Atmosphere TheHydrological Cycle
- 9.
- 10. Composition of the Atmosphere •Carbon dioxide • 390 ppm (by mass) and counting… • Natural and anthropogenic sources/sinks • Strong greenhouse gas (GHG) CO2 is neither the strongest atmospheric GHG pound-for-pound nor molecule-for-molecule… Why the fuss? CO2 is a product of the reaction that allows modern civilization to exist: combustion.
- 12. Composition of the Atmosphere TheGlobal Carbon Cycle
- 13. Composition of the Atmosphere •Methane • CH4 concentration: 1.8 ppmv • anthropogenic and natural sources/sinks too powerful greenhouse gas • oxidizes rapidly, hence low concentrations • Large concentrations proposed to explain greenhouse warming of early Earth
- 14. Composition of the Atmosphere •Ozone, CFCs and NOx • Ozone (O3) • shields the surface from UV rays • produced by reaction with NOx and sunlight near the surface • CFC’s (Chlorofluorocarbons) • destroy stratospheric ozone • chlorine is a catalyst: it destroys one O3 molecule and then is free to find another • Ozone at high altitudes (stratosphere) is “good”; ozone at low altitudes (troposphere) is “bad.”
- 15. Atmospheric Gases Nitrogen, oxygen, argon,water vapor, carbon dioxide, and most other gases are invisible. Clouds are not gas, but condensed vapor in the form of liquid droplets. Ground based smog, which is visible, contains reactants of nitrogen and ozone. Ozone – is the primary ingredient of smog!
- 16. Aerosols & Pollutants Humanand natural activities displace tiny soil, salt, and ash particles as suspended aerosols, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons as pollutants.
- 17. Composition of the Atmosphere Aerosols •Dust • Sea-spray • Microbes Suspended particles in the atmosphere are responsible for cloud formation: water drops nucleate on them Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN)
- 18. Other Atmospheres YES NO EarthThe Moon Mars all the other satellites Venus Mercury Jupiter asteroids Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Triton (Neptune’s moon) Titan (Saturn’s moon) The Sun
- 19. Other Atmospheres Planet CompositionTemperature Pressure Venus CO2 96.5%, N2 3.5% 750 K 90000 mb Earth N2 78%, O2 21%, Ar 1% 290K 1000 mb Mars CO2 95%, N2 2.7%, Ar 1.6% 220K 10 mb
- 20. History of Meteorology •Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena • Aristotle wrote a book on natural philosophy (340 BC) entitled “Meteorologica” • Sum knowledge of weather/climate at time • Meteors were all things that fell from the sky or were seen in the air • “meteoros” : Greek word meaning “high in air”
- 21. History of Meteorology •Invention of weather instruments • 1500’s Galileo invented water thermometer • 1643 Torricelli invented mercury barometer • 1667 Hooke invented anemometer • 1719 Fahrenheit developed temp scale based on boiling/freezing water • 1735 Hadley explained how the earth’s rotation influences winds in tropics • 1742 Celsius developed the centigrade temp scale 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO
- 22. History of Meteorology •1787 Charles discovered relationship between temp and a volume of air • 1835 Coriolis used math to demonstrate the effect that the earth’s rotation has on atmos. Motions • 1869 first isobars were placed on map • 1920 concepts of air masses and weather fronts were formulated in Norway • 1940’s upper air ballons/3-D view of atmos • 1950’s high speed computers • 1960 Tiros 1 first weather satellite 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO
- 23. Vertical Structure of theEarth’s Atmosphere
- 24. Atmospheric Layers 8 layersare defined by constant trends in average air temperature (which changes with pressure and radiation), where the outer exosphere is not shown. 1. Troposphere 2. Tropopause 3. Stratosphere 4. Stratopause 5. Mesosphere 6. Mesopause 7. Thermosphere 8. Exosphere
- 25. Atmospheric Layers Troposphere –Temp decrease w/ height Most of our weather occurs in this layer Varies in height around the globe, but Averages about 11 km in height. Tropopause separates Troposphere from Stratosphere. Generally higher in summer Lower in winter.
- 26. The troposphere isthe lowest major atmospheric layer, and is located from the Earth's surface up to the bottom of the stratosphere. It has decreasing temperature with height (at an average rate of 3.5° F per thousand feet (6.5° C per kilometer); whereas the stratosphere has either constant or slowly increasing temperature with height. The troposphere is where all of Earth's weather occurs. The boundary that divides the troposphere from the stratosphere is called the "tropopause", located at an altitude of around 5 miles in the winter, to around 8 miles high in the summer, and as high as 11 or 12 miles in the deep tropics. When you see the top of a thunderstorm flatten out into an anvil cloud, like in the illustration above, it is usually because the updrafts in the storm are "bumping up against" the bottom of the stratosphere
- 27. Atmospheric Layers Stratosphere Temperature inversionin stratosphere Ozone plays a major part in heating the air At this altitude
- 28. Atmospheric Layers Mesosphere Middle atmosphere– Air thin, pressure low, Need oxygen to live in this region. Air quite Cold -90°C (-130°F) near the top of mesosphere
- 29. Atmospheric Layers Thermosphere “Hot layer”– oxygen molecules absorb energy from solar Rays warming the air. Very few atoms and molecules in this Region.
- 30. The Stratosphere andOzone Layer Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, where air flow is mostly horizontal. The thin ozone layer in the upper stratosphere has a high concentration of ozone, a particularly reactive form of oxygen. This layer is primarily responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The formation of this layer is a delicate matter, since only when oxygen is produced in the atmosphere can an ozone layer form and prevent an intense flux of ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface, where it is quite hazardous to the evolution of life. There is considerable recent concern that manmade flourocarbon compounds may be depleting the ozone layer, with dire future consequences for life on the Earth. The Mesosphere and Ionosphere Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere and above that is the ionosphere (or thermosphere), where many atoms are ionized (have gained or lost electrons so they have a net electrical charge). The ionosphere is very thin, but it is where aurora take place, and is also responsible for absorbing the most energetic photons from the Sun, and for reflecting radio waves, thereby making long-distance radio communication possible.
- 31. A Brief Lookat Air Pressure and Air Density • air density (ρ pronounced “row”) • air pressure (p) • sea-level pressure (ps) • Baseballs travel farther in higher-altitude air (Denver) than they do in lower-altitude air.
- 32. Pressure & DensityGravity pulls gases toward earth's surface, and the whole column of gases weighs 14.7 psi at sea level, a pressure of 1013.25 mb or 29.92 in.Hg. Air Density is The number of air Molecules in a given Space (volume) The amount of force exerted Over an area of surface is called Air pressure!
- 33. Vertical Pressure Profile Atmospheric pressure decreases rapidlywith height. Climbing to an altitude of only 5.5 km where the pressure is 500 mb, would put you above one-half of the atmosphere’s molecules.
- 34. Air Pressure On average,air weighs about 14.7 lb/in2 14.7 lb/in2 =29.92 “inches of mercury” Air Pressure varies over the globe 1” 1” “Top” 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 34
- 35. Changing Pressure -Winds Take more out than put in – decrease pressure Put more in than take out – increase pressure 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 35
- 36. Changing Pressure -Temperature Cold Warm Coldest column = highest pressure ** Warmest column = lowest pressure ** 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 36
- 37. • Lows tendto bring cloudy, wet weather • Highs tend to bring fair, dry weather. Rising Air near ows • Rising air cools; water vapor in the air condenses to form clouds/precipitation Sinking air near ighs • Sinking air warms and dries out. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 37
- 38. Some Fundamentals • Earthis heated unevenly: Tropics are warmer than the Polar Regions. • Nature tries to try to even out temperature differences. • Uneven heating sets atmosphere in motion and is the fundamental cause of all weather. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 38
- 39. Westerlies - High-Altitudewinds blow generally west-to-east 3-6 miles above mid- latitudes. Jet Stream – River of fastest-moving air within the westerlies. Ridge Trough Upper- Level Features 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 39
- 40. Reality is messier… Still, highs and Lows move with the westerlies and the jet stream. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 40
- 41. Weather vs. Climate Weatheris the dynamical way in which the atmosphere maintains the equilibrium climate.
- 42. Elements of Weather airtemperature air pressure humidity clouds precipitation visibility wind • Certain weather elements, like clouds, visibility and wind, are of particular interest to pilots.
- 43. Climate Average weather • time-average •regional (spatial) average Extremes Trends • Climate represents long-term (e.g. 30 yr) averages of weather.
- 44. A Satellite’s Viewof the Weather • geostationary satellites • Atmospheric observation from satellites was an important technological development in meteorology. Other important developments include computers, internet, and Doppler radar.
- 45. Storms of allSizes midlatitude cyclonic storms hurricanes and tropical storms thunderstorms tornadoes • Storms are very exciting, but they also play an important role in moving heat and moisture around throughout the atmosphere.
- 46. 1st Satellite Launched IntoSpace 46 The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. 4 October, 1957 Marking the start of the Space Age International Geophysical Year: 1957
- 47. Space dog -Laika 47 The occupant of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik 2 that was launched into outer space on November 3, 1957 Paving the way for human missions
- 48. Explorer I –1st U.S. Satellite • was launched into Earth's orbit on a Jupiter C missile from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on January 31, 1958 - Inner belt discovery 48 Explorer 1 and 3: discovery of the inner radiation belt William Pickering (L), James Van Allen (center), Wernher von Braun (right)
- 49.
- 50. Discovery of theOuter Van Allen Radiation Belt Pioneer 3 (launched 6 December 1958) and Explorer IV (launched July 26, 1958) both carried instruments designed and built by Dr. Van Allen. These spacecraft provided Van Allen additional data that led to discovery of a second radiation belt
- 51. Importance & OurIncreasing Reliance on Space Systems • Scientific Research • Space Science • Earth Science • Human Exploration of Space • Aeronautics and Space Transportation • Navigation • Telecommunications • Defense • Space environment monitoring • Terrestrial weather monitoring Courtesy: J. A. Pellish
- 52.
- 53. Orbits 53 GEO Yellow: MEO Green-dash-dotted line:GPS Cyan: LEO Red dotted line: ISS
- 54. Orbits 54 Different observing assets innear-Earth environment
- 55. Orbit Classification Basedon Inclination • Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not zero degrees. • Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution. Therefore, it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees. • Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass. • DMSP satellites 55
- 56. Van Allen Probes 56 TwoSpacecraft In an Elliptical Orbit
- 57. ERG/Arase • Orbit info •Altitude • Perigee about 440 km, Apogee: about 32,000 km • Inclination • 32 degrees • Elliptical orbit • Period: 570 min Energization and Radiation in Geospace (ERG) Japanese satellite of exploring radiation belts Launched on Dec 20, 2016
- 58. MMS (Magnetospheric MultiscaleMission)
- 59. Other Types ofOrbits 59 Heliocentric Orbit: An orbit around the Sun. STEREO A and STEREO B Interplanetary space At different planets (in reference to a planet) Unit in terms of Rs (solar radii) or AU (Astronomical Unit)
- 60. Orbit/Mission Design • NewHorizon to Pluto 60 http://www.jhu.edu/jhumag/1105web/pluto.html Dr. Yanping Guo, a mission design specialist at APL Reduced the journey by at least three years Closest approach to Pluto: 7:49:57 a.m. EDT (11:49:57 UTC) on July 14, 2015 For more information about New Horizon http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/main/index.html
- 61. Space Weather andSpacecraft Operations • The primary approach for the spacecraft industry to mitigate the effects of space weather is to design satellites to operate under extreme environmental conditions to the maximum extent possible within cost and resource constraints “Severe Space Weather Events--Understanding Societal and Economic Impacts Workshop Report,” National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008 http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12507.html • This technique is rarely 100% successful and space weather will typically end up impacting some aspect of a space mission • Some space weather issues are common to all spacecraft, e.g., space situational awareness is one example • Specific details of space weather interactions with a spacecraft are often unique because spacecraft systems are unique, there is no “standard” space weather support to mission operations • Miniaturization of space assets makes them more vulnerable
- 62. Space Weather impactson spacecraft operation
- 63. Space Environment ModelUse in Mission Life Cycle Mission Concept Mission Planning Design Launch Operations Anomaly Resolution Space Climatology Minimize Risk Space Weather Manage Residual Risk Both Models: big variety including assimilative ones 63 NASA Space Weather services
- 64. Space Climatology andSpace Weather • Space Climatology: • Variability over months to years • Space environment effects on both satellites and launch vehicles are best mitigated by good design • Space Weather • Variability over minutes to days • Effects mitigated by design or operational controls • Design satellites to withstand mean, extreme space weather events that may occur during time on orbit
- 65. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 65 SPACECLIMATOLOGY
- 66. Space Environment &Effects (1) Mechanism Effect Source Total Ionizing Dose (TID) • Degradation of microelectronics • Trapped protons • Trapped electrons • Solar protons Displacement Damage Dose (DDD) • Degradation of optical components and some electronics • Degradation of solar cells • Trapped protons • Trapped electrons • Solar protons • Neutrons Single-Event Effects (SEE) • Data corruption • Noise on images • System shutdowns • Electronic component damage • GCR heavy ions • Solar protons and heavy ions • Trapped protons • Neutrons Surface Erosion • Degradation of thermal, electrical, optical properties • Degradation of structural integrity • Particle radiation • Ultraviolet • Atomic oxygen • Micrometeoroids • Contamination
- 67. Space Environment &Effects (2) Mechanism Effect Source Surface Charging • Biasing of instrument readings • Power drains • Physical damage • Dense, cold plasma • Hot plasma (ring current, aurora population) (few eV to 10s keV) Deep Dielectric Charging • Biasing of instrument readings • Electrical discharges causing • physical damage • High-energy electrons (>300 keV) Structure Impacts • Structural damage • Decompression • Micrometeoroids • Orbital debris Satellite Drag • Torques • Orbital decay • Neutral thermosphere UNCLASSIFIED
- 68. Space Environment &Effects another way (a previous bootcamp participant) Trapped protons, Trapped electrons, Solar protons Total Ionizing Dose (TID) •Degradation of microelectronics Trapped protons, Trapped electrons, Solar protons, Neutrons Displacement Damage Dose (DDD) •Degradation of optical components and some electronics •Degradation of solar cells GCR heavy ions, Solar protons and heavy ions, Trapped protons, Neutrons Single-Event Effects (SEE) •Data corruption •Noise on images •System shutdowns •Electronic component damage Particle radiation, Ultraviolet, Atomic oxygen, Micrometeoroids, Contamination Surface Erosion •Degradation of thermal, electrical, optical properties •Degradation of structural integrity Dense, cold plasma, Hot plasma Surface Charging •Biasing of instrument readings •Power drains •Physical damage High-energy electrons Deep Dielectric Charging •Biasing of instrument readings •Electrical discharges causing •physical damage Micrometeoroids, Orbital debris Structure Impacts •Structural damage •Decompression Neutral thermosphere Satellite Drag •Torques •Orbital decay
- 69. another way (BerylHovis-Afflerbach)
- 70. Radiation Belts SEPs GCR s SAA Electron radiation storms Ionradiation storms Internal electrostatic discharge Single event effects Mission Concept/Planning/Design Mission Launch Mission OperationsAnomaly Resolution Ring current, aurora, plasma sheet (<100 keV) Surface Charging Radiation Impacts on Aviation Total Ionizing Dose (long term effect) >100 keV electrons >1 MeV protons Aviation Safety Other Helpful Visuals/Slides
- 71. Visual Representation ofSpace Environment Hazards
- 72.
- 73. 73 Space Environment Impacts/Anomalies •According to a study by the Aerospace Corporation the 2 most common types of spacecraft anomalies by far are due to electrostatic discharge (ESD) and single event effects (SEE) • Reported results*: Anomaly Type: Number of Occurrences: ESD 162 SEE 85 Total Dose and Damage 16 Miscellaneous 36 * H.C. Koons et al., 6th Spacecraft Technology Conference, AFRL-VS-TR-20001578, Sept. 2000
- 74. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 74 SPACEENVIRONMENT ANOMALIES
- 75. A few typesof space weather impacts on spacecraft
- 76. Surface charging: whichcan lead to electrostatic discharges (ESD) ESD: can lead to a variety of problems, including component failure and phantom commands in spacecraft electronics [Purvis et al., 1984]. 76 Purvis, C. K., H. B. Garrett, A. C. Wittlesey, and N. J. Stevens (1984), Design guidelines for assessing and controlling spacecraft charging effects, NASA Tech. Pap. 2361 https://standards.nasa.gov/documents/detail/3314877 Surface Charging (1)
- 77.
- 78. Commercial satellite anomaly Moreoften in the midnight to morning sector <100 keV e- distribution: similar behavior as spacecraft anomalies => Surface charging might be the main cause of the anomalies. Choi, H. S., J. Lee, K. S. Cho, Y. S. Kwak, I. H. Cho, Y. D. Park, Y. H. ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Kim, D. N. Baker, G. D. Reeves, and D. K. Lee (2011), Analysis of GEO ‐ spacecraft anomalies: Space weather relationships, Space Weather, 9, S06001,doi:10.1029/2010SW000597. 78 Surface Charging (2) Substorm injections ( Aurora)
- 79. Surface Charging HazardsDistribution
- 80. NASA Document onMitigating Charging Effects Title: Mitigating In-Space Charging Effects-A Guideline Document Date: 2011-03-03 Revalid and Reaffirmed Date: 2016-03-03 Revision: A Organization: NASA 80
- 81. Ring current model data showsame Surface Charging?!: Galaxy 15 failure on April 5, 2010 22keV electrons 4/5, 8:16-9:32Z Galaxy 15 failed approx 9:48Z
- 82. 82 Single Event Effects:Source in Space Solar Particle Events (flare/CME) Trapped Particles (SAA) Galactic Cosmic Rays High Energy Particle Radiation Most unpredictable High energy neutrons
- 83. 83 Galactic Cosmic Rays •Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are high-energy charged particles that originate outside our solar system. • Supernova explosions are a significant source Anticorrelation with solar activity More pronounced/intense during solar minimum
- 84. 84 South Atlantic Anomaly •Dominates the radiation environment for altitudes less than about 1000 km. • Caused by tilt and shift of geomagnetic axis relative to rotational axis. • Inner edge of proton belt is at lower altitudes south and east of Brazil. E.J. Daly et al., IEEE TNS, April 1996
- 85.
- 86. 86 South Atlantic Anomaly FromSPENVIS, http://www.spenvis.oma.be/ Solar Maximum
- 87. 87 Characteristics of SEPs •Elemental composition* (may vary event by event) • 96.4% protons • 3.5% alpha particles • 0.1% heavier ions (not to be neglected!) • Energies: up to ~ GeV/nucleon • Event magnitudes: • > 10 MeV/nucleon integral fluence: can exceed 109 cm-2 • > 10 MeV/nucleon peak flux: can exceed 105 cm-2 s-1
- 88. 88 Solar Cycle Dependence Mostunpredictable
- 89. Single Event Effects(SEE) • Single event effect (SEE) : current generated by ion passing through the sensitive volume of a biased electronic device changes the device operating state • SEE Generated by Heavy Ions (Z=2-92) • High linear energy transfer (LET) rate of heavy ions produces ionization along track as ion slows down • Dense ionization track over a short range produces sufficient charge in sensitive volume to cause SEE • SEE is caused directly by ionization produced by incident heavy ion particles • SEE Generated by Protons (Z=1) • Proton LET is too low to generate SEE, but secondary heavy ions are produced in nuclear reactions with nuclei of atoms (usually silicon) inside electronics. Energy is transferred to a target atom fragment or recoil ion with high LET and charge deposited by recoil ion(s) is the direct cause of SEE. • Only a small fraction of protons are converted to such secondary particles (1 in 10^4 to 10^5).
- 90. What is aSingle Event Effect? • Single Event Effect (SEE) – any measureable effect in a circuit caused by single incident ion • Non-destructive – SEU (Single Event Upset), SET (single event transients), MBU (Multiple Bit Upsets), SHE (single-event hard error) • Destructive – SEL (single event latchup), SEGR (single event gate rupture), SEB (single event burnout) 90 Destructive event in a COTS 120V DC-DC Converter
- 91. Single Event Upsets •SEUs: are soft errors, and non-destructive. They normally appear as transient pulses in logic or support circuitry, or as bitflips in memory cells or registers. 91
- 92. Destructive SEEs • Severaltypes of hard errors, potentially destructive, can appear: • Single Event Latchup (SEL) results in a high operating current, above device specifications, and must be cleared by a power reset. • Other hard errors include Burnout of power MOSFETS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field- Effect Transistor) , Gate Rupture, frozen bits, and noise in CCD (Charge-Coupled Device)s. 92 Note: anomalies during the March 2012 SWx events: SEEs dominate Quite a few NASA spacecraft experienced anomalies, majority of which are SEEs. Some of them required reset/reboot.
- 93. Internal Charging - energeticelectrons in the outer radiation belt CIR HSS geomagnetic storm CME geomagnetic storms
- 94. Van Allen Probes SpaceEnvironment Hazards (different types of charging) for Spacecraft in the near-Earth environment 0 200 400 600 HEO-2 Charging Events L ~ Equatorial Radial Distance (RE) HEO GPS GEO 0 50 100 150 200 250 CRRES MEP-SEU Anomalies 0 CRRES VTCW Anomalies Inner Belt Slot Outer Belt 5 10 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SEUs Internal Charging Surface Charging (Dose behind 82.5 mils Al) • Single Event Effects tend to occur in the inner (proton) belt and at higher L shells when a solar particle event is in progress. • Internal electrostatic discharges (ESD) occur over a broad range of L values corresponding to the outer belt, where penetrating electron fluxes are high (300 keV – few MeV electrons) • Surface ESD tends to occur when the spacecraft or surface potential is elevated: at 2000-0800 local time in the plasma sheet and in regions of intense field-aligned currents (auroral zone) (few eV – 50 keV) - plasma sheet, ring current, aurora zone, magnetosheath • Event Total Dose occurs primarily in orbits that rarely see trapped protons in the 1-20 MeV range (e.g., GEO, GPS) because these are the orbits for which solar particle events and transient belts make up a majority of the proton dose (including displacement damage) Plasma Sheet Courtesy: Paul O’Brien
- 95. Total Dose Effects •Total Ionizing Dose (TID) – cumulative damage resulting from ionization (electron-hole pair formation) causing • Threshold voltage shifts • Timing skews • Leakage currents • Displacement Damage Dose (DDD) – cumulative damage resulting from displacement of atoms in semiconductor lattice structure causing: • Carrier lifetime shortening • Mobility degradation 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 Total Dose [krad(Si)] Voltage During Erase Function Failed to erase Solar Array Degradation 128 Mb Samsung Flash Memory DDD can also be referred to in the context of Non-Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) CREDIT: NRL & JPL Messenger, S. R., Summers, G. P., Burke, E. A., Walters, R. J. and Xapsos, M. A. (2001), Modeling solar cell degradation in space: A comparison of the NRL displacement damage dose and the JPL equivalent fluence approaches. Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., 9: 103– 121. doi: 10.1002/pip.357
- 96. Human Safety inSpace • GCR • SEP Johnson Space Center/Space Radiation Analysis Group (SRAG) Limit: the > 100 MeV flux exceeding 1pfu (1 pfu = 1 particle flux unit= 1/cm^2/sec/sr) • All clear (EVA –extravehicular activity) 96
- 97.
- 98. What is outthere? Mankind has always looked up at the moon and stars and wondered about life in the universe. “The first of these factors is the compelling urge of man to explore and to discover, the thrust of curiosity that leads men to try to go where no one has gone before. Most of the surface of the earth has now been explored and men now turn on the exploration of outer space as their next objective.” – Introduction to Outer Space, pamphlet produced in an effort to garner support for a national space program in the wake of the Sputnik flight.
- 100. What allows usto explore space? A combination of characteristics of our solar system and human accommodations. Characteristics of our solar system • Gravity • Slingshot effect • Atmosphere • Distances Human accommodations • Protective suits • Pressure • Temperature • Effects of microgravity • Air systems • Food supply • Waste management
- 101.
- 102. Why can’t webreathe in space? Earth’s atmosphere has pressure that allows water to exist in liquid form, protects us against harmful radiation from the sun, and allows us to breathe due to nitrogen/oxygen content. Since space is essentially a vacuum, there is no air at all. The density of oxygen in space is so miniscule that oxygen can be barely detected even with our most sensitive detectors. Due to this, astronauts are equipped with air systems when they leave their spacecraft.
- 103. • Distance ofEarth from Sun: ~93,000,000 miles • Distance of Moon from Earth: ~239,000 miles The universe is so large that our units of measurement are too small to measure it. • Because of this, we define astronomical unit (AU) as the distance between the Earth and the Sun. • 1 AU = ~93,000,000 miles • Light years are also a measure of distance, most often used to express distances to stars. • 1 light year = ~63,000 AU • Nearest star is about 4.25 light years from Earth.
- 104. Manned exploration ispossible due to satellites and probes. Before man was sent to space, satellites and probes were launched into space to collect information such as temperature, radiation, objects in space, pictures, gravity fields, and atmospheric density. Probes also expose material from the earth to the conditions of space, allowing scientists to observe the effects of space on that material.
- 105. Probes escape thegravitational pull of planets by the slingshot effect. Voyager 1 is the farthest probe from Earth, at a distance of ~125 AU as of July 2013. • The slingshot effect acts as a gravitational assist by using energy from gravitational fields of planets or moons to change the speed or shape of a spacecraft’s orbit. • Passing by planets can result in the spacecraft being accelerated, without firing any thrusters to save fuel during missions. Voyager 1 & 2 Trajector ies
- 106. What allows usto remain in orbit around Earth? Just as gravity allows the moon to orbit around Earth, a spacecraft takes advantage of this same phenomenon to stay in orbit around the Earth. In space, the effects of gravity are greatly reduced. NASA calls this condition microgravity.
- 107. What are spaceshuttles? A space shuttle is a reusable spacecraft. A space shuttle carries a crew and equipment into space, returns to Earth, and then is reused for the same purpose. Most shuttle missions last an average of nine days.
- 108. What are spacestations? • The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint effort between multiple agencies consisting of US, Russia, Japan, Canada, Brazil, and Europe. • A space station allows long-term observations and experiments to be carried out in space. Space shuttles are used to take people and supplies from Earth to the space station. Most astronauts stay on the space station for four to six months.
- 109. How do shuttlesleave the ground? The Space Shuttle consists of 3 main components; the Orbiter, a large External Tank, and two Solid Rocket Boosters. The External Tank contains a little over 500,000 gallons of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, which is used as fuel. With the aid of the Solid Rocket Boosters, the External Tank pushes the shuttle off of the Earth and into low Earth orbit. Low Earth orbit is anywhere from 99 to 1,200 miles above Earth. http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=OnoNITE-CLc
- 110. Mission control playscritical role in keeping astronauts safe and helping them complete tasks during spacewalks. America’s human space program is managed by a facility in the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. • Teams of experienced engineers and technicians monitor systems and activities aboard spacecraft 24 hours a day during missions from long before lift-off and during touchdown. • Teams are in charge of tracking the spacecraft, calculating maneuvers, telling astronauts what time to burn, telling astronauts what to do and where to go, etc.
- 111.
- 112. What is anastronaut? A person trained to be part of a spacecraft crew.
- 113. What are spacewalks? An activity in which an astronaut moves around and does work outside of the spacecraft while in space. Spacewalks are also referred to as extravehicular activity (EVA).
- 114. Why do astronautsgo on spacewalks? • Astronauts can do science experiments on a spacewalk. Experiments can be placed on the outside of the spacecraft. This lets scientists learn how being in space affects different things. • Spacewalks also let astronauts test new equipment. They can repair satellites or spacecraft that are in space. By going on spacewalks, astronauts can fix things instead of bringing them back to Earth to get fixed.
- 115. Space suits protectastronauts during space walks. Outer space is an extremely hostile place. Without a suit, you face the following hazards: • Become unconscious due to lack of oxygen. • Blood and bodily fluids could boil and then freeze due to lack of pressure. • Tissues would expand due to boiling fluids. • Extreme changes in temperature. • Exposure to various types of radiation. • Hit by meteoroids or orbiting debris. Space Suits
- 116. What are spacesuits? A complex system of garments that allow astronauts to work safely outside their spacecraft by: • Regulate pressure, temperature, and the effects of microgravity • Maintain oxygen through air systems • Protect from meteoroids, debris, and radiation • Allow sight and easy mobility • Keep communication with space shuttle
- 117. • Suits lookinflated because they are pressurized to keep the fluids in an astronauts’ body in a liquid state. Space suits operate below the normal atmospheric pressure. • Suits provide a pure oxygen atmosphere for breathing because the low pressure would cause dangerously low oxygen concentrations in the lungs and blood if normal air is used. • In the confined space of the suit, carbon dioxide concentrations would build up to deadly levels. Therefore, space suits contain special canisters to remove carbon dioxide.
- 118. • Temperature ofthe space suit is regulated by heavy insulation with layers of multiple fabric in conjunction with reflective outer layers to reflect sunlight. Heat produced from an astronaut’s body can be dangerous if it is not removed. Excess heat is removed by using water- cooled garments. • Communication with ground controllers and other astronauts is maintained by radio transmitters/receivers.
- 119. • Astronauts areprotected from collisions with micrometeoroids due to multiple layers of durable fabrics such as Kevlar. • Astronauts are protected from radiation by reflective coatings built into the suits. However, suits are not protection against a solar flare and, thus, spacewalks are planned during periods of low solar activity. • Helmets are made of clear, durable plastic that can reflect sunlight. Tinted visors are also used to reduce glare. Prior to a spacewalk, the inside faceplates of the helmet are sprayed with an anti-fog chemical. Helmets also have mounted lights and cameras. • Space suits are equipped with special joints for easy mobility. Micrometeoroid Impact!
- 120.
- 121. There are manytypes of spacesuits that have been used in the past by astronauts. Let’s look at America’s Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) currently in use.
- 122. Modern EMU 13 layersof material including an inner cooling garment, pressure garment, thermal micrometeoroid garment, and outer cover.
- 123. Modern EMU Multiple parts work togetherto protect the astronaut from the hazards of space.
- 124. Special systems aid astronautsin spacewalk. The Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), a astronaut propulsion unit, was used in 1984 to retrieve faulty communications satellites. • Fits over life-support system backpack. • Astronaut used fingertips to manipulate hand controllers at the ends of the MMU’s two arms. • Deemed as too risky for further use.
- 125. MMU’s successor The SimplifiedAid for EVA Rescue (SAFER) is a small propulsive backpack system intended for emergency use only. • Means of self rescue should an astronaut become untethered during a spacewalk. • Worn by every crew member using an EMU.
- 126.
- 127. Multiple robotic systemsaid astronauts in maintaining space craft. The Mobile Servicing System (MSS) also known as the Canadarm2 is a robotic system equipped on the ISS. • Launched to the ISS in 2001 is a robotic ‘arm’ that can be used to grasp and manipulate objects in space. • It played a key role in space station assembly and maintenance. • Can move equipment and supplies around and support astronauts working in space.
- 128.
- 129. Food • Need toensure that there is plenty of food. • Some foods can be eaten in their natural form, while others require adding water. • A supplementary food supply pantry exists. • Additional pantry items can be flown to the astronauts incase the flight is unexpectedly extended.
- 130. Early Space Food •Early space food consisted of bite-sized cubes, freeze-dried powders, and semi-liquids packaged in aluminum tubes. • This early space food was unappetizing and most astronauts disliked squeezing the tubes. • Freeze-dried foods were hard to rehydrate and crumbs had to be prevented from fouling up instruments.
- 131. Current Space Food •Astronauts sample a variety of foods and beverages months before launch. • Astronauts can choose individual meal plans. • Most of the food astronauts eat can be commercially found on grocery store shelves. • Nutritionists ensure the food contain a balanced supply of vitamins and minerals. • Astronauts eat three meals a day plus snacks. • Salt and pepper are available but only in liquid form. • Types of food available include rehydratable, thermostabilized, irradiated, and natural food items.
- 132.
- 133. Beverages • Come inpowdered form. • Include coffee, tea, apple cider, orange juice, and lemonade. • Add a straw after adding water to drink the beverage or…
- 134. Food Packaging andStorage • Space food comes in packages that must be disposed in a trash compactor after finished eating. • Food packaging is designed to be flexible and easy to use to minimize space when storing or disposing. • Foil is used to a longer product shelf life. • Velcro on the bottom of food packaging attaches to the meal tray. • All food is precooked or processed so it requires no refrigeration except for any fresh fruit or vegetables. • Meals are stowed in lockers with food packages arranged in the order they will be used.
- 135. Proper nutrition playsa critical role in space exploration. • Sodium and vitamin D influence bone density. • Sodium (Na) is limited because too much can lead to bone loss. • Astronauts have limited sunlight exposure since the spacecraft is shielded to protect astronauts from harmful radiation. Since the body is not able to make vitamin D without sunlight, vitamin D supplements are taken to maintain healthy bones. The nutrients astronauts need in space are the same ones we need but in on Earth, but in different amounts.
- 136. Proper nutrition playsa critical role in space exploration. The nutrients astronauts need in space are the same ones we need but in on Earth, but in different amounts. • Less iron (Fe)! – Astronauts have fewer red blood cells while in space. – Red blood cells use iron to help carry oxygen throughout the body. – Since the astronauts have less red blood cells, the amount of iron we need on Earth would be too much in space. – Extra iron could build up and cause health problems like liver disease or arthritis.
- 137. Why is exerciseimportant in space? If astronauts don’t exercise, their bodies start losing bone and muscle. Bone and muscle loss mean decreased size and strength. This would reduce an astronaut’s ability to do work because it makes them weak. Two and a half hours each day are devoted to fitness.
- 138. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 138 SPACEADAPTATION SYNDROME • Space Motion Sickness is experienced by 60% to 80% of space travelers during their first 2 to 3 days in microgravity. • It manifests clinically with symptoms similar to other forms of motion sickness, such as malaise, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting, and is a part of a largerconstellation of symptoms, known as Space Adaptation Syndrome. • which also includes facial stuffiness from headward shifts of fluids, headaches, and back pain. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain space motion sickness: the fluid shift hypothesis and the sensory conflict hypothesis
- 139. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 139 SPACEADAPTATION SYNDROME
- 140. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 140 SPACEADAPTATION SYNDROME
- 141. 11/20/2024 SIST-AERO 141 Journeyto space
- 142. The weightless environmentin space crafts become challenging for waste management. • The collection and retention of liquid and solid waste is directed by the use of air flow. • Solid waste is dried, sealed in a bag, and stored onboard in a trash compactor until landing. • Liquid waste is released into space or recycled through a special water treatment plant and turned back into drinking water.
- 143.
- 144. Animals in Space •To test the survivability of spaceflight animals were sent to space before humans. • These experiments proved that living passengers could survive being launched into orbit and endure weightlessness. • These animals were space pathfinders for the mutual benefit of man and animals, paving the way for human spaceflight. Miss Baker, a squirrel monkey was one of the first animals launched into the space to be recovered alive. Laika, a Soviet space dog, was the first animal in space aboard Sputnik 2 in 1957. Laika’s monument in Moscow.
- 146.
- 147.
- 148.
Editor's Notes
- #11 Figure 1.4: Measurements of CO2 in parts per million (ppm) at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. Higher readings occur in winter when plants die and release CO2 to the atmosphere. Lower readings occur in summer when more abundant vegetation absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere. The solid line is the average yearly value. Notice that the concentration of CO2 has increased by more than 20 percent since 1958.
- #15 Write “Condensation” on the board: The changing of water vapor to liquid water Write “evaporation” on the board : The process of liquid water becoming a gas Water Vapor is extremely important in our atmosphere. Not only does it form it precip, Also releases large amounts of heat – called latent heat when it changes from vapro to liquid water or ice. Latent hear is an important source of atmospheric energy especially for thunderstorms and hurricanes. Also is one of our greenhouse gases – absorbs a portion of the earth’s outgoing radiant energy thus playing big role in the earth’s energy balance
- #16 Aerosols are beneficial…act as surfaces on which water vapor condenses to form clouds…hygroscopic nuclei Pollutants are nuisances and health hazards….acid rain results from pollutants and can kill our pines, turn our lakes acidic and can even corrode metal surfaces.
- #24 So far, we have seen that both air pressure and air density decrease with height above the earth Air temperature has a more complicated vertical profile. Look at this diagram, notice that air temp normally decreases from the surface up to about 11 km (36,000 ft) or 7 mi. This decrease in air temp with increasing height is due mainly to the fact that the sunlight warms the earth’s surface and the surface then warms the air above it. The rate at which air temp decreases with height is called Lapse Rate. The standard lapse rate is about 3.6F per 1000 ft of rise. Note this is only an average and is not always the case. There are times when air temperature actually increases with height. This condition is known as a temperature inversion. We use radiosondes to measure the day to day changes in the lapse rate.
- #25 So far, we have seen that both air pressure and air density decrease with height above the earth Air temperature has a more complicated vertical profile. Look at this diagram, notice that air temp normally decreases from the surface up to about 11 km (36,000 ft) or 7 mi. This decrease in air temp with increasing height is due mainly to the fact that the sunlight warms the earth’s surface and the surface then warms the air above it. The rate at which air temp decreases with height is called Lapse Rate. The standard lapse rate is about 3.6F per 1000 ft of rise. Note this is only an average and is not always the case. There are times when air temperature actually increases with height. This condition is known as a temperature inversion. We use radiosondes to measure the day to day changes in the lapse rate.
- #27 So far, we have seen that both air pressure and air density decrease with height above the earth Air temperature has a more complicated vertical profile. Look at this diagram, notice that air temp normally decreases from the surface up to about 11 km (36,000 ft) or 7 mi. This decrease in air temp with increasing height is due mainly to the fact that the sunlight warms the earth’s surface and the surface then warms the air above it. The rate at which air temp decreases with height is called Lapse Rate. The standard lapse rate is about 3.6F per 1000 ft of rise. Note this is only an average and is not always the case. There are times when air temperature actually increases with height. This condition is known as a temperature inversion. We use radiosondes to measure the day to day changes in the lapse rate.
- #28 So far, we have seen that both air pressure and air density decrease with height above the earth Air temperature has a more complicated vertical profile. Look at this diagram, notice that air temp normally decreases from the surface up to about 11 km (36,000 ft) or 7 mi. This decrease in air temp with increasing height is due mainly to the fact that the sunlight warms the earth’s surface and the surface then warms the air above it. The rate at which air temp decreases with height is called Lapse Rate. The standard lapse rate is about 3.6F per 1000 ft of rise. Note this is only an average and is not always the case. There are times when air temperature actually increases with height. This condition is known as a temperature inversion. We use radiosondes to measure the day to day changes in the lapse rate.
- #29 So far, we have seen that both air pressure and air density decrease with height above the earth Air temperature has a more complicated vertical profile. Look at this diagram, notice that air temp normally decreases from the surface up to about 11 km (36,000 ft) or 7 mi. This decrease in air temp with increasing height is due mainly to the fact that the sunlight warms the earth’s surface and the surface then warms the air above it. The rate at which air temp decreases with height is called Lapse Rate. The standard lapse rate is about 3.6F per 1000 ft of rise. Note this is only an average and is not always the case. There are times when air temperature actually increases with height. This condition is known as a temperature inversion. We use radiosondes to measure the day to day changes in the lapse rate.
- #32 Discuss Air density Air density – number of air molecules in a given space Air density greatest at surface and decreases with altitude Air pressure – the amount of force exerted ove an area of suface (atmospheric pressure) As altitude increases, there are fewer molecules above us and thus Atmospheric pressure always decreases with height!!!
- #33 This igure shows how rapidly air pressure decreases with height. Near sea level, atmospsheric presssure decreases rapidly, whereas at high levels it decreases more slowly. At about 3.5 mi up air pressure is approx. 500 mb or about ½ of sea level pressure This means that if you were at about 18,000 feet above the surface you would be above one half of all the molecules in the atmosphere. The top of Mt Everest (29,000 ft) has a pressure of about 300 mb. The summit of the mountain is above about 70% of all the molecules in the atmosphere. If you go up to about 50 km (about 164,000 ft) the air pressure is about 1 mb which means that 99.9 % of all molecules are below this level.
- #48 https://explorer1.jpl.nasa.gov/galleries/videos/svs/ https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/index.html
- #52 https://gisgeography.com/geosynchronous-geostationary-orbits/
- #57 ERG: exploration of Energization and Radiation in Geospace.
- #58 http://mms.space.swri.edu/mission-2.html
- #71 Additional reading material
- #89 Z=92 Uranium
- #94 Not the main slide, for further reading and understanding
- #95 Messenger, S. R., Summers, G. P., Burke, E. A., Walters, R. J. and Xapsos, M. A. (2001), Modeling solar cell degradation in space: A comparison of the NRL displacement damage dose and the JPL equivalent fluence approaches. Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., 9: 103–121. doi: 10.1002/pip.357
- #97 7.9B identifying the accommodations, considering the characteristics of our solar system, that enabled manned space exploration
- #105 YouTube clip 1:18 of Voyager 1 and 2’s Trajectories
- #106 Vacuum - A volume of space mostly empty of matter such as oxygen to breathe
- #115 Space Suits – YouTube clip 5:16
- #125 YouTube clip of the trailer for the 2013 film Gravity is hyperlinked to the word “untethered” above. 1:30 minutes The premise of the movie is an astronaut becomes adrift in space.
- #135 Na is the chemical symbol for sodium on the periodic table of elements. We get sodium when we eat salt!
- #136 Fe is the chemical symbol for iron on the periodic table of elements.
- #142 Weightless environment – no force acting on astronauts