Basic Forces of Nature or Interactions
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The document discusses the four fundamental interactions in nature: 1) Gravity, which depends on mass and distance and is always attractive. Its carrier is the graviton. 2) Electromagnetism, formulated by Coulomb, Faraday, and Maxwell. It provides a repulsive or attractive force between charges. All chemical and biological reactions are controlled by it. 3) The strong force, which binds nucleons in the nucleus against electromagnetic repulsion. It is charge independent and has a short range mediated by pions and gluons. 4) The weak force, which has an extremely short range and is responsible for radioactive decay processes involving beta particles. Its carrier bosons are the W and Z bosons.
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Coulomb's law describes the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between electric charges. It states that the force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The law was first published by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in 1784 and is analogous to Newton's inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Coulomb's law has been extensively tested and all observations have upheld its fundamental principle.
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Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter and can be created by heating or applying electromagnetic fields to a gas. A plasma is a quasineutral gas containing balanced numbers of charged particles that interact collectively. Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe, found in stars and diffuse interstellar gas. While only about 1% of the visible universe contains plasma, 99% of all observable matter in the universe is estimated to be in plasma state. Some key applications of plasma include propulsion, astrophysics, fusion power research, and gas discharges.
Zeeman and Stark Effect
Pieter Zeeman was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect in 1896. The Zeeman effect is the splitting of spectral lines into multiple components when in the presence of a magnetic field. Zeeman observed that each emission line from a light source split into several lines when under the influence of a magnetic field. This splitting, known as the Zeeman effect, demonstrated that atomic energy levels are affected by magnetic fields.
Electric charges and fields
COMPARING ELECTROSTATIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES.
Electrostatic forces gravitational force. Electrostatic is the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges at rest while the gravitational force is the force of attraction between two bodies by virtue of their masses. masses.
https://bdslearningapp.blogspot.com/2020/09/electric-charges-and-fields_10.html
Nuclear force
The document discusses the four fundamental forces: gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, and weak. It summarizes that the nuclear force was discovered after neutrons were discovered in 1932, and holds nucleons together in the nucleus. The nuclear force is charge independent, very strong but short range, repulsive at short distances, and acts through the exchange of pions between nucleons. The document provides details on the Yukawa potential and uncertainty principle as they relate to the nuclear force. It poses a multiple choice question about identifying an incorrect statement regarding the nuclear force.
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
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💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
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Basic Forces of Nature or Interactions
- 2. Gravity. Electromagnetism. The strong force The weak force.
- 3. This was the first interaction known to humans. First law of gravitation was formulated in 1666 by Newton. The gravitational force is mainly responsible for keeping heavenly bodies like moon, planets, stars, etc. In their orbits. This force depends upon the masses of the two objects and the distance between them. It is always attractive and its range is infinite. GN is gravitational constant=6.66×10–11 Nm2/kg2
- 4. This interaction is universal, every particle, is subject to the gravitational force. The carrier of gravitational interactions is supposed to be a graviton. The mass of graviton is zero and thus it travels with velocity which is equal to that of the light.This interaction is extremely small for elementary particles, and hence is usually neglected.
- 5. The theory of electromagnetism was formulated on the great experimental works, started with appearance of Coulomb law of electrostatics in 1776. Later due to the works of Faraday and Maxwell, a proper field theory of electromagnetic forces was finalized around 1860.
- 6. Electromagnetic Theory covers the basic principles of electromagnetism: electrostatics, magnetic fields of steady currents, motional e.m.f. and electromagnetic induction, Maxwell's equations, propagation and radiation of electromagnetic waves, electric and magnetic properties of matter, and conservation laws.
- 7. The electromagnetic interaction provides a force between two charges, which is repulsive, If thetwo charges are similar, and attractive, if the charges are opposite. All the chemical and biological reactions are basically controlled by the electromagnetic interactions. This interaction is also responsible for formation of electron–positron pair from g-rays, and vice versa. This interaction also plays a role in nuclear structure through the mutual repulsion between protons. It causes several electromagnetic decays like decay of neutral pion into two photons.
- 8. The characteristic interaction time of electromagnetic interactions is 10–16s. The carrier of this interaction is photon with rest mass zero
- 9. Strong interactions hold several nucleons together in a nucleus against the electromagnetic repulsion of the protons. Strong force is charge independent, i.e. it is the same between p–p, n–n and p–n. The range of the strong interactions is about 10–15m and the interaction time is about 10–23s. This is roughly the time taken by light to travel across a proton. In 1935, Yukawa explained this force at nuclear level through the exchange of particles called pions.
- 10. The strength of electromagnetic interactions is about a one thousandth part (10–3) of the strong interactions. Strong interactions are responsible for α- decay, nuclear reactions, production of hadrons Strong interactions occur at the quark level through exchange of gluons carrying spin 1 and massless.
- 11. Weak interactions are unique in that they do not form any bound system, and only show through decay of the elementary particles. For instance, weak interaction is always responsible for all radioactive decays in which β-particle (e– or e+) are involved. The range of weak interactions is very small 10–18 m, which is about 0.1% of the diameter of a proton.