This document discusses national integration in Nigeria. It outlines several policies and programs that Nigerian governments have implemented to promote national integration since independence, such as adopting federalism, creating new states, and establishing the Land Use Decree. However, Nigeria's unity remains threatened by socio-cultural, religious, and political divisions between its many ethnic groups. The document argues that achieving true national integration requires overcoming challenges like ethnicity, corruption, weak institutions, and an ineffective political leadership. It concludes that national integration will only be realized through open dialogue and consensus between Nigeria's diverse ethnicities on the future of their country.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Indonesian Multiculturalism: Risks and ChallengesIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT. Indonesia is a multicultural country with full diversity. Indonesia consists of diverse culture, local language, race, ethnicity, religion and beliefs, etc. There are risks and challenges of diversity in Indonesia. Therefore, such diversity must be managed properly to avoid problems and conflicts. Lately, it appears many of the problems of diversity in Indonesia. Conflicts among tribes, religions, beliefs and groups are frequent. Conflict occurs in the form of thought and physical. Although the conflict is normal in a multicultural society, the conflict will be a major issue if not managed properly. This article discusses the risks and challenges faced by Indonesia in managing cultural diversity.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Indonesian Multiculturalism: Risks and ChallengesIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT. Indonesia is a multicultural country with full diversity. Indonesia consists of diverse culture, local language, race, ethnicity, religion and beliefs, etc. There are risks and challenges of diversity in Indonesia. Therefore, such diversity must be managed properly to avoid problems and conflicts. Lately, it appears many of the problems of diversity in Indonesia. Conflicts among tribes, religions, beliefs and groups are frequent. Conflict occurs in the form of thought and physical. Although the conflict is normal in a multicultural society, the conflict will be a major issue if not managed properly. This article discusses the risks and challenges faced by Indonesia in managing cultural diversity.
Opas: ihmisoikeusperustainen kehitysyhteistyö
Suomen UNICEFin laatima opas kertoo tiiviisti ja käytännönläheisesti, miten kehitysyhteistyöhanke suunnitellaan ja toteutetaan ihmisoikeusperustaisesti (human rights-based approach). Opas on englanninkielinen.
Opas auttaa suomalaisia ja kumppanimaiden järjestöjä toteuttamaan työssään YK:n ihmisoikeussopimuksen ja Suomen kehityspolitiikan periaatteita.
Opas valottaa ihmisoikeusperustaisen kehitysyhteistyön erityispiirteitä, toteuttamismalleja, kohderyhmiä ja sanastoa. Käsitteitä on havainnollistettu piirroksilla ja kaavioilla.
Most of countries in the world either being ruled on the ideal principle of democracy or formally declare democratic state. Democracy has age old evolutionary process, grow roots in certain environment and conditions it also depends on the history of state formation. It is perceived that the ideal forms of democratic governance are Western countries and that's why they developed in every sense. The developing countries have far reaching task to be at that level, it have their own challenges. In the case of India, it has been governed over by British Empire from centuries like many others it also came into being as a separate state as most of third world states in post de colonization phase. So, there are many deformities exist in those states because of their state formations, the artificial construction of boundaries, the conflicting materials and the western styled democracy, inefficient governance, transitional societies, ethno centric politics instead of citizens centric. These are some relevant factors which diminishes the democratic functioning of Indian State. This paper tries to ascertain the problem and prospects of Indian democracy in the context of minority Muslim rights. Md Tabrez Alam ""Democracy and Indian Muslims as Unequal"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22959.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/social-science/22959/democracy-and-indian-muslims-as-unequal/md-tabrez-alam
This includes complete notes needed for the chapter Power Sharing included in CBSE Class X Curriculum.
The notes are prepared by topper of CBSE who scored A1 in Social Science and a 10 CGPA.
Political Science, Power Sharing, Class - 10AnjaliKaur3
In this PPT, I am discussing following topics:
Belgium and Sri Lanka
Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka
Accommodation in Sri Lanka
Why power sharing is Desirable
Forms of power sharing
Basic terms like civil war, prudential, moral
Cultural-pluralism: implications for national integration and socio-economic ...Premier Publishers
The process by which nation states are created makes them to be a conglomerate of various ethnic groups or sub-nationalities. These groups, as it were, surrender some of their sovereignty to the new state with the central objective of providing security and welfare for the people. This derives perhaps from the notion that things are better achieved within a cooperative environment. The state therefore strives to create a peaceful and conducive environment to enable it attain its objectives of sustainable development using appropriate structures. The state also ensures that its various segments live in harmony in their day-to-day interactions by establishing a consensus on norms, values and ethics of engagement. This leads to forging a ‘homogeneous’ culture which further engenders peaceful co-existence and socio-economic development of the country/state. However one cannot say this about Nigeria where ethnic rivalry has continued to undermine her developmental efforts. This paper examines the plural nature of Nigeria and concludes that rather than be an asset, the country’s cultural pluralism is a draw-back to its development. Means of harmonious co-existence geared towards national socio-economic development are suggested.
Refocusing the Social Studies Curriculum for Religious Tolerance, Unity and P...iosrjce
The state of peace and tolerance in Nigeria is gradually collapsing and the nation is gradually
disintegrating. The clamor by many eminent Nigerians for a sovereign national conference, spells doom for the
once united „giant of Africa‟. The unity and peaceful coexistence of Nigeria is under the threat of collapse by
the growing level of religious intolerance. The increase in religious conflicts has led to the loss and destruction
of many lives and properties. According to Williams (2004), religious intolerance seems to be the cause of most
wars and sufferings in the world. The on-going religious violence unleashed on many Nigerians especially in the
northern part of the country by the fundamental Islamic sects, the Jama‟atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda‟awati Wal-Jihad,
popularly known as Boko Haram‟s insurgency, mainly in northern Nigeria, has left more than 3,600 people dead
since 2009. There is an increasing need to unite the citizenry despite the odds against her peaceful coexistence.
There is need to ensure that Nigeria remains a united entity where all citizens will see themselves first as
Nigerians before seeing themselves in the light of their ethnic group or religious affiliations. Religious conflicts,
has caused a wide spread of suspicion and distrust among the various ethnic and religious groups in the country.
The increasing perception of some parts of the country as „dangerous‟ due to its restiveness, has led to
skepticism and suspicion, which inhibits cooperation (Otuenu 2011). This further confirms one of the
predictions implied in Huntington‟s (1996) thesis, that conflicts that occur on the fault lines between major
religions will run a higher risk of spreading across borders due to kinship alliances and intra-civilizations
solidarity. The inauguration of the council of Inter-religious harmony by the Federal government stands out as
one of the government‟s effort to ensure peace and stability within the adherents of the two major religions
(Christianity and Islam) in Nigeria. The Council of Inter-religious Harmony is co-headed by the president of the
Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs and the national president of the Christian Association of Nigeria. Despite
all efforts made by the government to ensure peace and stability within the country, there have been several
pockets of violent clashes among the followers of the two religious groups.
Opas: ihmisoikeusperustainen kehitysyhteistyö
Suomen UNICEFin laatima opas kertoo tiiviisti ja käytännönläheisesti, miten kehitysyhteistyöhanke suunnitellaan ja toteutetaan ihmisoikeusperustaisesti (human rights-based approach). Opas on englanninkielinen.
Opas auttaa suomalaisia ja kumppanimaiden järjestöjä toteuttamaan työssään YK:n ihmisoikeussopimuksen ja Suomen kehityspolitiikan periaatteita.
Opas valottaa ihmisoikeusperustaisen kehitysyhteistyön erityispiirteitä, toteuttamismalleja, kohderyhmiä ja sanastoa. Käsitteitä on havainnollistettu piirroksilla ja kaavioilla.
Most of countries in the world either being ruled on the ideal principle of democracy or formally declare democratic state. Democracy has age old evolutionary process, grow roots in certain environment and conditions it also depends on the history of state formation. It is perceived that the ideal forms of democratic governance are Western countries and that's why they developed in every sense. The developing countries have far reaching task to be at that level, it have their own challenges. In the case of India, it has been governed over by British Empire from centuries like many others it also came into being as a separate state as most of third world states in post de colonization phase. So, there are many deformities exist in those states because of their state formations, the artificial construction of boundaries, the conflicting materials and the western styled democracy, inefficient governance, transitional societies, ethno centric politics instead of citizens centric. These are some relevant factors which diminishes the democratic functioning of Indian State. This paper tries to ascertain the problem and prospects of Indian democracy in the context of minority Muslim rights. Md Tabrez Alam ""Democracy and Indian Muslims as Unequal"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22959.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/social-science/22959/democracy-and-indian-muslims-as-unequal/md-tabrez-alam
This includes complete notes needed for the chapter Power Sharing included in CBSE Class X Curriculum.
The notes are prepared by topper of CBSE who scored A1 in Social Science and a 10 CGPA.
Political Science, Power Sharing, Class - 10AnjaliKaur3
In this PPT, I am discussing following topics:
Belgium and Sri Lanka
Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka
Accommodation in Sri Lanka
Why power sharing is Desirable
Forms of power sharing
Basic terms like civil war, prudential, moral
Cultural-pluralism: implications for national integration and socio-economic ...Premier Publishers
The process by which nation states are created makes them to be a conglomerate of various ethnic groups or sub-nationalities. These groups, as it were, surrender some of their sovereignty to the new state with the central objective of providing security and welfare for the people. This derives perhaps from the notion that things are better achieved within a cooperative environment. The state therefore strives to create a peaceful and conducive environment to enable it attain its objectives of sustainable development using appropriate structures. The state also ensures that its various segments live in harmony in their day-to-day interactions by establishing a consensus on norms, values and ethics of engagement. This leads to forging a ‘homogeneous’ culture which further engenders peaceful co-existence and socio-economic development of the country/state. However one cannot say this about Nigeria where ethnic rivalry has continued to undermine her developmental efforts. This paper examines the plural nature of Nigeria and concludes that rather than be an asset, the country’s cultural pluralism is a draw-back to its development. Means of harmonious co-existence geared towards national socio-economic development are suggested.
Refocusing the Social Studies Curriculum for Religious Tolerance, Unity and P...iosrjce
The state of peace and tolerance in Nigeria is gradually collapsing and the nation is gradually
disintegrating. The clamor by many eminent Nigerians for a sovereign national conference, spells doom for the
once united „giant of Africa‟. The unity and peaceful coexistence of Nigeria is under the threat of collapse by
the growing level of religious intolerance. The increase in religious conflicts has led to the loss and destruction
of many lives and properties. According to Williams (2004), religious intolerance seems to be the cause of most
wars and sufferings in the world. The on-going religious violence unleashed on many Nigerians especially in the
northern part of the country by the fundamental Islamic sects, the Jama‟atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda‟awati Wal-Jihad,
popularly known as Boko Haram‟s insurgency, mainly in northern Nigeria, has left more than 3,600 people dead
since 2009. There is an increasing need to unite the citizenry despite the odds against her peaceful coexistence.
There is need to ensure that Nigeria remains a united entity where all citizens will see themselves first as
Nigerians before seeing themselves in the light of their ethnic group or religious affiliations. Religious conflicts,
has caused a wide spread of suspicion and distrust among the various ethnic and religious groups in the country.
The increasing perception of some parts of the country as „dangerous‟ due to its restiveness, has led to
skepticism and suspicion, which inhibits cooperation (Otuenu 2011). This further confirms one of the
predictions implied in Huntington‟s (1996) thesis, that conflicts that occur on the fault lines between major
religions will run a higher risk of spreading across borders due to kinship alliances and intra-civilizations
solidarity. The inauguration of the council of Inter-religious harmony by the Federal government stands out as
one of the government‟s effort to ensure peace and stability within the adherents of the two major religions
(Christianity and Islam) in Nigeria. The Council of Inter-religious Harmony is co-headed by the president of the
Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs and the national president of the Christian Association of Nigeria. Despite
all efforts made by the government to ensure peace and stability within the country, there have been several
pockets of violent clashes among the followers of the two religious groups.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
CIVIC EDUCATION AND IT’S IMPERATIVE TOWARDS NATION BUILDING: THE NIGERIAN EXA...John1Lorcan
Most countries of the world today originated as a result of the activities of colonialists and imperialists
who merged previously independent nations together for the sole reason of domination and exploitation.
Following the end of colonial era and the resulting freedom of previously colonized people, many countries
have been struggling to live together as the nation which their erstwhile colonial masters made them. This
has often resulted to conflicts and crises, the worst of it being the Rwandan genocide of 1994. Due to these
incidences, social researchers have intensified efforts in designing programs that will facilitate the very act
of nation-building/or prevent a devastating effect that may result from a failure thereof. This paper,
therefore, attempts to suggest Civic Education as one of the models that can help facilitate nation-building
project especially in countries affected by the effects of colonization. The work employed the normative
method of philosophy, while also not leaving behind the evaluative and analytical side of the method.
European Scientific Journal June 2013 edition vol.9, No.17.docxgitagrimston
European Scientific Journal June 2013 edition vol.9, No.17 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431
178
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ETHNIC
POLITICS AND ITS IMPACTS ON POST
COLONIAL GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA
Felicia H. Ayatse
Akuva, Isaac Iorhen
Department Of Political Science, Federal University,
Dutsin-Ma, Katsina State
Abstract
Nigeria party politic has been polluted by ethnic chauvinism. This
problem is one of the major qualms confronting the progress of liberal
democracy in Nigeria since 1960, to the extent that ethnic sentiment has
gradually crept in to find a place in every faced of Nigerian political activity.
Ethnic sentiment has been one of the factors responsible for most of the
inefficiencies and low productivity in Nigeria. The major focus of this paper
is to trace the historical origin, growth and development of ethnicity and the
effects it has had on post-colonial governance in Nigeria. In the findings of
this paper, it was discovered that ethnic sentiment was deliberately
introduced and propagated in the polity by the British colonial government to
realize colonial and imperialist economic and political objectives. It was also
found that since the end of colonialism in 1960, Nigeria has carried forward
the spirit of ethnicity into the post-colonial Nigeria, this vice has been
discovered to have been responsible for most of the political, administrative,
economic, social and cultural maladies in Nigeria. The data that was used to
support this argument was got from the secondary method of data
acquisition. At the concluding remark, it is suggested that, indigene-settle
phenomenon should be strong discouraged while the Federal Character
principles be genuinely implemented at the federal, state and local
government levels in other to remove the age long ethnic unrest in the
governance of Nigeria.
Keywords: The Origin, Development, Ethnic Politics, Impacts, Post-
Colonial Governance
Introduction
It has been estimated that Nigeria has as much as 350 ethnic groups
based on lingual classification. However, the “United Nations says there are
European Scientific Journal June 2013 edition vol.9, No.17 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431
179
250 ethnic groups in Nigeria many consider this as underestimated. A federal
government demographic survey in 1976 identified 394 language groups,
one estimate put it as high as 400 with the highest density of languages in
Taraba and Adamawa States” (www.thenation onlineng.net). The above
statement clearly depicts that Nigeria is multi-lingual in nature. The diverse
nature of the Nigeria state as a result of tribal differences, this therefore lays
the foundation for the exploitation of what goes on in the country. This is
further precipitated on the fact that these ethnic groups though housed in one
country, they do not have the same needs, objectives and aspirations. Based
on these ethnical inclinati ...
Corruption Political Party System and Nigerian Democracy An Historical Analys...ijtsrd
Liberal democracy all over the world is a welcome phenomenon. In every modern society the game of politics is influenced tremendously by the elite class that projects the political culture which could make or mar democracy, as a result of the activities of the political parties. The adoption of western democracy is a mixed bag of blessing and catastrophes in the body politics of the country. Today, it is difficult to reconcile Nigerian democracy with that of the advanced democratic Countries. In Nigeria, politics is regarded as a “dirty game” which scares away the down trodden people. It has been noted that the level of socio economic development in the country is significantly related to the nature of politics in vogues. Political parties are primarily aimed at primitive accumulation of wealth. Where, “the end justifies the means” . The prevailing election rigging, thuggery, corruption, fear and intimidation by security agencies as well as hate speech in the campaigns of the politicians reflect value degeneration with the attendant instability in the country’s democracy. To this send, the paper examined political parties in Nigeria An historical Perspective from 1960 – 2019 looking at the roles of political parties as they affect the consolidation of democracy in Nigeria. Three 3 theoretical frameworks were used in the study namely Social learning theory SLT , Social Disorganization theory SDT and Corruption Permissiveness theory CPT .The study noted that Nigeria’s political parties from 1960 2019 has witnessed some challenging situation like ethnicity, corruption, violence, military intervention, civil and electoral deficiencies. Based on the findings, the study recommended among others that registered political parties should not be vehicles for the articulation and implementation of ethnic, religious or regional projects and programmes and that they should remain national in scope, courage and orientation. Aristotle Isaac Jacobs | Tarabina Veronica Pamo | Abidde Kilegha Victoria "Corruption, Political Party System and Nigerian Democracy: An Historical Analysis from 1960 – 2019" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38079.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/social-science/38079/corruption-political-party-system-and-nigerian-democracy-an-historical-analysis-from-1960-– -2019/aristotle-isaac-jacobs
Nigeria is a secular state in theory, religion supremacy functions has been the expression of political identity and facts obviously in conflicts over resources, land, and political offices. Increasing clashes between religious groups, predominantly Muslim and Christian have taken the nation from what used to be peaceful coexistence to violent disharmony. For the course of this paper, region in politics is as old as the history of the Nigerian state. What is new in the current exclusion is the extent to which religion dominates national life. The myth of the secular Nigerian state that purports to separate the institutions of religion from those of the government has failed to translate into reality. Indeed, there is evidence to show that Nigeria's troublesome religious conflict, especially during election and beyond will negatively affect national development. It is against this backdrop that the paper traces the historical and contemporary issues of religion plurality in the challenge of national development, with particular attention to the security dilemma for Nigeria in the 21st century, paying attention to the growing influence of the unchecked religion in politics, and its significance to modern politics and how this accounts for increasing manners of conflict in Nigerian states. This paper therefore makes some recommendations and concludes that there cannot be any meaningful national development without proper interreligious peace and harmony.
Nation-building is about building the tangible and intangible threads that hold a political entity together and gives it a sense of purpose. It was the belief of Nigerian nationalists that federalism will foster nation building in Nigeria, but fifty-eight years down the line as an independent nation, Nigeria is still grappling with challenges of nation building. Acknowledging this as a threat to the nation continued existence this paper discusses the implication of the continued practice of skewed federalism “Nigeria Model” and it effect on the country quest to become a strong and united nation. Adopting the descriptive method of enquiry as well as Integration paradigm as analytical guide, the paper argues that though federalism is the most suitable principle for ensuring nation building in a heterogeneous country like Nigeria, the “Nigeria Model” of federalism where so much fiscal resources and responsibilities is being concentrated in the center to the detriment of the states breeds confrontation between the central government and component units, thus hamper nation building. For empirical analysis, this study makes a survey of 1500 government officials and citizens out of which 1346 questionnaires were returned. The data obtained was analyzed using Pearson Correlation which showed a significant relationship between nation building and three key variables (federal structure, citizen perception of the political structure, and interaction of the tiers of government). The paper recommends, among other things, a review of the 1999 constitution to reduce the power and responsibilities of the federal government to common services like Foreign Affairs, Currency, Immigration and Defence and granting of more responsibilities to states as well as a reintroduction of the Derivation Principle which allow states generate it revenue from the resources available in it domain and give a percentage to the central government. This will bring out ingenuity inherent in the various states and lead to healthy competition in terms of development. This proposed new federal arrangement will not only give confidence to but enhance nation building in the country.
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Towards national integration in nigeria jumping the hurdles
1. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2863 (Online)
Vol.3, No.9, 2013
75
Towards National Integration in Nigeria: Jumping the Hurdles
ONIFADE, Comfort Adenike (Corresponding author)
Department of Communication & General Studies, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Email Address: drcaonifade@yahoo.com
Imhonopi, David
Department of Sociology, College of Development Studies, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria.
Email Address: davidimhonopi@yahoo.com
Abstract
Since the inception of the Nigerian nation, Nigerian governments, past and present, have made serious efforts to
propagate policies and programmes that are geared towards national integration. Despite such well-intended and
unity-oriented programmes and policies, Nigeria’s unity has continued to be plagued and threatened by
embedded socio-cultural, religious and political dichotomies. Unless efforts are made to checkmate these
divisive tendencies towards national integration, the long expected and loudly proclaimed oneness and
indivisibility of Nigeria will remain a utopia. This paper, silhouetted against the backdrop of structural
functionalism, advocates the necessity for national integration and the factors that are militating against the much
desired national unity in Nigeria. Suggestions are made on how Nigeria can achieve national integration. This
paper believes that achieving national integration is contingent on jumping the hurdles of ethnicity, corruption, a
narcissistic political leadership, weak institutions and others. It concludes that to claim the victory for an
integrated Nigeria, the people must lead the vanguard of change and that for the continued existence of Nigeria
to be guaranteed probably for another centennial, consensual agreement must be reached by its diverse ethnic
nationalities.
Keywords: National Integration; Dichotomies; Ethnicity; Political Leadership; Nationalities.
Introduction
Nation-building or national integration has long been seen as an important focus for postcolonial African
governments. As some scholars noted, upon African decolonisation in the 1950s and 1960s, social scientists
were concerned about the need for what was then called "national integration" in societies with multiple ethnic,
religious and racial cleavages (Binder, 1964; Coleman & Rosberg, 1966; Zolberg, 1967). Bandyopadhyay &
Green (2009) have argued that this concern has been more recently resurrected by Miguel (2004), Collier (2009)
and others who have advocated for national integration as a policy to promote state building in a continent now
notorious for and rife with political instability and economic throwback.
As Ifeanacho & Nwagwu (2009) observed, Nigeria’s efforts at achieving national integration have remained
largely unrealised. In their words, the history of democratisation in Africa, in general, and Nigeria, in particular,
has remained the history of national disintegration. Thus, the integration crisis facing Nigeria is manifest in the
minority question, religious fundamentalism and conflicts, ethnic politics, indigene-settler dialectic, resource
control, youth restiveness and militancy and the clamour for a (sovereign) national conference or conversation
about the terms of the nation’s continued unification. The status quo has convulsed the productive sector, limited
the impact of government’s economic programmes on the people, threatened food insecurity, complexified social
insecurity, deepened the deterioration of physical and social infrastructures, distressed the living standards of a
vast majority of Nigerians, militated against the educational system and resulted in the ostracisation of the
generality of Nigerians and their exclusion from the political and economic space, among other glitches. The
entire social matrix in Nigeria is characterised by inter- and intra-community, inter and intra-ethnic, and inter-
and intra-religious strife. Some of these conflicts are as old as the history of the Nigerian nation.
Like India, a federal state with its pluralised ethnic, religious and cultural status, Nigeria is a deeply divided and
plural society (Ojo, 2009). Many scholars have tried to put a figure to the number of ethnic groups within the
polity at well over 250 (Attah, 1987; Onwujeogwu (1987); Kirk-Green, 1969:4; Otite, 1990; Suberu, 1998). Ojo
(2009) contends that “Nigeria has a unique problem not experienced by any state in the world past or present.
The problem is that of achieving solidarity in action and purpose in the midst of hundreds of ethnic nationalities
each exerting both centrifugal and centripetal forces on the central issue of the nation, bound in freedom, peace
and unity where justice reigns.”
Although the British colonialists and the Nigerian elite that succeeded them used ethnicity to perfect their
political strategies and notch up some socio-economic and political gains, as Emelonye & Buergenthal (2011)
observed, poverty and ineffective governance in Nigeria today have further sharpened ethnic divisions leading to
misunderstanding between ethnic and religious groups who see themselves as rivals that must be surpassed by
any means, thus hampering national integration. They add that because the Nigerian state is beginning to lose
legitimacy and authority, the fear of uncertainty has increased to the extent that citizens now resort to self-help,
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seeking security and solidarity in their own ethnic, religious or regional affiliation and identity. Thus, a new
dimension to Nigeria’s ethno-religious violence is the increasing recruitment and mobilisation of ethnic and
regional militias, vigilantes and other armed groups: the Oodua People’s Congress in Yorubaland, the Arewa
People’s Congress in the north, the Bakassi Boys in the east, the Egbesu in the south, and the emergence of a
supercilious army of terror merchants who represent contending interests to Nigeria’s detriment. The implication
of these hydra-headed conflicts is that national integration suffers, there is increasing insecurity of citizens and
property in the country, foreign investment is deterred and economic development is stymied.
This paper looks at the issue of national integration in Nigeria, highlights programmes aimed at achieving it and
examines innate challenges that frustrate the process of integration in the country. This paper contends that
achieving national integration, which also means addressing existing challenges in its path, is critical to realising
economic transformation in Nigeria and for Nigerians.
Conceptual and Theoretical Analysis
Terms used for national integration have included national cohesion, national unity, nation building or national
integration (Bandyopadhyay & Green, 2009; Ojo, 2009). According to Duverger in Ojo (2009), national
integration is “the process of unifying a society which tends to make it a harmonious city, based upon an order
its members regard as equitably harmonious.” Jacob & Tenue in Ojo (2009) describe it as “a relationship of
community among people within the same political entity… a state of mind or disposition to be cohesive, to act
together, to be committed to mutual programmes”. Defining national integration as a process, Morrison et al.
argue that it is “A process by which members of a social system (citizens for our purpose) develop linkages and
location so that the boundaries of the system persist over time and the boundaries of sub-systems become less
consequential in affecting behaviour. In this process members of the social system develop an escalating
sequence of contact, cooperation, consensus and community” (Ojo, 2009). Etzioni (1965) has argued that a
community can only be considered cohesive when it meets the following touchstones:
• It has effective control over the use of the means of violence;
• It has a centre of decision making capable of effecting the allocation of resources and rewards; and
• It is a dominant focus of political identification for a large majority of politically aware citizens.
Ojo (2009) rightly observed that these viewpoints have not answered the questions such as how would one
recognise an integrated polity? How much cohesion and which commonly accepted norms denote an integrated
political or social unit? How would an observer identify integration or is it dependent on some other
manifestations (such as conflict) to demonstrate a lack of integration? And what institutional form will an
integrated unit take? Will it be democratic or authoritarian? Would it be a centralised organisational entity with
full sovereignty or would it be a loosely federal unit? Or are institutional forms irrelevant to integration? These
are fundamental questions which may not be easily resolved in this study as doing so may mean a sharp
digression from the focus.
Without going into the convolutions of what makes an ideal definition of this concept, in this study,
national integration is seen as a process that produces an omnibus of initiatives put in place by a state, its
representatives or institutions guided by respect for the unique traditions and cultural backgrounds of ethnicities
sharing the same polity with the goal of harmonising all interests through a form of dialogue and representation
and addressing differences that may be divisive and conflictual using the instruments of fairness, justice and
equity in the sharing of resources, benefits, opportunities and responsibilities in order to guarantee stability,
longevity and prosperity of the polity as long as the inhabitants decide to remain within the polity.
A conclusion that can be drawn from this discussion so far is that national integration is made possible when
ethnicities within a political entity achieve integration by consensus, social structure and function in society
which brings about social order. This position is supported by the theory of social functionalism. As a rule, this
theory also referred to as functionalism tries to explain how the relationships among the parts of society are
created and how these parts are functional (meaning having beneficial consequences to the individual and the
society) and sometimes dysfunctional (meaning having negative consequences). It focuses on consensus, social
order, structure and function in society. Structural functionalism sees society as a complex system whose parts
work together to promote solidarity and stability; it states that social lives are guided by social structure, which
are relatively stable patterns of social behaviour (Macionis, 1997). Social structure is understood in terms of
social functions which are consequences for the operations of society. All social structure contributes to the
operation of society (Imhonopi & Urim, 2012). Terms developed in this theory include: order, structure, function
(manifest or direct functions and latent or hidden, indirect functions), and equilibrium. Structural functionalists
ask pertinent questions such as: what holds society together? And what keeps it steady? Similarly, the structural
functionalist theory pays considerable attention to the persistence of shared ideas in society. The functional
aspect in the structural-functionalist theory stresses the role played by each component part in the social system,
whereas the structural perspective suggests an image of society wherein individuals are constrained by social
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forces, social backgrounds and by group memberships.
One of the challenges to Nigeria’s national integration is the lack of consensus. And there can be no consensus
without dialogue. While some measure of social order or subdued violence has been reached in Nigeria, the
ethnicities that make up the modern Nigerian state must come to the table of negotiations to discuss the future
and destiny of the country, how they want to be governed, how resources need to be shared, what system of
government needs to bind and guide constituent units, how power is to be shared and the redefinition of
citizenship, settler and indigeneship status, and many more. Nigerians should not be under an illusion that
Nigeria is one because the presence of unity as Babawale (1991) postulated is artificial. Events unfolding remind
a careful observer of the prescient conclusion by Awolowo (1947), one of the progressive founders of the nation,
that Nigeria is not a nation but a mere geographical expression. Any attempt to disagree with this prognosis
without addressing the fundamental flaws weakening the nation-state may soon assume cataclysmic
consequences.
Is Nigeria an Accident of History or a Historical Accident?
While a historical analysis of Nigeria’s early beginnings has been clinically done by many writers and scholars, a
common trend that runs through the various narrations is the issue that Nigeria was a colonial contraption
because the present ethnicities that make up the modern Nigerian state were individually incongruent in terms of
ethnic origin, religion, cultural and lingual composition, governance orientation and national aspirations. A
marriage of these incompatible partners led to strange bedfellows who are different in every way except being
yoked together by the green-white-green coupler.
However after over 50 years of national political independence and a centennial of marriage as a country,
Nigeria still continues to grind under the weight of an impossible amalgamation that has done nothing to erase
the diversities within the ethnic nationalities that make up the federation but rather has succeeded in bringing
these differences in clear relief. As Imhonopi & Urim (2012b) pontificated, if Nigeria is to celebrate another
centennial as a united country and is to convince its citizens that this forced union of convenience for the
colonialists was not an accident of history or a marriage of unwilling partners, then genuinely convening a
national conversation for representatives of the people by the political leadership to reach a consensus on the
future of this artificial nation-state has become the be-all and end-all for the continued survival of the entity
called Nigeria. Pushing this to the national assembly, a group of elite beneficiaries of the jaundiced Nigerian
system or wishing this away as a product of dementia will further fan the smouldering embers of hate, suspicion
and disunity into a sweeping conflagration.
Existing Policies towards National Integration in Literature
Bandyopadhyay & Green (2009) in their apt treatise on national integration by African and other countries to
promote integration have identified the various nation-building policies put in place by governments of these
nations especially upon assuming independence. According to them, some of these policies included: Changing
state names like Gilbert Islands to Kiribati, Ceylon and Burma to Sri Lanka and Myanmar respectively,
Dahomey to Benin, Democratic Republic of Congo to Zaire, Gold Coast to Ghana and so on; Changing capital
cities’ names and locations; Changing national currencies; Conscription and national service; Religious and
Linguistic Homogenization; Republican and centralization policies; establishing National parties; Land
nationalization among others. These policies, ranging from the serious to the ludicrous, piloted many countries,
including African countries, in the pursuit of their nation-building agendas.
An Examination of Programmes Aimed at Promoting National Integration in Nigeria
Knowing that Nigeria is a host to unwilling and variegated partners, efforts have been put in place starting from
the colonial era to create systems, institutions and programmes of government aimed at promoting national
integration. Citing the scholarly works of Ojo (2009), Bulama (n.d.), Akpan (1990) and Ugoh & Ukpere (2012),
some of these have been identified below:
Firstly, the colonial administration in Nigeria in 1954 using the instrumentality of the Lyttleton constitution
introduced federalism into Nigeria as an integrative mechanism. The colonialists must have been swayed by the
opinion that such a system of government was necessary to preserve both integration and stability in a deeply
divided society like Nigeria. As Osaghae (1987) observed, whenever events seemed to demand that a
compromise be effected between the necessity for unity and co-operation on a wide territorial basis on one hand,
and the need to accommodate the legitimate claims of sub-national groups for self-rule on the other, “the
temptation is to proffer a catch-all management formula such as federalism.” While federalism has been
applauded as a silver bullet to the ethnicity problem in Nigeria, the skewness and perversion of this typology of
governance has frustrated the benefits it could have provided the nation.
Secondly, the creation of states and the land use decree were put in place to strengthen Nigeria’s unity.
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Immediately before the Nigerian Civil War, as a way to strengthen the reversion of the country to federalism,
General Gowon resorted to the creation of more states in a bid to keep the country united. Gowon felt the
problem confronting the operation of federalism in the three regions was that "The regions were so powerful as
to consider themselves self-sufficient and almost entirely independent. The federal government which ought to
give the lead to the whole country was relegated to the background. The people were not made to realize that the
federal government was the real government of Nigeria.” In order to strengthen the federal government, the
regions were taken to the slab of sacrifice resulting in the creation of 12 states in 1967. Subsequently, the
creation of states curtailed the domineering tendencies of the major ethnic groups and secured some measure of
autonomy for the minority groups. Members of the major ethnic groups now find themselves as minorities in
some new states, while those who have hitherto been minorities in the old states now find themselves as
majorities in some new states. As Bulama (n.d.) noted, the old regional hegemony by the three major tribes in
their respective regions is now a thing of the past. Between 1960 and 1996, creation of states within the federal
system comprised 3 regions (1960), 4 regions (1963), 12 states (1967), 19 states (1976), 21 states (1987), 30
states (1991) and since 36 states in 1996. The Land Use Decree on its part vests all land in a state in the
Governor of the state that holds the land in trust for the use and common benefit of all Nigerians. The rationale
being that the Governor can allocate land to any applicant irrespective of his or her state of origin. However, in
reality, Nigerians are discriminated against from buying certain pieces of land because of ethnic and religious
considerations.
Furthermore, the National Youth Service Corps was conceived as another policy that could help unite the
country. Created by Decree No. 24 of May 22, 1973, the National Youth service Corps sought to enhance the
interaction among the nascent educated elite in the country scattered in different parts of the country by
providing them with the opportunity of living and serving in some developmental capacities in states other than
their places of origin so they could better understand the cultures, perhaps the language and general lifestyle of
their host communities. Thus, while helping to develop different parts of Nigeria through their one-year
compulsory national service, young educated Nigerians were to also understand more about their other “brethren”
living in other parts of Nigeria, their strengths and challenges. This was to be useful for these young ones when
they assume leadership position because they would be able to proffer solutions to the challenges other Nigerians
are facing and be guided and inspired by the strengths of other Nigerians. However, the scheme has been fraught
with ethnic consideration, favoritism and cronyism in the posting of corps members, exposure of these youths to
security risks as was seen during the 2011 General Elections where many corps members of Southern descent
were butchered by some angry northern youths, corruption and misappropriation of funds. As Ojo (2009) noted,
another dimension to the problem facing the thriving of the NYSC in Nigeria is the problematic nature of
citizenship, indigeneship and settler status in Nigeria. In this sense, many Nigerian youths have experienced
more of frustration rather than integration because after serving in a particular state other than theirs, they do not
expect to get jobs where they have thanklessly undergone the NYSC programme because in many cases, they
would be tagged as non-indigenes and will be forced to go back to their states of origin to avoid being
discriminated against. Even when they are employed, it is on a contract basis.
Another nation-building policy was the Federal Character Principle initiated by the government. The aim of the
policy was to achieve the fair and effective representation of the various components of the federation in the
country’s position of power, status and influence (Ugoh & Ukpere, 2012). The federal character principle was
later enshrined in the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria with the goal to accommodate the diverse linguistic, ethnic,
religious and geographic groups in the decision-making, socio-political and economic apparatuses of the state.
The policy also aimed to foster unity, peace, equal access to state resources and promote the integration of the
less advantaged states for better improvement and good conditions of living in the country. Nevertheless, as
laudable as the policy was there was a yawning gap between intent and actual practice of the policy, thus making
it counterproductive. The policy has been criticised for introducing crass mediocrity into the public service, weak
at fighting ethnicity, cronyism and corruption and has been politicized. It is thus seen as engendering instability
rather than integration.
The movement of the Federal Capital Territory from Lagos to Abuja was seen as an integrative policy of
government to further unite Nigerians. As Bulama (n.d.) observed, tribal-related problems formed part of the
reasons that led to the choice of Abuja as the new Federal Capital Territory. According to Bulama, the
underlying tribal considerations were vividly enunciated in the Report of the Committee on the location of the
Federal Capital Territory. The report stated inter alia that:
There is no doubt that Nigeria is a federation, consisting of a large number of ethnic and
language groups with differing culture and traditions. Now, Lagos is within an area
traditionally belonging to one of the major ethnic groups, namely, the Yoruba ... In our view,
the circumstances of Nigeria demand that the capital be not situated within a city the type of
Lagos with strong connection with one of the major ethnic groups.
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In contrast, as Bulama writes, Abuja was chosen upon the following considerations that:
It is our belief that one way for forging the idea of unity of this nation is by building a capital
city which will belong to every other Nigerian, where every Nigerian will rest assured that he
has an opportunity to live in parity with every other Nigerian, and where no Nigerian will be
regarded either in law or in the facts as a "native foreigner.
As Ojo (1998) argues, both the politics and administration of the new federal capital territory have not been
helpful. The arrangement is so haphazard that the Chairman and some members of the committee that
recommended the new capital have openly lamented that the essence of the new capital has been jettisoned. The
whole essence of the concept of a new federal capital territory as a symbol of unity and nationhood has been
completely put into abeyance. In a nutshell, it appears Abuja is organised as “a revenge project” because some
northern elements see it as belonging to the north.
Another effort was the introduction of the revenue sharing formula which aimed at addressing the violence
taking place in the oil rich delta, Nigeria’s golden goose, and was a response to quell the agitation for resource
control. For instance, the 1999 constitution allocated 15% to those oil producing states via the derivation
principle. Although it is early to judge the impact the policy will have on the overall socio-economic framework
in the South-South, evidence of growth spurts is beginning to be seen in such states as Akwa Ibom, Delta and
even Bayelsa. As long as the governors of the oil rich delta states eschew kleptocracy, funds earned through
derivation could be channeled towards addressing environmental degradation, infrastructural decay and the
vicious cycle of underdevelopment in existence. Beyond increased revenue allocation, the Niger Delta
Development Corporation (NDDC) was established to initiate development strides for the region
The unifying National Policy on Tertiary Education is another factor that Akpan (1990) considers to be aimed at
national integration in Nigeria. In this sense, Akpan argues that Nigerian universities were seen to "serve as
instruments for fostering national unity". Quoting the National Policy on Education, Akpan asserted that for
universities to serve as effective instruments for cementing national unity (i) The quality of instruction in
Nigerian Universities would be improved with a view to further enhancing objectivity and tolerance; (ii)
University development would ensure a more even geographical distribution to provide a fairer spread of higher
educational facilities; (iii) Admission of students and recruitment of staff into universities and other institutions
of higher learning would be on a broad national basis; (iv) Universities would be required to develop teacher and
student exchange programmes to improve both inter-university communication and knowledge of the country; (v)
And widespread ignorance among Nigerian groups about each other and about themselves would be remedied by
instituting a compulsory first year course in the social organisation, customs, culture and history of the nations
and its peoples. The award of degrees is to be contingent upon passing this course. However, Akpan rues the
failure of higher institutions in the country, especially universities to be an integrative tool because (i) most
universities in the country have exceeded the 30% quota for the 'locality' criterion favoring individual states
where the universities are located more than other areas; (ii) universities recruit most of their students from their
immediate geo-political and cultural environments. The proportions range from 34% for the University of
Calabar to 65% for ABU Zaria. Interesting exceptions are found in the University of Ilorin, though located in the
Northern geo-political region but draws 2% of its students from the North as compared with 51% from the
South-west, and the University of Benin which though located in the Mid-West geo-political region draws
almost twice as many students from the South-east; (iii) there exists a clear distinction in the pattern of student
recruitment between the Northern and the Southern universities. The percentage of Northern students enrolled in
Southern universities is extremely low. In the East, it rarely exceeds one percent, and in the West it varies from
two to seven percent. On the contrary, the percentage of Southern students enrolled in Northern universities is
quite substantial, ranging from three percent at Bayero University, Kano, to fifty-seven at the University of Ilorin.
To make the universities an instrument of integration, more needs to be done to address challenges
Other measures taken by successive governments over the years to meet the yearning for national integration in
the country have been:
1. The introduction of the principle of National Integration by the 1979 constitution, which was a
deliberate effort to tackle the problem facing the practice of a true federalism. The constitutional
approach to national integration recognizes the diverse and plural nature of the Nigerian society. The
constitution is therefore directed towards combating what has been described as the "parochialism of
Ignorance'19 that breeds suspicion and distrust among the various ethnic groups.
2. Establishment of unity Schools run by the federal government tends to promote unity in diversity.
3. Introduction of a uniform Local Government system in Nigeria is yet another measure.
Major Hurdles towards National Integration in Nigeria
While it is easy and very tempting to blame the colonialists for all of Nigeria’s woes, history and recent events in
the country have revealed the covert selfishness, hunger for power and primitive accumulation exhibited by the
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political elite. Much worse than this, many political leaders exploit ethnicity for personal advantages.
Consequently, the first hurdle in the path of national integration in Nigeria has been a regenerative breed of
selfish and greedy political gladiators who seize power through the barrel of the gun or through stolen electoral
mandates. As they competed for power, prestige and associated benefits, the political elite in a bid to secure the
support of members of their own ethnic groups accentuate ethnic differences and demonize members of other
ethnic groups. The brutal killings of youth corps members in the North following the declaration of the results of
the presidential elections in 2011 speak volumes of the naked thirst for power and political position which brings
out the beast in political leaders.
Secondly, corruption has so permeated the entire fabric of state that the issues that cause disaffection among
ethnic nationalities in the country such as poverty, hunger, illiteracy and its attendant limited opportunities,
unemployment, marginalization, infrastructural decay, homelessness and lack of access to quality health are
products of corruption. Rather than look to the West to find solutions for corruption, Nigeria should begin to
look to the East (Asia) where capital or severe punishment is meted out on corrupt state officials. Skewed federal
system as it is being practiced in Nigeria today is another challenge for national integration. In their very
thorough study on the failure of the federal system to address the question of unity, local rule and development
in the country, Imhonopi & Urim (2012) argue that federalism as it is presently practiced in Nigeria suffers
because of lack of fiscal federalism, over-centralisation of power at the centre, laidback or non-viable states,
absence of state police, among others. More importantly, federalism in Nigeria has failed to guarantee national
integration on one hand and yet fails to guarantee local rule on the other hand. According to them, although
Nigeria does not have a better option for democracy, it cannot continue to administer the polity based on the
existing federal arrangement.
The fear of losing control by the ruling class is another issue standing in the path of national integration in
Nigeria. For many years now, the people of Nigeria have continuously canvassed for an opportunity to hold a
national conversation to address the present political configuration called Nigeria all to no avail. Building on the
scholarly work of Nnoli (1979), Ifeanacho & Nwagwu (2009) have contended that the ruling class in Nigeria
inherited a state structure and has left it without any form of modification or moderation up until now. According
to them, instead, the ruling class is preoccupied with the use of state paraphernalia for accumulating surplus
without producing this surplus. The resultant contradiction is an institutionalized myopic and visionless ethnic-
centered leadership with separatist and particularistic political outlook (Nnoli 1979). Fifthly, lack of political will
to do the right thing by the political leadership has remained one reason the country has continued to flounder in
the sea of confusion and tottering the precipice of ethnic division.
Another hurdle to realizing national integration in Nigeria is the existence of weak institutions of the state. It
seems these institutions are kept weak to feather the political and economic fortunes of the ruling class. In
Nigeria, it is criminal to be honest and honest to be criminal. Such weak, embryonic, sterile, insensitive and
amoral characteristics of state institutions have further tilted Nigeria to the precipice. Lastly, lack of fairness,
justice and equity in the country with regard to resource allocation and distribution, power sharing, enjoyment of
fundamental human rights and punishment of criminals who hide under political umbrellas or bunkers created by
the ruling classes takes the country backwards with regard to national cohesion.
Conclusion and recommendations
As Oyeyemi (2002) rightly observed, Nigeria is a multicultural society, a conglomerate of nations with different
peoples and cultures, a basket of different religions and world-views and a country with the diverse expectations
of its people. As a recipe for Nigeria’s growth and development, and by extension cohesion, he recommended
the need to recognize that none of the ethnic groups, big or small, shares a uniform dream about Nigeria. This is
because the ethnic groups’ worldviews are completely different such as their expectations from their leaders,
their notions of government, their moral standards, their perceptions and understanding of religion, their ideas of
how to live and regulate their lives and their goals and missions as ethnic nationalities. He expatiated this
viewpoint with the example that Nigeria’s heterogeneity can be seen in this wise: whereas one group would want
their children to go to school, some others would want theirs to go to the farms and mosques; while a group
could relate with men of another faith without any friction, another is odiously intolerant; while some are willing
to move /along with the twenty-first century and be a part of the world, others want to bask in the bliss of the
blind Stone Age. He admitted that although these choices are not wrong in themselves, ethnic groups must be
allowed to make their different choices, being different people with different cultures, dreams, hopes and
aspirations.
This cannot obviously happen until a consensual agreement is reached by all Nigerians on the future of the
country. By writing in the constitution the indivisibility of the country, the military drafters of that constitution
failed to respect the wishes of the Nigerian people and that sovereignty lies in and with the people. For the
country to forestall a repeat of the Arab Spring in the country, the establishment must begin to listen to the
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people and take steps to remedy years of wrongs and injustices.
In order to achieve national integration, therefore, not only must the government reel out fantastic policies and
programmes, it must begin to build enduring institutions bigger and more powerful than the leadership. The
leadership must become more accountable to the people and those members of the ruling class who fan the
embers of hate, exploitation, ethnicity, marginalization and underdevelopment must be made to face the full
wrath of the law. Corruption which has become endemic must be fought until it is either eradicated or forcibly
punished so that those who engage in it do so at their own risk. Mass mobilization of the hoi polloi is necessary
to reorient them with the right values consistent with a modern and emerging economy. Nigeria’s diversity is not
the problem, the managers of the state are. Nigerians must arise from the ashes of fear, wrongly inspired awe for
political leaders and timidity and begin to make demands on the political leadership on what they want. For
instance, the fuel subsidy strike of January 2012 sent an eruptive message to the ruling class that the people
would no longer sit idly and watch them ride the country aground. The time to question the artificiality of
Nigeria and to demand for a tinkering of this mammoth political edifice in line with the expectations of the
Nigerian people is now. To claim this victory, the people must lead this vanguard of change.
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