Materi Keynote Speaker Ikatan Keluarga Mahasiswa Pascasarjana

1. RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY IN MUSLIM SOCIETIES:
GLOBAL AND LOCAL ENCOUNTERS
Yanwar Pribadi
UIN Sultan Maulana Hasanuddin Banten
Graduate Forum
Keluarga Mahasiswa Pascasarjana (KMP)
UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta
29 November 2018

2. INTRODUCTION
• Contemporary Muslim politics is not monolithic; it is very diverse and evolving, although
its dynamics vary in many countries. Religion is a determinant of political identity, a
focus of loyalty, and a source of authority in the Muslim world (Vatikiotis, 1991, p. 36).
• One of the most continuously discussed aspects of Islam and politics in recent
international debates has been Islam’s compatibility with democracy. In fact, there has
been an effort in many countries to give “Muslim politics a civic, pluralist, and even
democratic face” (Hefner, 2005. p. 4).
• The notion has much arisen in the West in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 11
September 2001 and the subsequent U.S. and its allies’ ‘War on Terror’ (WoT) in Iraq,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, and Syria, and other countries.
• Islam, as a religion, interacts with social, political, economic, and cultural determinants
and is shaped by them. If we take politics to be about relations of power, then we should
be concerned with how Islamic discourses and traditions are mobilized in contestation
activities and in power struggles, whether involving formal political institutions or wider
societal forces and processes (Ismail, 2004, p. 163).

3. GLOBAL ENCOUNTERS
• A number of developments in Muslim-majority states since the World War II
demonstrate that all major political currents that include Islamism, authoritarianism,
fascism, secularism, liberalism, populism, and many others exist, thrive, and form
political environments. These environments are dominated by movements attempting to
transform the state and question the legitimacy of existing governments and access to
governments.
• An example of state transformation was the 1978-1979 Iranian Revolution.
• An example of questioning the legitimacy of existing governments was the assassination
of Muslim state leaders, such as Anwar al-Sadat in Egypt, Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan,
Ziaur Rahman in Bangladesh, Rashid Karami in Lebanon, and Mohammad Najibullah
in Afghanistan following turbulent political disputes, confrontations, and upheavals.
• The last and the most recent example of state transformation was when Islamism really
came to the fore when the Taliban held power from 1996 to 2001 in Afghanistan and
enforced a strict interpretation of sharia and the involvement of Al-Qaeda in numerous
attacks on civilian and military targets in various countries, including the September 11
attack in the United States and the 2002 Bali bombings in Indonesia.

4. GLOBAL ENCOUNTERS
• Those events have signified the entanglement of Muslim-majority states in dealing with the
challenges of adapting politics and governance to the requirements of Islam. The existence of
Islamic governments, radical Islamist political groups, and terrorist attacks is now irrecusable
(Brown, 2000, p. 2).
• In all over the Muslim world, the advances of political Islam and the Islamists have been aided by
the blunders of the secular modernizing post-colonial elites (Noor, 2004, pp. 750-751).
• It is true that political trends in Muslim-majority states are often violent and contradictory, due in
part to the authoritarian regimes. However, “public Islam” (“the highly diverse invocations of Islam
as ideas and practices that religious scholars, self-ascribed religious authorities, secular
intellectuals, students, workers, and many others make to civic debate and public life”) for the most
part works against violence.
• Advancing levels of education, greater ease of travel, and the rise of new communications media
throughout the Muslim-majority states have contributed to the emergence of a public sphere in
which large numbers of people want a say in political and religious issues. The result has been
challenges to authoritarianism, the fragmentation of religious and political authority, and
increasingly open discussions of issues related to the “common good” in Islam (Salvatore and
Eickelman, 2004, xi).

5. LOCAL ENCOUNTERS
• Southeast Asia has often been regarded as a region of ‘peripheral’ Islam compared to
the ‘centre’ in the Middle East despite the fact that the region has had some of the
more dynamics and also syncretic, mostly non-violent manifestations of Islamic
social and political life for centuries (Saravanamuttu, 2010, p. 3).
• In fact, the four biggest Muslim states in terms of population with over 100 million
Muslims are all located outside the Middle East: Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
and India.
• Southeast Asia has more significant diversity in cultures, customs, and historical
patterns that have traditionally militated against the emergence of a unified realm
with Theravada Buddhism, Sunni Islam, Catholicism, animism, tribal religions, as
well as Daoism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Christian
denominations, and all forms of folk’s religions (Schottmann and Camilleri, 2013, p.
5).

6. LOCAL ENCOUNTERS
• Given the fact that Indonesia is the largest Muslim-majority state in the world, it offers examples
of a Muslim politics as plural and contested as its counterparts in recently-transforming Muslim-
majority states, such as Turkey, Egypt, Tunisia, and Iran.
• Indonesia shows the articulation of Muslim politics within the context of the authoritarian (the
New Order) and democratic (the post-New Order) politics in recent years despite being frequently
overlooked in discussions of Muslim societies. The country, along with others in Southeast Asia,
such as South Korea and the Philippines, has been a ‘newcomer’ in the ‘Third Wave’ of
democratization.
• In the final years of the New Order administration (1966-1998), a powerful movement for a
democratic Muslim politics took shape. The movement succeeded in May 1998 in toppling the long-
ruling and formerly unassailable Suharto, signifying the movement’s alliance with secular Muslims
and non-Muslims.
• Since the end of the long authoritarian regime, Indonesia has implemented a vast number of
political reforms that one may arguably place it among healthy electoral democracies. What is also
remarkable was Muslims’ participation in the democracy campaign dedicated themselves to
formulating religious arguments in support of pluralism, democracy, women’s rights, and civil
society (Hefner, 2005, p. 4; Bertrand, 2010, p. 45).

7. THE MAKING OF RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY
• The religious aspects of Indonesian Muslims lead us to acknowledge that Islam in
Indonesia is, for the most part, culturally embedded in all aspects of life.
• The efforts of Indonesian Muslims to maintain and preserve their identity have
resulted in the fact that Islam is well and truly embedded in the cultural as well as
social, political, and economic terrain of Indonesia.
• The developments of everyday relationships between Islam and politics and between
state and society in Indonesia have been mixed: one the one hand they show largely
cultural characters, while on the other hand, they also demonstrate significantly
political traits.
• Many times, the religious and cultural identities of Indonesian Muslims have
accumulated in powers that have presented a culturally-political challenge for the
state in politics, especially in elections, economic and community development, and
religious affairs.

8. THE MAKING OF RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY
• Indonesia may be overlooked in the big map of world’s Muslim states. Nonetheless,
the issues in political and cultural discourses there are large. The culturally-
embedded Islam in the country has directly and indirectly affected state formation
and governance in the forms of various polemics and conflicts between the state and
society, tumultuous affairs in a number of elections, poverty, violence, and many
other things.
• In the country, Muslim politics encourages people to involve in alliances and
competitions over the interpretation of Islamic and cultural symbols, and of control
of state and public institutions.
• The alliances and competitions with definite goals to ensure the upholding of Islam
that have been constantly articulated, are common in Muslim-majority states,
although they are varied in conceptions and forms. The relationships between Islam
and politics have been highly intricate when they are transformed into public
symbols, discourses, and practices. Groups of religious elites and individuals pose
challenge to state authority in the quest for social order.

9. THE MAKING OF RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY
• In view of these socio-political developments, there have been efforts by various Muslim
organizations, such as the Indonesian chapter of Hizb ut-Tahrir (HTI) and Salafi-inspired groups,
to idealize Muslim-majority states or Muslim-majority areas, including Indonesia, to as the myth of
the Islamic state, religiously based, and defined and governed by God through political means.
• In post-New Order Indonesia, it is seen in an Islamization of politics expressed in, among other
things, the adoption of local Islamic laws in the context of democratization; the rise of political
Islam; and the growth of modern political Islamic fundamentalism that claims to (re)-create a true
Islamic society.
• The processes that have been marked by continuous debates on secular conceptions of citizenship
and that have been involved a dialectical relationship between the state and society, encourage the
continuous production of Muslim politics and thus signify the importance of Muslims to use
existing political system to reflect their political views.
• Elsewhere, the transformations of Muslim-majority states are not identical. As a result, there are
secularly-administered states, such as Turkey, Senegal, and Azerbaijan; Saudi Arabia, Iran, and
Pakistan that have incorporated Islamic law in part into their legal systems and are commonly
recognized as Islamic states; and Somalia and Bangladesh that have declared Islam to be their
state religion in their constitutions, but do not necessarily apply Islamic laws in their courts.

10. THE MAKING OF RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY
• A contemporary Indonesian experience with culture, religion, and politics may
illuminate the future socio-political trajectories of Muslim-majority states currently
undergoing similar democratic transitions—i.e. the engagement with democratic politics
experience that appears to have presented an enigma.
• On the one hand, the overall electoral support for Islamic parties has been in steady
decline since 1999 when the country became a democracy. On the other hand, there has
been an Islamization of politics as expressed in hundreds of sharia laws that have been
adopted across the country. Moreover, on the one hand, the developments of Islam in law
and politics seem to indicate that Indonesian Islam has become more rigidly
conservative or radical. On the other hand, the driving of rapid Islamic commodification
and the growth of urban middle-class Muslims have shaped a more resilient religious
culture and thinking.
• Indonesia’s more peaceful experience than that of the Middle Eastern countries in the
aftermath of the Arab Spring in negotiating and re-arranging institutionalized patterns
of political practices with populist movements claiming to represent an ummah/umat
(religious Islamic community) can become a constructive indicator in possible future
trajectories of Muslim politics.

11. CONCLUSION
• The characters of traditional Islam in Indonesia remains the driving force that has preserved Islam in
Indonesia—recently often articulated as Islam Nusantara—as a more peaceful religion unparalleled with
its counterpart in many seethed Middle Eastern, African, and South Asian parts, and has contributed to
the transformation of Indonesia’s polities from centralized authoritarian control to the decentralized
democracies that the Reformasi required.
• Despite its complex consequences, islamization and re-islamization in Muslim strongholds is not
necessarily a setback. It appears to have been a long and on-going Islamization process for centuries, and
it has actually gained public support due in part to the euphoria of democracy. Meanwhile, substantive
challenges to the state authority under the banner of Islam have yet to be realized.
• In sum, in comparison between the New Order and the post-New Order, Indonesia as a new democracy in
Asia has successfully intertwined decentralization process with the process of democratization, despite
the abundance of strong evidence that decentralization is not synonymous with the process of
democratization. It thus means that compared to the New Order, the Indonesian nation-state is arguably
stronger now.
• Although the country is called into question in terms of the quality of democracy in aspects such as the
lack of autonomous and strong civil society, the frequence of ethnic and religious violence, and the
prevalence of populism, clientelism, and corruption, Indonesia has arguably been successful in creating
good governance in the post-New Order; in realizing the mantra “bringing the government closer to the
people”; in the sense of electoral politics and decentralization; in the reinforcement of local identities; and
in the high numbers of local regulations that signify a core in decentralization.

12. THANK YOU