Neoclassicism began in the mid-18th century as a reaction against Baroque and Rococo styles. It emphasized symmetry, proportion, and classical orders inspired by ancient Greek and Roman architecture. During the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and 19th centuries, Neoclassicism influenced civic, commercial, and residential building designs in Europe and America. New building materials like iron, steel, concrete, and glass allowed for larger structures and new construction techniques. Architects blended Neoclassical styles with Gothic, Renaissance, and other historical influences to meet changing needs driven by industrialization and urbanization.

1. Introduction to Classicism
 Started in middle of 18th century
 Emphasis on
Symmentry
Proportion
lintel
NEOCLASSICISM - AFTER AD 1765
-Baroque and Rococo
-Perceived Purity
NEOCLASSICISM ART AND ARCHITECTURE - EARLY 1800’S
-Art produced in Europe & America
- its marked by “Surpass by imitation
-finest example Civic Building & Private house
ORIGIN OF NEOCLASSICALARCHITECTURE - MID 18th
CENTURY
-Transformed relationship between Man & Nature
-MID 17TH CENTURY sudden increase in mans capacity
-Second - Shift in nature of human consciousness
-Style prevailed in France , German , England
-18th century -obey the the Principles and not to copy the ancient
style
- Style derived from Architecture of Classical Greece
NEOCLASSICAL STYLE-ARCHITECTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS
-Clean, elegant lines and uncluttered appearances.
-Orders are used structurally rather than as a form of decoration.
-Columns are free-standing, supporting entablatures.
-Roof lines are generally flat and horizontal, without towers
/domes.
-Facades tend to be long and flat.
-Classical proportion maintained on the exterior of the building.
-Minimal decoration on the exterior.
NEOCLASSICALARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND
ARCHITECT : James Stuart
1750-65 -First impression

2. 1713-83 -James Stuert => compelling figures in history of British
Architecture
=> developed his influential career across
the various field like interior,
decoration ,sculpture,furnishing
1762 - The creation of the 'Greek Style' and style and its impact on
British design in the late 18th century by Stuart's
publication.
1758 - Antiquities of Athens was the first accurate record of
Classical Greek architecture and served as a principal source
book for architects and designers well into the 19th century.
- Employed Greek Doric Order as early as 1758.
Town houses - In the 18th century, rich families increasingly spent part
of the year in London .
ARCHITECT : George Dance
-Responsible for extensive urban development.
-Founder of Great Britain's Royal Academy of Arts .
-Designed Newgate Prison, London (1765), followed Neo
proportional
-Palladian theories of Robert Morris.
-The newgate completed in 1782 which has a central courtyard.
and was divided into 2 differently sized quadrants .
-This is further divided as nature of the crime committed
(between debtors and felons)
-The south wing is for the women
-George Donie's Newgate Prison is about one of the few english
Prisons which follows the architecture terrible design advocated
by French architect jacques francois blondel .
NEOCLASSICALARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE
 Neoclassicism first gained influence in Paris
 Generation of French art students trained at the French Academy in
Rome.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH NEO CLASSICAL
ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE:
Claude Perrault :
-He questioned the validity of Vitruvian proportions
-He gave his concept of “Positive beauty” and
“Arbitrary beauty

3. Abbe’De Cordemoy:
- He changed Vitruvian attributes namely utility, solidity and
beauty by his own trinity.
-First principle => correct proportioning of classical orders
-Second principle => appropriate disposition
-Third principle => introduced the notion of fitness
Cordemoy - concerned with geometrical purity and was against baroque
devices such as irregular columniation, broken pediments
and twisted columns.
He was interested - ornamentation for all design and used Astylar
masonry and orthogonal structures.
Abbe Laugier - reinterpreted Cordemoy
- classicized Gothic structures by providing:
i. Neither arches nor pilasters
ii. Nor pedastals
iii. Nor other kinds of formal articulation
iv. Interstices between columns would be as fully glazed as possible.
NEOCLASSICALARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE
1760 to 1830 - J.-G. Soufflot
1)recreated lightness spaciousness and proportion of Classical
architecture
2)tall Corinthian columns and the dome, were joined with a Gothic
type of structure
3)included the use of concealed flying buttresses and relatively
light stone vaulting
Ste-Geneviève i
1)Ste-Geneviève is a Greek cross in plan,and originally the walls
were pierced with windows in each bay between the columns.
2)Structure created a Gothic sense of openness out of the classical
columns and round-arched vaults.
3) Together these elements endowed Soufflot’s building with stark
order and light-filled spaciousness.
4)The relative lack of decorative adornment contributed greatly to
the sense of spatial clarity and austere grandeur.

4. J.F. Blondel:
- integrated the theory of Cordemoy and Soufflot.
-Opened an architecture School in 1743 .
-The teacher of the Enlightenment or Visionary architects
-Included Etinne Louis Boullee, Jacques gondoin, Pierre Patte,
Marie-Joseph Peyre, Jean-Baptiste Rondelet and
Claude Nicolas Ledoux .
-Published an ideal Church design .
NEO CLASSICISM - ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS
-The intellectual movement of the Enlightenment developed with
the rigid system of the rule known as ABSOLUTISM.
-J.F.Blondel after his opening of the architectural school in 1743,
became the master of the so called “Visionary” or Enlightment
generation of Architects.
-It included “Etinne Louis Boullee, Pierre Patte, Jacques
Gondion, and probably the most visionary of all “Claude
Nicolas Ledoux.
-In France Etinne Louis Boullee and Claude Nicolas Ledoux
developed a simple cosmic geometry for their numerous unbuilt
designs.
-Ledoux, in his two main built works, the state chemical works
of ‘La Saline and the toll gates around Paris made good use of
Tuscan style.
ENLIGHTENMENTARCHITECTS
Étienne-Louis Boullé(1728 - 1799)
=> Visionary French neoclassical architect .
=> Born in Paris,studied under Jacques-François Blondel,
German Boffrand and Jean-Laurent Legeay from whom he
learned the mainstream French Classical architecture in the
17th and 18th century and the Neoclassicism that evolved
after the mid century.
=> From 1772 –devoted his life to the projection of buildings so
vast as to preclude their realization.
=> He was elected to the Académie Royale d'Architecture in
1762 and became chief architect to Frederick II of Prussia.
=> He designed a number of private houses from 1762 to 1778.

5. Boullee – CENOTAPH 1785
- Signed for Sir Isaac Newton and ‘METROPOLE’
- Evoked the sublime emotions of terror and tranquility through
the grandeur of his conceptions.
- Adopted the unadorned geometrical purity of monumental
form and the immensity of vista to promote more exhilaration
and anxiety.
- Used the capacity of light to invoke the presence of divine.
- In Cenotaph of Sir Isaac Newton, he adopted a vast masonry
sphere.
- Used light to portray divinity.
Leodux
- Claude Ledoux was born in Dormans, France in 1736.
- Educated at a private architectural school in Paris.
- Established by J. F. Blondel, the school emphasized native
Baroque tradition but exposed students to English architecture.
- Assumed several government positions as an engineer, mainly
of bridge design.
- He did visit England, where he was influenced by the Palladian
tradition .
- BUILT PROJECTS - Palais de justice
- UNBUILT PROJECTS - La Saline, Ideal city of Chaux
Leodux - Palais de Justice
- The strict cubic block with columns and pilaster function
- The columns, pilaster and timberworks oriented at classical
models are just as characteristic of the direct early classicism.
Leodux - Ideal city of Chaux, 1804
- A rural decentralised utopia
- Scheme of the salt works was built for Louis XVI at Arc-et-
Senans in 1773 - 1779.
- Expanded this semicircular form of this complex - the
representational core of his ideal city of Chaux, published in
1804.
Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand
- He built very little but influenced a whole generation of architects,
namely Schinkel, Gartner, Klenze and Sempur.
- He reduced Boullee’s extravagant ideas to a normative and
economic typology.

6. Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841)
- Native Prussian
- most of his works were carried out in and around Berlin.
-1830, he had produced his main works:
=> The Neue Wache guard house (1816),
=> The Schauspielhaus (1812-21),
=> Humboldt’s country house (1822-1824) and the Altes
museum.
Henri Labrouste (1801-1875)
- The Ste-Genevieve library (1843-50) by Henri Labrouste.
- Another main work of Labrouste is the Bibliotheque Nationale
in Paris (1862-1868).
NEO CLASSICISM AND IT’s TYPES
- The middle of the 19th century
=> Neo-classical heritage divided:
1. The structural Classicists - tended to emphasize
structure- the line of Cordemoy, Laugier and Soufflot.
2.The romantic classicists stressed on the form-the line of
ledoux, Boullee and Gilly.
=>One school concentrated on such types as prisons, hospitals
and railway stations while the
=>Other school focused on representational structures such as the
university, museum, library and grandiose monuments.
Industrial Revolution
Period of development - latter half of the 18th century
=> Transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and
America into industrialized, urban ones.
CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: -
-At the dawn of the eighteenth century, farming was the primary
livelihood in England, with at least 75% of the population making
its living off the land.
-THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY => developed to take advantage
of the farmers' free time and use it to produce quality textiles
for a reasonable price.

7. -THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY => prepare the country for the
Industrial Revolution by boosting the English economy.
- Reduced the need for farm workers, many were forced to leave
their homes and move to the city.
-The URBANIZATION OF THE ENGLISH POPULATION w
=> moved to the city in the hopes of finding new work 1750
and 1830
IMPACT
 Goods that began to manufactured in the factory.
 More quickly and more cheaply by machinery.
 Large numbers of people moved to urban communities .
 European architecture -19th century was profoundly influenced
by the industrial revolution.
 Different types of building needed new demands.
 Railways, which affected social life, also influenced architectural
practice.
Urban transformations in Europe and America:
 Large numbers of people moved to urban communities -leading to
expansion of cities.
 In pre-industrial England, more than three-quarters of the
population lived in small villages.
 By the mid-19th century - first nation with half its population in
cities.
 Volatile growth led to the transformations of old neighborhoods
into slums.
 Settlements - congested developments and had inadequate
standards of light, ventilation and open space with poor sanitary
facilities.
 Act in addition to others, made local authorities legally
responsible for sewerage, refuse collection, water supply,
roads and the burial of the dead.
 Edwin Chadwick - first working class flats in London in 1844.
 Throughout the 19th century - industries provided all the
amenities to their workers.
TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES :
 SIR TITUS SALT’S SALTAIRE, near Bradford in Yorkshire
(1850), was a mill town => traditional urban institutions (church,
school, public baths, houses and park).

8.  THE FAMILISTERE WAS BUILT BY J.P.GODI (1859-70)
=>This complex comprised of three residential blocks, a crèche, a
kindergarten, a theatre, schools, public baths and laundry.
 THE ENGLISH PARK MOVEMENT FOUNDED BY
HUMPREY REPTON => landscaped country estate into the city.
 Repton demonstrated - architect John Nash, in their layout of
regent’s park in London (1812-27).
IN 1853 HAUSSMANN - The city of Paris built some 137kms
=>wider, more thickly lined with trees.
 By 1891, inventions like railways, electric tram, passenger lifts,
steel frames which gave rise to multi-storey buildings
 The English concentric Garden city by Ebenezer Howard.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE BUILDINGS – 19th
CENTURY
NO SINGLE STYLE WHICH IS CHARACTERISTIC OF
THE 19THCENTURY.
 Architects drew their inspiration - Greek, Roman, Gothic,
Renaissance as well as Chinese, Indian and Egyptian.
 Some buildings were designed in a single historical style
 Few others were a blend of different styles.
 A mixture of various styles within the same building .
 Neo-Gothic for churches, Neoclassical for civic buildings
 Mass produced decorative detail using the same mould.
 Other features- stained glass windows, patterned brickwork and
ceramic tiling.
 combination of modern technology and historic styles.
Industrial material of steel, glass and concrete - Introduction
Before, metals were not available in sufficient quantity or
consistent quality to be used as anything more than ornamentation. The
Industrial Revolution changed this situation dramatically. The availability
of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove
the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial
Revolution.
Industrial material – Iron and Steel
 Iron was available in three forms.
 THE LEAST PROCESSED FORM - CAST IRON
 WROUGHT IRON .
 STEEL

9. Industrial material of iron and steel
 Bridges which were required to span gorges and rivers were of three
types:
1. BRIDGE WITH A TRADITIONALARCH
2. Later, THE TRUSS BECAME THE PRIMARY
ELEMENT OF BRIDGE BUILDING.
3. A third, more attractive TYPE OF STEEL BRIDGE WAS
THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE
EARLY USE OF CAST IRON:
 The RAIL WAS THE FIRST UNIT OF CONSTRUCTION.
 Cast iron - 1779.
 WILKINSON assisted DARBY and his architect,
T.F.PRITCHARD - first cast-iron bridge, a 30.5-metre span
=> near coalbrookdale in 1779.
 In 1796 THOMAS TELFORD made his debut as a bridge builder, a
39.5 –meter span bridge erected over the severn.
 William strut’s six-storey cotton mill - 1792 and charles bage’s
flax-spinning mill erected at shrewsbury in 1796, employed cast
iron columns.
 In 1830s - EATON HODGKINSON introduced the section beam
 The CRYSTAL PALACE BY JOSEPH Paxton at the Great
Exhibition of 1851
EARLY USE OF WROUGHT IRON:
 Wrought-iron masonry reinforcement in France - origins in Paris,
in PERRAULT’S east façade of Louvre(1667) and SOUFFLOT’S
portico of Ste-Genevieve(1772).
 VICTOR LOUIS - theatre Francais of 1786 and palais-Royal of
1790.
 AMERICAN JAMES FINLAY’S - stiffened flat deck suspension
bridge in 1801.
 British wrought - BRUNEL’S CLIFTON BRIDGE (span-214-
metre), Bristol designed in 1829.
 BRITANNIA’S Tubular Bridge over the Menai straits, spanned
70m and Brunel’s salt ash viaduct (1859).
 The PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889 - Eiffel’s iron tower -
designed by Gustave Eiffel => overall height of 300 metres.

10. EARLY USE OF STEEL:
 mid-1850s - Bessemer process of making steel introduced.
 CANTILEVERED FORTH BRIDGE IN SCOTLAND, completed
in 1890.
 Its record-setting spans of 521 m (1,710 ft) were the longest in
existence until 1917.
 THE ARCHED EADS BRIDGE over the Mississippi River at St.
Louis, Missouri, designed by James Eads and completed in 1874
 Eads Bridge was built, longest structure in the United States.
 The Eads Bridge has three main spans.
=> The center span is 160 m (520 ft) long
=> Spans on either side are each 153 m (502 ft) in length.
 JOHN AND WASHINGTON ROEBLING - designed and built
BROOKLYN BRIDGE - completion in 1883, main span of 486 m
31 cm (1,595 ft 6 in).
 GEORGE FULLER'S innovative steel-cage system for buildings
 The Chicago architect LOUIS SULLIVAN, IN HIS
WAINWRIGHT BUILDING (1890-1891) in St. Louis, Missouri,
his Guaranty Building (1895) in Buffalo, New York, and his
Carson Pirie Scott Department Store (1899-1904) in Chicago
 Chicago - 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.
 Russian Constuctivist Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for a spiraling
steel monument to the Third International in 1920
EXAMPLES OF MODERN STRUCTURES OF STEEL
1. Chicago school .
The Carson Pirie Scott and Company Building - landmark
department store building at State Street and Madison, Chicago,
Illinois. Designed by Louis Sullivan, built in 1899 for the retail firm
Schlesinger & Meyer, and expanded and sold to Carson Pirie Scott in
1904 .
2. Wainwright Building
The Wainwright Building - 10-story red-brick landmark office
building in downtown Missouri. Built in 1891 and designed by Adler
and Louis Sullivan.
3. Tatlin’s Constructivist tower
Tatlin's Constructivist tower - built from industrial materials: iron,
glass and steel. The tower's main form was a twin helix which spiraled
up to 400 m in height.

11. Industrial material of Concrete
The Industrial Revolution provided another building material, a
stronger more durable and fire resistant type of cement called Portland
cement - in 1824.
Reinforced concrete emerged in Germany, the United States,
England, and France between 1870 and 1900.
USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –BUILDING EXAMPLES
 IN FRANCE, FRANCOIS COIGNET - first to use the reinforced
concrete.
 In 1861 he developed a technique for strengthening concrete with
metal mesh
 Six -storey apartment blocks in 1867.
 IN 1892 FRENCH ENGINEER FRANÇOIS HENNEBIQUE .
USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –EXAMPLES
 Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret
 This 1903 apartment building with which Perret established his
reputation is to be regarded as one of the canonical works of 20th -
century architecture.
Industrial Revolution - Concrete
Einstein Tower
"Erich Mendelsohn's small, but powerfully modeled tower, built
to symbolize the greatness of the Einsteinian concepts, was also a quite
functional house. Designed to hold Einstein's own astronomical
laboratory.
Industrial material of Glass GLASS
The invention of glass took place around 4000 years ago in the
eastern Mediterranean. Two thousand years passed between the initial
discovery and the appearance of blown glass, which led to the production
of thin transparent sheets strong enough for windows.

12. Use of Glass – Building Examples
Fontaine’s Galerie d’Orleans built in the Palais Royal in 1829
 Richard Turner and Decimus Burton’s Palm House at Kew
Gardens built in 1845 -48 - first structures to use sheet glass.
 The Crystal Palace(1851) by Joseph Paxton at the Great
Exhibition of 1851
 Gropius' Fagus Factory of 1911- first examples of a glass facade
supported by a thin steel framework
 Bruno Taut's polygonal Glashaus Pavilion for the 1914
Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne was made entirely from glass.