1. FEMINISM
Feminism is a structural conflict theory. Like Marxists, Feminists think society is based
on conflict and a struggle for control and resources. However, rather than a focus on
economic inequality, they focus on the different experiences of women and men.
Background
The campaigns for equality for women form the background to the arrival of feminism
as a sociological theory. At the beginning of the 20th
century women were campaigning
for equal rights to men in terms of education, marriage, employment and politics.
Slowly during the 20th
century more rights were achieved, particularly helped by the
roles women played during the two world wars, when they demonstrated that they
could do the “men’s work” they had not been allowed to do in peace time. Today,
although much has been achieved, women still earn on average 80% of male earnings,
and they are seriously under-represented in parliament, on boards of companies, and in
the leadership roles in many professions. It is men who still make the majority of
decisions about how society should be run.
As women became more educated, and began to move into more senior roles within the
Universities, so research began into female experience and feminist theory started to
develop. It was not all easy; in the 1960s Ann Oakley had to battle with her male
lecturers at London University to be allowed to research the experiences of full-time
mothers/housewives for her doctorate. They did not want to take her seriously.
Feminists discovered that sociology itself was constructed by men and focussed on male
experience; they called it ‘malestream’ sociology.
Feminist Theory
The following quote is from a writer who was born male but in later life had an
operation to change sex. It describes just how profound gender differences are.
“We are told that the social gap between
the sexes is narrowing but I can only
report that, having experienced life in
both roles, there seems to me no aspect
of existence, no moment of the day, no
contact, no arrangement , no response,
which is not different for men and
women. The very tone of voice in which I
was now addressed, the very posture of
the person next in the queue, the very
feel in the air when I entered a room or
sat at a restaurant table, constantly
emphasised my change of status.
James Morris Jan Morris
And if others’ responses shifted so did mine. The more I was treated as a woman, the
more woman I became. If it was assumed to be incompetent at reversing cars, or
opening bottles, oddly incompetent I found myself becoming. If a case was thought too
heavy for me, inexplicably I found it so myself. Women treated me with more frankness.

2. Men treated me more and more as a junior. I discovered that men prefer women to be
less informed, less able, less talkative and certainly less self-centred than they are
themselves, so I generally obliged them” Jan Morris
The above example is the starting point for feminist theory. Feminists argue that society
is not the same for women and men, the differences run very deep and are often very
subtle. Not only are men and women regarded differently, but throughout history
women have been regarded as secondary or inferior to men. This general assumption
about female inferiority has justified patriarchy, a society run by men that serves male
interests.
Feminists who have researched the development of ideas in society have found writings
dating back to the ancient Greeks that describe women as inferior to men. Because of
their biology, women were associated with nature; and nature was described as raw,
wild and emotional. Men were associated with culture; which was seen as civilised,
controlled and superior to nature. These associations have been used over the centuries
to justify using women as second-class citizens. Women have not had equal rights with
men in most societies. They have had less access to resources and carried out most of
the work.
Feminists are interested in how this has come about, and how it is perpetuated. They
argue that it is the result of patriarchy. Men have taken a controlling role in most
human societies. Once they were in control it suited men to develop ideas, ideologies,
that supported their dominance, and to organise society in a way that maintained their
control. Ideas about women’s nature; eg: she has maternal instincts, she is a natural
carer of the young, sick, elderly, she is not suited to aggressive competition, came to be
used by men to limit women’s experience.
Feminists argue that inequality is perpetuated through gender socialisation. In this,
feminists and Marxists have similar views about the role of socialisation in society. The
story of the ‘slaves in the mountain’ can be applied here also; except that the slaves
would be women and the guards men. When society has lived with inequality for many
centuries, both sides come to see it as ‘normal’ and may not question it. It took until
the 20th
century for enough women to question it, to really start a process of change in
society.
Ann Oakley has researched the details of gender socialisation. This process is much
deeper and more subtle that the act of giving girls dolls and boys trains, although that is
also significant. Research has shown that from the moment they are born babies are
handled differently on the basis of their gender. They are given different things, are
encouraged into different activities, are spoken to differently and observe men and
women in different roles around them. As children get older they are given very clear
messages about the differences between femininity and masculinity, differences which
are not about biology but to do with the cultural norms in different societies.
As feminism has developed so feminists have draw from the understanding offered by
other theories of the organisation of society. This has resulted in several feminist
perspectives. They all agree on the basic premise that life is different for women and
men, and women are disadvantaged compared to men, but differ in their explanations
and recommendations.

3. Marxist Feminism
In the 1970s a number of women began to draw on Marxist theory in order to explain the
oppression of women. They showed how women serve the economy by re-producing and
bringing up the labour force for no pay, and at costs to themselves, in terms of their
lack of freedom, their own personal development and often their mental health.
According to Juliet Mitchell women’s lack of power in the economic sphere is
‘explained’ in capitalist society by the supposed ‘need’ for them to be housewives.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminism is based on the analysis that patriarchy is the central issue to be faced
by feminists. Kate Millett says that female disadvantage suits the interests of men. Men
do not want to give up their power and advantages so they maintain a society that gives
inferior status to women, and defines femininity as weak and trivial. Millett believes
that women are so well socialised into this that they accept it as normal. Shulamith
Firestone argues that the core of male domination is their control of female roles in
reproduction and child rearing, which is expressed through the nuclear family, and
which make women dependent on men. She advocated the abolition of the family. Since
she was writing in the 1970s, radical feminism has moved away from wanting to abolish
the family to wanting to create equality within it. Radical feminists have focussed on
domestic violence. When she was researching domestic violence, Jan Pahl said that the
women she interviewed commented that “the mental battering was worse than the
physical battering”. Some radical feminists have concluded that women will only
experience equality when they keep their lives separate from men’s.
Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism is less of a theoretical perspective than Marxist and radical feminism,
and more of a political movement, that has grown out of the campaigns and action
groups of the 20th
century. Liberal feminism has been more likely to see gender
discrimination as a matter of individual ignorance rather than built into the structures
(the norms and values) of society. Liberal feminists, such as Ann Oakley, have focussed
on research that has revealed the discrimination and disadvantage experienced by
women, in order to raise awareness and change attitudes. In many areas they have been
very successful; for example: Oakley has done a great deal to challenge ‘male’ attitudes
towards child birth. Liberal feminists are more likely to argue that traditional gender
roles have also been limiting for men.
Black Feminism
Black feminism has developed out of dissatisfaction with other types of feminism. Black
women have been disadvantaged by patriarchy, capitalism and race, and they argue
that white feminists have not appreciated the difficulties caused to them by racial
discrimination. Rose Brewer argues that black feminist theory must seek to understand
“race, class and gender as simultaneous forces”.
The main point all Feminists make is that society is not the same for women and men,
and that gender differences need to be acknowledged.

4. CRITICISMS OF FEMINISM
1. Functionalist criticism
Functionalists do not think that patriarchy is a structural characteristics of
society. They focus on the positive aspects of men and women having different
roles in society. Talcott Parsons emphasised how the male instrumental role and
the female expressive role complemented each other, and made the nuclear
family an ideal functioning small group.
2. Interactionist criticism
Sheila Rowbotham questions the structural assumption of ‘patriarchy’ that “all
men exploit all women”. She says patriarchy can not explain genuine feelings of
love between couples and within families. The broad ideas of Marxist and radical
feminism do not seem to include the whole of female experience. She and other
feminists prefer qualitative research that explores how women feel about their
situations.
3. Postmodern criticism
The postmodern view argues that women are such a highly diverse group, that no
one can claim to speak for all women. The usefulness of terms such as ‘women’
and ‘patriarchy’ are questioned. Postmodernists have rejected the approach that
there is only one reality that can be discovered, and one theory used to
understand the social world.

5. NOW fill in the answers to the following questions:
1. What is the main focus of feminism?
2. Which two events in the 20th
century pushed forward women’s argument that
they should have equality with men?
3. On average how much to women earn compared to men?
4. What had to happen in society before feminist theory could develop?
5. What is ‘malestream’ sociology?
6. What is patriarchy?
7. How did the ancient Greeks explain female inferiority?
8. What sort of ideas contribute to patriarchal ideology?
9. What is meant by gender socialisation?
10.List the four aspects of gender socialisation identified by Ann Oakley:
A
B
C
D

6. 11. How does capitalism oppress women?
12.What does Firestone argue is the basis of female disadvantage?
13.How do men maintain their dominance according to Jan Pahl?
14. What is the focus of liberal feminism?
15.For what reason do black feminists criticise white feminists?
16. Explain three criticisms of feminism:
A
B
C

7. 11. How does capitalism oppress women?
12.What does Firestone argue is the basis of female disadvantage?
13.How do men maintain their dominance according to Jan Pahl?
14. What is the focus of liberal feminism?
15.For what reason do black feminists criticise white feminists?
16. Explain three criticisms of feminism:
A
B
C