The document discusses the history and development of the Yagi-Uda array by professors Yagi and Uda in the 1920s. It describes the basic components of a Yagi-Uda array including a driven half-wave dipole element and additional parasitic reflector and director elements that enhance its directionality. Adding more director elements increases the array's directivity and gain but requires adjusting the element spacings and lengths to control impedance and side lobes. Stacking and baying multiple arrays can further improve performance by reducing beamwidth in the vertical and horizontal planes respectively. Practical applications include television and radio reception as well as wireless telemetry systems.

1. By
Joseph P. Campbell, HNC Marine Nav. Sys. Eng.

2. Contents
1. History and Development
2. A folded ½ Wave Dipole
3. The Yagi-Uda Array: Elementary Principle
4. Effects of Additional Parasitic-Elements on
the Driven-Element’s Electrical Characteristics
5. Side-Lobes and Computer Simulation
6. Parasitic-Element Spacing and Aerial Gain
7. Yagi-Uda Arrays and Noise Temperature
continued...

3. contents…continued
8. Stacking and Baying Yagi-Uda Array
Aerials
9. Stacking-and-Baying: The Advantages
10. The Yagi-Uda Array: Its Applications
11. Yagi-Uda Array Aerial Paradigms 1 – 8
12. Synopsis
13. References 1 - 6
14. About The Author

4. History and
Development
During the early 1920’s
Professors Yagi and Uda,
based at a university in Japan,
set about researching and
developing a directional
aerial for the High Frequency
(HF), Very High Frequency
(VHF), Ultra High Frequency
(UHF) and the longer
wavelengths of the Super
High Frequency (SHF)
microwave band –
centimetric-waves*longer
than about 5cm approx... photo. 1
Professor Hidetsugu Yagi
* Centimetric-waves are waves whose wavelengths are most appropriately measured in centimetres

5. A folded ½ wave dipole
...The folded ½-wavelength dipole is
the elementary aerial that most
forms of practical commercially
made Yagi-Uda Arrays, “Yagi’ aerials”,
are based on, except for ones
designed for receiving High
Frequency (HF) band signals and
photo. 2
some two-element VHF-designs. This ½ wavelength
folded dipole will have a feed-point folded dipole
impedance of about 300Ω if not used
in a Yagi’ aerial arrangement, see
photo. 2...

6. The Yagi-Uda Array: Elementary Principle
...A half-wave dipole has minimal
directional properties. Indeed when it’s
vertically polarized it can be considered
to be a practical omnidirectional
antenna.
In order to increase its directionality
(and therefore “gain”) we can place a
parasitic-element behind it of a
specified greater length than this
`dipole, and at a specified distance from
it with the same polarization. We now
have a basic Yagi’ aerial comprising two
elements as shown in fig. 1... fig. 1

7. Addition of a “director” element
... If we just make do with a half-
wave dipole and a director -
element we won’t usually have
enough directionality for most of
the applications concerning radio
frequency (RF) and microwave -
wireless reception and
transmission. In order to mitigate
the problem it’s possible to add a
further parasitic-element, but this
time, in front of our half-wave
dipole; the `dipole being our
“driven-element” i.e. the point
where a feeder cable is connected fig. 2
to our Yagi’ aerial. See fig. 2...

8. Reflector and 1st Director-Element:
Proportional Size to the Driven-Element
fig. 3

9. Yagi’ Array Aerials: Further Principles
...The parasitic elements of the Yagi’ aerial
operate by re-radiating their signals in a
slightly different phase to that of the driven-
element. In this way the signal is reinforced
in some directions and cancelled out in
others. It’s found that the amplitude and
phase of the current that’s induced in the
parasitic-elements is dependent upon their
length and the spacing between them and
the dipole or driven-element as it’s known...

10. Yagi’ Array Aerials: Further Principles – Part 2
...Using a parasitic-element it’s not possible
to have complete control over both the
amplitude and phase of the currents in all
the elements. This means that it’s not
possible to obtain complete cancellation in
one direction. Nevertheless, it’s still possible
to obtain a high level of gain in addition to
having a high degree of cancellation in
another in order to provide a good front-to-
back ratio and front-to-rear ratio...

11. Yagi’ Array Aerials: Further Principles – Part 3
...To obtain the required phase shift an
element can be made either inductive or
capacitive. If the parasitic-element is made
inductive it is found that the induced
currents are in such a phase that they
reflect the power away from the parasitic-
element. This causes the Yagi’ aerial to
radiate more power away from it. An
element that does this is called a reflector...

12. Yagi’ Array Aerials: Further Principles – Part 4
...It can be made inductive by tuning it below
resonance. This can be done by physically adding
some inductance to the element in the form of a
coil, or more commonly, by making it longer than
the resonant length. Generally it is made about 5%
longer than the driven-element. If the parasitic-
element is made capacitive it will be found that the
induced currents are in such a phase that they direct
the power radiated by a parasitic-element in the
direction of the aerial’s remaining ones. An element
which does this is called a director...

13. Yagi’ Array Aerials: Further Principles – Part 5
...A parasitic-director element can be made capacitive
by tuning it above its resonant frequency value i.e
above resonance. This can be done by physically
adding some capacitance to the element in the form of
a capacitor, or more commonly by making it about 5%
shorter than the driven-element. It is found that the
addition of further directors increases the directivity
of the aerial, increasing the gain and reducing the
beamwidth. The addition of further directors makes
no noticeable difference above a certain number for a
Yagi’ aerial designed for a particular radio-frequency
(RF) or SHF sub-band...

14. Effects of additional parasitic elements on the
driven element’s electrical characteristics:
...With the addition of a reflector parasitic element
the impedance (Z) at the cable feedpoint of the ½
wave-dipole acting as the “driven-element” decreases.
Adding a further parasitic element, this time in front
of the driven-element and known as a “director”,
decreases this impedance further. In fact, the greater
the number of parasitic-directors placed in front of
the driven-element, the smaller the value of Z at the
Yagi’ aerial’s feed-point...

15. Effects of additional parasitic elements...continued
...This phenomenon has implications concerning the
correct Z-matching to the 50Ω or 75Ω coaxial feeder-
cable that the aerial at issue is connected to. In order to
circumvent this problem the driven-element is a “folded”
½-wavelength dipole. Such a `dipole on its own has a
feedpoint Z of about 300Ω; the addition of parasitic-
elements brings this Z value down to approximately the
value of the coaxial-feeder that’s appropriate for the
receiving or transmission-system in question. The spacing
distance between the driven-element and the parasitic-
elements will also affect the value of impedance at the ½-
wave’ dipole’s feed-point ...

16. Half-Wave Dipole, 2-Element and 3-Element
Yagi-Uda Arrays (all horizontally polarized);
directional characteristics, i.e. “radiation plots”:
fig. 4 fig. 5 fig. 6
Half-wave dipole 2-Element Yagi’ aerial 3-Element Yagi’ aerial...
(horizontally polarized)

17. Side-Lobes and
Computer Simulation
... Depending on the spacing
of the parasitic-reflector
and director elements a
Yagi’ aerial will display side
lobes to a greater or lesser
extent. The spacing
distance will also determine
the “front-to-back ratio”
and therefore the size and A radiation plot that has been output from a computer
fig. 7
number of rear-lobes aerial design and simulation software application for a
2 meter (VHF amateur RF allocation) 9-element Yagi-
present at the aerial... Uda Array’ with a gain of 16.3 dBi

18. Sidelobes and Computer Simulation...continued
A home-made –“home-brewed” in amateur-wireless
parlance – Yagi’ aerial will nearly always display a
greater number of side-lobes – and ones that are more
pronounced – than an aerial for the same frequency
allocation which is commercially made, photo. 3 – top
of chimney stack...
photo. 3

19. Sidelobes and Computer Simulation...continued (2)
...manufacturers have access to state-of-the-art aerial
design simulation PC software applications that outputs
the optimal parasitic element spacings for a Yagi’ aerial
given the required RF or microwave-wireless bandwidth
and gain characteristics that are input into the
computer in question concerning a particular band in
addition to the diameter of the driven and parasitic-
elements*...
*There’s a restriction imposed by OFCOM on diameter, concerning
transmitting uses, subject to the maximum range permitted for the
particular RF or microwave-wireless system at issue.

20. Parasitic Element
Spacing and aerial gain
...As I’ve outlined, the spacing of
the parasitic-elements determines
the number, size and position of the
side lobes of a Yagi’ aerial. Thus
parasitic-element spacing is a major
factor in determining the aerial’s
gain at a given frequency within its
bandwidth as well as, of course, the
number of ’elements comprising it fig. 8
and the impedance value at the A graph showing the plot of the power transmitted by
a Yagi-Uda’ Array aerial for a given spacing value of
Yagi’ aerial’s driven-element parasitic director element expressed in fractions of a
feedpoint, fig. 8... wavelength above and below the full-wavelength (λ)
of a given Yagi’ aerial’s resonant frequency.

21. Parasitic Element
Spacing and Aerial
Gain...continued
... Because of the
reciprocity theory
concerning a given aerial
used for transmitting or
receiving, or both, the
radiation plot of it will be
identical for both types of
operation and so,
therefore, fig. 9 will have a
very similar graphical . fig. 9
form to fig. 8... A graphical plot of received current in microamperes (μA) against
parasitic element spacing expressed as fractions of a wavelength above
and below the full-wavelength (λ) of the resonant frequency of the given
Yagi-Uda’ aerial featured in fig. 10

22. Yagi-Uda Arrays and
Noise Temperature
...As illustrated in fig. 10,
the greater the size of the
side and rear-lobes of the
Yagi’ aerial in question, the
greater the pickup of
unwanted electromagnetic-
noise and therefore the
greater the value of noise
fig. 10
temperature present in it... The effect of side-lobes and rear-lobes on
the noise temperature value present in a
Yagi’ aerial.

23. Yagi-Uda Arrays and Noise Natural Sources (Sky Noise)
Temperature...continued stellar matter – emitted from star and inter-
• Cosmic noise
– Decreases with frequency – negligible above
...One of the objects in 1GHz
avoiding a large number of – Certain parts of the sky have “hot sources” -
side-lobes and of the ones left, avoid
minimizing their size at the
• Sun (T ≅ 12000 f-0.75 K)
design stage, is to avoid – Point antennas away from it
receiving more free-space
propagated electromagnetic- • Moon
noise than is absolutely – Black-body radiator: 200 to 300 K if the aerial
is pointed at the moon
necessary. Such noise
generators include the • Propagation medium
atmosphere, solar and galactic – e.g. rain, oxygen, water vapour – microwave
sources e.g. the milky way; the emissions detectable from water vapour
galaxy where our solar system fig. 11
factors contributing to the noise-temperature
resides, see fig. 11 ... value (K=Kelvin) at a receiving aerial

24. Stacking & Baying Yagi-Uda Arrays
... A method of increasing the directionality
over that present with one Yagi’ aerial is to
use two or more Yagi’ aerials mounted
vertically above one another and separated by
a specified number of wavelengths (λs) that’s
in accordance with proven aerial-theory. This
technique is known as “stacking”. For a
practical example of two stacked Yagis’, see
slide 29...

25. Stacking & Baying: The Advantages
...If you stack two identically polarized Yagi’ aerials correctly,
an therefore in accordance with proven aerial theory, you’ll
decrease the vertical beamwidth available when compared to
only using one Yagi’ aerial i.e. you’ll have a more directional
aerial arrangement in the vertical plane – see fig. 12. For a
practical example, see slide 29.
If you bay two identically polarised Yagis correctly you’ll
decrease the horizontal-beamwidth available i.e. you’ll
increase the directionality in the horizontal plane; see fig. 13.
Stacking and baying, and combined stacking and baying
(“stacking-and-baying”), are both forms of “spatial-diversity”
receiving and/or transmitting aerial arrangements...

26. Stacking & Baying: The Advantages – Part 2
...With both techniques you must use an
electrical circuit known as a “combining-unit”
which combines the output of the two or more
aerials of interest in phase before sending it
down a coaxial feeder-cable to an RF or
microwave receiver or, if this arrangement is
used for transmitting , feeds the RF or
microwave-energy into the stacked and/or
bayed configuration in phase...

27. Stacking & Baying: The Advantages – Part 3
... It’s possible to have both a stacked and
bayed arrangement using a minimum of four
Yagi’ aerials. If you both stack and bay
identically polarized Yagis then you’ll
decrease the beamwidth value in both the
vertical and horizontal planes in comparison
to that available when using only one Yagi’
aerial if it’s identical to the ones used in the
multiple array under discussion. One
combining unit is used with a stacked-and-
bayed Yagi’ aerial arrangement...

28. Stacked and Bayed Yagi-Uda Array Aerials – Schematic
Diagrams
fig. 13
Fig. 12 shows a stacked arrangement of two Yagi’ aerials whilst fig. 13 shows
fig. 12 two Yagi’ aerials in a bayed-arrangement. It’s possible, for some applications,
to use a greater number of Yagi’ aerials in a stacked or bayed formation.
Additionally , it’s possible to have a stacked-and-bayed arrangement of four
or more Yagis or, indeed, some other forms of aerial e.g. parabolic-dish
designs.

29. Stacking Yagi-Uda Arrays – Practical Application
Example
...Photo. 4 shows a stacked-arrangement
of two twelve-element Yagi-Uda Arrays,
vertically polarized, and dimensioned for
a UHF telemetry frequency allocation
somewhere between 300 MHz and 420
MHz. The telemetry signals they’re
transmitting are various operational
parameters which concern the
functioning of a remote water-utility
covered service reservoir that’s located
outside the town of Moffat in Dumfries & photo. 4
Galloway, Scotland; …continued

30. Stacking Yagi-Uda Arrays – Practical
Application...continued
...the receiving site for these telemetry transmissions
being located some distance away. Note the solar
panels (photovoltaics), at the base of the stacked-
aerials support stalk, that are used to generate DC
electrical power for this transmission/receiving
arrangement.
You can also mount two identical Yagis side-by-side
and spaced by the optimal number of λs apart; this
technique being known as “baying”...

31. The Yagi-Uda Array Aerial:
Its applications
1. VHF and UHF broadcast-television and VHF radio
reception.
2. low power UHF studio-transmitter links (STLs) that are
licenced by OFCOM for use with Restricted Service
Licence (RSL) temporary radio broadcasters such as those
organised by college, university, voluntary or religious
groups.
3. VHF and UHF-wireless telemetry systems used in public
utilities concerning electricity, gas and water supply
installations.

32. The Yagi-Uda Array Aerial
Its applications – continued
4. emergency embassy HF radio-communications systems
using sky-wave propagation (i.e. via ionospheric reflection)
that are used in the event of their Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
satellite-communications (SATCOMs), using microwaves,
failing.
5. military HF, VHF and UHF wireless-telemetry and other
communications systems.
continued...

33. The Yagi-Uda Array Aerial
Its applications – continued (2)
6. amateur-wireless operations covering the radio
frequency band starting at about 12 MHz (HF) and
going up to the Super High Frequency (SHF)
microwave amateur-band allocations below about
6.2 GHz...

34. The Yagi-Uda Array Aerial
Its applications – continued (3)
7. as part of a stacked-and-bayed spatial-diversity
receiving arrangement comprising four Yagi-Uda
Arrays for the reception of low field-strength SHF
microwave-wireless transmissions, sometimes known
as “centimetric-waves”, that lie above 3.2GHz –
equating to a wavelength of about 9.38 cm – but
below about 6.2 GHz – equating to wavelengths longer
than about 4.84 cm. In addition to providing increased
signal gain, combined stacking and baying of identical
Yagi-Udas’ provides an increased bandwidth and
combats multipath-propagation (“multipath”)
effectively in comparison to using only one Yagi-Uda’
aerial...

35. The Yagi-Uda Array Aerial
Its applications – continued (4)
...These microwave emissions can suffer
from multi-path propagation difficulties
and so more than one Yagi-Uda’ Array aerial
maybe needed in order to provide more
directionality and so remedy this problem –
see slides 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29 further
back...

36. UHF Broadcast Television Channel-Numbers and how
they equate to aerial-group letters and colours (fig.14):
fig. 14

37. UHF Band IV and Band V TV Broadcast Channel-Numbers:
Band IV Band V
Figure 15 shows a chart equating
UHF Band IV channel numbers to
their respective carrier frequencies;
vision-carrier frequency only, if
considered in the context of PAL
analogue TV channels. Figure 16
shows the UHF Band V channel
numbers and the carrier frequencies
they equate to (the former PAL TV
statement applies here, also). Thus, a
Yagi’ aerial suitable for receiving
Group A (colour-code: RED)
fig. 15
channels will have elements many
centimetres longer than Group C/D
(‘code: GREEN) Yagi’ aerials; aerial
group C/D covering reception of the
highest-’Band V frequencies.
fig. 16

38. Aerial-Group Gain
versus Channel-Frequency
…Figure 17 shows a graph displaying curves
that show UHF Band VI and V Yagi’ aerial-
group gain in dBd (decibels-relative-to-a-
dipole’s gain) versus UHF channel-
frequency. This graph shows why it’s not
good practice to always install a wide-band
Yagi’ aerial (Group W: colour-code BLACK)
to receive any arrangement of UHF
television-channel groups i.e. in order to
ensure maximum signal-level across a
broadcast TV receiver’s aerial-circuit you
should select a Yagi’ aerial that just covers
the channel-frequency numbers that are
required to be received…
fig. 17

39. Aerial-Group Gain versus channel-frequency
…continued
…Additionally, “blanket-use” of Group W aerials will
unnecessarily increase the noise-temperature across a
TV receiver’s aerial circuit which, if the signal-strength
levels are low, will manifest itself as a fuzzy – or fuzzier
– TV picture than needs to be necessary in the case of
the remaining analogue PAL TV services being
received; you’ll usually get away with it in the case of
DTT reception, but it’s not adviseable, as in rare cases
it could put the received digital-TV picture over the
“digital-cliff”*!...
* The bandwidth of a Yagi-Uda Array aerial is inversely-proportional to its gain – i.e. B α 1/G

40. Yagi-Uda Array Aerial Paradigms
Photo. 5 shows a conventional Photo. 6 shows a higher gain form
Yagi’ aerial for installation in of Yagi’ aerial, once known as an
high signal-strength areas and “X-Beam” Yagi’, again used for UHF
broadcast-television reception but
used for UHF band VI or V in low field-strength areas and still
broadcast-television in production today. It’s pictured
reception; either for Digital horizontally polarized...
Terrestrial Television (DTT)
or the remaining analogue
television services:
photo. 5 photo. 6

41. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms – Part (2)
fig. 12
fig. 13
Fig.12: a two-element array for the digital radio
age; it’s dimensioned for the reception of VHF Fig.13: A three-element
Band III Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) array for DAB reception
transmissions, located on the part of the VHF in moderate signal
spectrum spanning 217.5 – 230 MHz in high to strength areas...
moderate signal strength areas. The length of
the driven element, and therefore the director
element, will be shorter than those of a two
element Yagi’ aerial for VHF Band II (analogue
FM radio) reception.

42. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms...Part (3)
fig. 14 fig. 15
Fig.14: a four-element array for Fig.15: a six-element array for
DAB VHF Band III radio reception DAB radio-reception in lower
in low signal-strength areas i.e. signal strength areas i.e. a
those areas just outside the official significant distance away from the
coverage area of the transmitter periphery of a specified
concerned, or screened by foliage*. transmitter’s coverage area**...
* foliage attenuates RF at VHF and above noticeably. This effect increases with the shortening of wavelength and therefore with
increasing frequency (λ α 1/f). Wet foliage has an even greater attenuation and signal-reflection effect leading to higher field-
strength multi-path propagation.
** a broadcast transmitter’s coverage area is defined in terms of a minimum electric field-strength value that’s to be received
if a particular area is to be described as being within its service area. The sub unit of `field-strength used here is the μV/m.

43. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms...Part (4)
Photo. 7 shows, top, a 10-element Yagi-
Uda Array Aerial for high field-strength
UHF Band V DTT areas and originally
used for PAL analogue TV reception and
located at my address in Wirral, UK.
Below it, on the same stalk, is a VHF
Band II 3-element Yagi’ Aerial for
moderate field-strength reception of
BBC national analogue FM radio photo. 7
services from the Holme Moss radio
transmitter nr Leeds, West Yorkshire,
which serves most of Northern England.

44. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms...Part (5)
Photo. 8 shows a very similar
arrangement to that shown in photo. 7,
the difference being in the fact that the
UHF Band V Yagi’ aerial mounted at the
top of the stalk is of a higher gain than
that at my address; it has another 7-
elements making up this Yagi-Uda Array
– a total of seventeen elements in all.
photo. 8
The aerial installer was obviously
inferior as he should have fitted a 10-
element array as this address is located
in the same road as mine...continued

45. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms...Part (6)
...at the time this UHF Band V aerial was
installed, the Winter Hill main television `Band
V transmitter was carrying PAL analogue TV
which reached The Leas in Thingwall, Wirral, at
high field strength i.e. the additional aerial gain
over my 10-element Yagi wasn’t necessary.
However, with the advent of DTT radiated at a
considerably lower power, this gain just wouldn’t
go amiss; it’s, therefore, now an appropriate gain
figure though by accident rather than design!

46. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms...Part (7)
Photo. 9 shows a Yagi’ aerial for an Photo. 10 shows an 11-element Yagi’
amateur-wireless frequency aerial for the amateur-wireless 144
allocation below about 6 GHz on MHz frequency allocation on VHF;
the SHF part of the microwave- also known as the 2-metres band in
spectrum – note the very short amateur-wireless operators
parasitic elements: parlance...
photo. 9 photo. 10

47. Yagi-Uda’ Aerial Paradigms...Part (8)
Photo. 11 shows, from top of Fig. 16 shows a 3-element
the stalk: VHF 2m (144 MHz Yagi’ aerial for the 20-metre
band), 4m (70 MHz band) wavelength short-wave radio
and 6m (50 MHz band) Yagi’ amateur-band, equating to a
aerials: 15 MHz HF frequency
allocation, with “traps”...
photo. 11 fig. 16

48. Synopsis
1. The Yagi-Uda Array aerial, “Yagi’ aerial”, is a directional aerial,
also known as a “beam-aerial”, based on the ½ wavelength dipole in
a folded-form for practical commercially made designs, other than
those for the HF band and some two-element VHF designs.
2. The more parasitic-director-elements a Yagi’ aerial has, the greater
the directionality, i.e. the gain, that the aerial under examination
possesses. However, above a certain number of elements for a given
frequency band, there are diminishing returns in terms of
increasing the received signal-level input into an RF or microwave-
wireless receiver connected to it. The highest Yagi’ aerial gain
designs that are practical can be engineered for the longer-
wavelength SHF frequencies; that’s longer than 4.84 cm in
wavelength – that is, below 6.2 GHz in frequency...continued

49. Synopsis...continued
3. Yagi’ aerials have applications in a variety of
telecommunications and communication-systems in
general, for public, commercial, industrial, governmental
and military users.
4. Using the techniques of stacking and baying it’s possible to
create very high gain, i.e. highly directional, aerial
arrangements on the longer wavelength SHF-microwave
frequencies (longer than 4.84 cm which equates to a
frequency of 6.2 GHz) and so negating the need for an
expensive parabolic-dish aerial which, for some
applications, may provide an unnecessarily higher gain
value…

50. References
1. “Radio and RF Engineering Pocket Book – Third Edition”
– authors Steve Winder BA, MSc, CEng, MIET, MIEEE &
Joe Carr first pub. 1994, third edition 2002 by Newnes –
an imprint of Elsevier Science:
2. “Newnes Telecommunications Pocket Book – Third
Edition” – author: Steve Winder BA, MSc, CEng, MIET,
MIEEE, pub. 2001. by Newnes – an imprint of
Butterworth Heinemann:

51. References (2)
3. “Satellite Communications – Link Design (Part 2)” a
presentation by Dr. Leila Z. Ribeiro and downloaded via
the Internet from the website of the George Mason
University in PDF form:
4. “Radcom” – Various editions of the Radio Society of Great
Britain’s journal including the “Antennas” feature of the
June 2008 edition: author Peter Dodd, G3LDO and the “In
Practice” technical feature of the November 2009 edition
written by Dr. Ian White, GM3SEK:

52. References (3)
5. The Reception Advice area of the website for the
British Broadcasting Corporation. This area of the
BBC’s website provides, amongst other technical
topics, basic reception advice for broadcast
receiving-systems using the Yagi’ aerial i.e. those
receiving UHF Band IV and Band V Digital
Terrestrial Television (DTT) and analogue
channels, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) radio
on VHF Band III, and the analogue FM radio
channels, located on VHF Band II:

53. References (4)
6. The website of the Christian Restricted Service
Licenced (RSL) broadcasting organisation known as
Flame Christian & Community radio - formerly
“Flame FM” (see ref. 7 also):
7. An informal visit to the Flame FM RSL radio station
based at the Wirral Christian Centre in the year
2004. This station transmitted for a number of two
week periods:

54. Reference (5)
8. The Confederation of Aerial Industries – For information on
domestic and commercial TV and radio-broadcast reception
aerial-installation standards:
9. The public website of OFCOM – the independent regulator
and competition authority for the UK’s communications
industries:

55. Reference (6)
10. Maxview – broadcast-reception aerial
manufacturers:
11. Triax – broadcast-reception aerial
manufacturers:

56. About The Author
Joseph P. Campbell is 39 years-old and is
qualified with a BTEC Higher National
Certificate (HNC) in marine navigational
systems engineering from Liverpool
Community College. His HNC was awarded
to him in the year 1997. This branch of
engineering involves the use of tele-
communications and communications
systems in general.
He’s a qualified radio-amateur and a member
of the RSGB; his OFCOM call-sign being Joseph P. Campbell
G7OKR. He has in the past been active on the
20, 40 and 60 metres short-wave amateur
bands (HF). Additionally, he occasionally
builds small electronic project kits that
require soldering skills to complete.
His email address is g7okr@hotmail.co.uk .

57. Revised 17th July 2011
© 2010 Joseph P. Campbell, HNC Marine Nav. Eng.