Theories
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is distinct from both utilitarianism and deontology. Rather than focusing on the consequences of the act we wish to evaluate, or the reason or rule that guides the action, we look at the character of the person performing the act. Virtue ethics, thus, seeks to determine not what makes an act good but what makes a person virtuous.
Deontology
Rather than looking at the consequences of an act, deontology looks at the reason for which an act is done, and the rule according to which one chooses to act. Deontology doesn't deny that acts have consequences; rather, it insists that those consequences should not play a role in our moral evaluation of such acts.
Definition of Deontology
Utilitarianism is sometimes called a consequentialist theory because it evaluates whether an act is right or wrong in terms of the act's consequences. In contrast to consequentialist theories, a number of different approaches suggest distinct ways of evaluating the morality of an act. Perhaps the most famous of these is deontology. Coming from the Greek deon, which means "duty," deontology (sometimes referred to as duty ethics) focuses on what we are obligated to do as rational moral agents. It is particularly important to see that the deontologist does not say that actions do not have consequences; rather, the deontologist insists that actions should not be evaluated on the basis of the action's consequences.
Utilitarianism
A natural way to see whether an act is the right thing to do (or the wrong thing to do) is to look at its results, or consequences. Utilitarianism argues that, given a set of choices, the act we should choose is that which produces the best results for the greatest number affected by that choice.
We should also see that part of this calculation is to minimize pain or suffering; a choice that maximizes utility may often be one that produces the least harm, given the options available. Utilitarianism is the theory that people should choose that which maximizes the utility of all those who are affected by a given act. At thispoint, however, we see the basic utilitarian principle and how to apply it. Now we can start to make it a bit more precise. According to utilitarianism, one should always act in a way that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people relative to any other way one might act, or act in a way that maximizes the utility of all affected by an act, relative to any alternative to that act.
Perspectives
Emotivism
Emotivism offers a perspective on our ethical claims that eliminates much of the traditional kind of argument based on reason. Emotivism, instead, sees our moral evaluations as simply the expression of whether we respond to a given act by liking it or not liking it. Something is good, on this view, if it is something about which we feel good; something ...
The document provides an outline for a business ethics course discussing philosophical ethics and its application to business. It covers three main topics:
1. It defines ethics and distinguishes it from morality, noting that ethics involves studying and reflecting on moral decision making and judgments.
2. It introduces utilitarianism as an ethical theory that evaluates actions based on their consequences and maximizing the overall good. It discusses how utilitarianism has been used to justify free market theory.
3. It introduces rights-based ethical theories that recognize fundamental human rights. It discusses how rights-based approaches have also been used to defend aspects of free markets.
1. The document outlines a 7-step model for moral reasoning: gather facts, determine ethical issues, choose relevant principles, list alternatives, compare alternatives to principles, assess consequences, and make a decision.
2. Key aspects of the process include identifying stakeholders, considering utilitarian and deontological perspectives, ensuring arguments are consistent and valid/sound, double checking consequences and ability to defend the decision.
3. Making the final decision is described as the most difficult part, requiring courage to choose what reason suggests over feelings.
The fundamental point is that we are merely examining the American s.docxkailynochseu
The fundamental point is that we are merely examining the American side or only one side in making the ethical decisions because they are organizational in nature
Look at the ethics and morality of the
Japanese government and in “bringing about/compelling”
the American government decision to drop the atomic bomb
The fact that stripping the emperor of his power was unacceptable under any circumstances made the susceptible vulnerable exposed
There are two fundamental types of ethical theory:
Teleological or Consequentialist
theories are based on the notion of choosing one’s actions so as to maximize the value or values to be expected as consequences of those actions
Consequentialist normative principles require that we first calculate both the good and bad consequences of an action. Then, we determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper.
Three subdivisions of consequentialism emerge:
Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.
Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.
Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
All three of these theories focus on the consequences of actions for different groups of people. But, like all normative theories, the above three theories are rivals of each other. They also yield different conclusions.
Utilitarianism is the predominant teleological ethical theory, which is the group of ethical theories that justify the morality of an action on the basis of its consequences. Teleological theories let “the end justify the means,” and utilitarianism is teleological because it considers happiness to be the end that always sought to be produced.
The centrality of happiness as a value is clearly evident in the professional life of the public administrator. The aim of public organizations such as those concerned with health, education, safety, and poverty is to make the lives of people happier. The notion of happiness as justification for public action is included in the statement in the Declaration of Independence, in which the pursuit of happiness is described as an inalienable right.
Utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and Mill would envision an ideal world in which the happiness of all people is unified so completely that the activities that make any individual happy would also promote the happiness of all. However, the world is not ideal, and there are many conflicts. A corporation’s management, its labor force, its customers, and its investors all have different interests that may converge but will often conflict.
.
A Framework for Thinking EthicallyThis document is designed as a.docxransayo
A Framework for Thinking Ethically
This document is designed as an introduction to thinking ethically. We all have an image of our better selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best." We probably also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an ethical society should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as individuals, creating ethical organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone.What is Ethics?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many situations in which they find themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on.
It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
· Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard.
· Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.
· Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to address new problems.
· Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but others become corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to slavery before the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory ethical standard.
· Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us make better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides reasons for how humans ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.
Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard
There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we are to follow:
1. On what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what are they based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested .
This document discusses three major ethical theories: teleological, deontological, and virtue theories. It provides details on teleological and deontological theories. Teleological theories determine rightness based on consequences, focusing on achieving the greatest good. Deontological theories hold that certain actions are right or wrong regardless of consequences, based on absolute duties and moral rules. The document also examines forms of utilitarianism as a teleological theory, and discusses strengths and weaknesses of calculating utility.
Ethics is a set of standards that determine whether actions are right or wrong. Business ethics applies ethical standards to business activities and decisions. There are two types of ethical issues in business - overt problems like bribery that are clear violations, and covert problems like complex acquisition decisions that are more difficult to identify. For a decision to be ethical, it should be right, equitable, good, proper, fair, and just. However, there is no universal agreement on ethics because value systems differ based on individual backgrounds and experiences. Ethical decisions also affect many situations and have widespread consequences.
Discussion Questions 1
From visiting https://www.nlrb.gov, evaluate the overall importance of the National Labor Relations Board. Next, summarize the pertinent details of the case from Kraft Foods North America, Inc., and give your opinion of the Board’s decision and the fairness of the outcome. Support your response with specific details from the selected case.
Evaluate the overall importance of the National Labor Relations Board. XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Summarize the pertinent details of the case from Kraft Foods North America, Inc., XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Give your opinion of the Board’s decision and the fairness of the outcome. XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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Discussion Questions 2
From information from https://www.osha.gov, evaluate the overall importance of OSHA. Next, give your opinion of whether OSHA offers enough protection or overregulates the safety of workers from the news story at https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=NEWS_RELEASES&p_id=33651 Support your response with specific details from the selected news story.
Evaluate the overall importance of OSHA. XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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Give your opinion of whether OSHA offers enough protection or overregulates the safety of workers from the news story XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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Lesson Three: Ethical Theories
Lesson Two introduced leadership, some of the qualities that are generally associated with successful leadership, and some of the types of power that leaders wield. Lesson Three will i.
The document provides an outline for a business ethics course discussing philosophical ethics and its application to business. It covers three main topics:
1. It defines ethics and distinguishes it from morality, noting that ethics involves studying and reflecting on moral decision making and judgments.
2. It introduces utilitarianism as an ethical theory that evaluates actions based on their consequences and maximizing the overall good. It discusses how utilitarianism has been used to justify free market theory.
3. It introduces rights-based ethical theories that recognize fundamental human rights. It discusses how rights-based approaches have also been used to defend aspects of free markets.
1. The document outlines a 7-step model for moral reasoning: gather facts, determine ethical issues, choose relevant principles, list alternatives, compare alternatives to principles, assess consequences, and make a decision.
2. Key aspects of the process include identifying stakeholders, considering utilitarian and deontological perspectives, ensuring arguments are consistent and valid/sound, double checking consequences and ability to defend the decision.
3. Making the final decision is described as the most difficult part, requiring courage to choose what reason suggests over feelings.
The fundamental point is that we are merely examining the American s.docxkailynochseu
The fundamental point is that we are merely examining the American side or only one side in making the ethical decisions because they are organizational in nature
Look at the ethics and morality of the
Japanese government and in “bringing about/compelling”
the American government decision to drop the atomic bomb
The fact that stripping the emperor of his power was unacceptable under any circumstances made the susceptible vulnerable exposed
There are two fundamental types of ethical theory:
Teleological or Consequentialist
theories are based on the notion of choosing one’s actions so as to maximize the value or values to be expected as consequences of those actions
Consequentialist normative principles require that we first calculate both the good and bad consequences of an action. Then, we determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper.
Three subdivisions of consequentialism emerge:
Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.
Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.
Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
All three of these theories focus on the consequences of actions for different groups of people. But, like all normative theories, the above three theories are rivals of each other. They also yield different conclusions.
Utilitarianism is the predominant teleological ethical theory, which is the group of ethical theories that justify the morality of an action on the basis of its consequences. Teleological theories let “the end justify the means,” and utilitarianism is teleological because it considers happiness to be the end that always sought to be produced.
The centrality of happiness as a value is clearly evident in the professional life of the public administrator. The aim of public organizations such as those concerned with health, education, safety, and poverty is to make the lives of people happier. The notion of happiness as justification for public action is included in the statement in the Declaration of Independence, in which the pursuit of happiness is described as an inalienable right.
Utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and Mill would envision an ideal world in which the happiness of all people is unified so completely that the activities that make any individual happy would also promote the happiness of all. However, the world is not ideal, and there are many conflicts. A corporation’s management, its labor force, its customers, and its investors all have different interests that may converge but will often conflict.
.
A Framework for Thinking EthicallyThis document is designed as a.docxransayo
A Framework for Thinking Ethically
This document is designed as an introduction to thinking ethically. We all have an image of our better selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best." We probably also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an ethical society should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as individuals, creating ethical organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone.What is Ethics?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many situations in which they find themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on.
It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
· Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard.
· Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.
· Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to address new problems.
· Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but others become corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to slavery before the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory ethical standard.
· Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us make better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides reasons for how humans ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.
Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard
There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we are to follow:
1. On what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what are they based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested .
This document discusses three major ethical theories: teleological, deontological, and virtue theories. It provides details on teleological and deontological theories. Teleological theories determine rightness based on consequences, focusing on achieving the greatest good. Deontological theories hold that certain actions are right or wrong regardless of consequences, based on absolute duties and moral rules. The document also examines forms of utilitarianism as a teleological theory, and discusses strengths and weaknesses of calculating utility.
Ethics is a set of standards that determine whether actions are right or wrong. Business ethics applies ethical standards to business activities and decisions. There are two types of ethical issues in business - overt problems like bribery that are clear violations, and covert problems like complex acquisition decisions that are more difficult to identify. For a decision to be ethical, it should be right, equitable, good, proper, fair, and just. However, there is no universal agreement on ethics because value systems differ based on individual backgrounds and experiences. Ethical decisions also affect many situations and have widespread consequences.
Discussion Questions 1
From visiting https://www.nlrb.gov, evaluate the overall importance of the National Labor Relations Board. Next, summarize the pertinent details of the case from Kraft Foods North America, Inc., and give your opinion of the Board’s decision and the fairness of the outcome. Support your response with specific details from the selected case.
Evaluate the overall importance of the National Labor Relations Board. XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Summarize the pertinent details of the case from Kraft Foods North America, Inc., XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Give your opinion of the Board’s decision and the fairness of the outcome. XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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Discussion Questions 2
From information from https://www.osha.gov, evaluate the overall importance of OSHA. Next, give your opinion of whether OSHA offers enough protection or overregulates the safety of workers from the news story at https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=NEWS_RELEASES&p_id=33651 Support your response with specific details from the selected news story.
Evaluate the overall importance of OSHA. XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Give your opinion of whether OSHA offers enough protection or overregulates the safety of workers from the news story XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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Lesson Three: Ethical Theories
Lesson Two introduced leadership, some of the qualities that are generally associated with successful leadership, and some of the types of power that leaders wield. Lesson Three will i.
The biggest corporation, like the humblest citiz.docxmehek4
“The biggest corporation, like the humblest citizen, must be held to strict compliance with the will of the people.”
--Theodore Roosevelt
Ethics:
The values an individual uses to interpret whether any particular action or behavior is considered acceptable or appropriate.
The social rules that govern & limit our conduct, especially the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong.
The basic guidelines for cooperative social existence.
Serves to restrain the purely self-interested desires in each of us in order to make it possible for all of us to live together.
The collective values of a business organization that can be used to evaluate whether the behavior of the collective members of the organization are considered acceptable and appropriate.
Business Ethics:
Moral/Ethical problems in business:
a conflict between financial performance (revenues, costs, & profits) and social performance (obligations to all stakeholders).
Ethical standards get confused with:
Law
Etiquette
Conscience
Corporate/Professional codes
Religion
Moral or Ethical Perspectives:
Moral RelativismMoral UniversalismMoral Perspecivalism
Moral Relativism:
The belief that morality is just a function of what a particular society happens to believe, that what is right is determined by what a society says is right.
e.g. abortion is condemned as immoral in Catholic Spain, but is practiced
as a morally neutral form of birth control in Japan.
Moral relativists believe that there is no absolute moral standard, no universal definition of right or wrong.
e.g. polygamy, stealing, slavery have all been tolerated by the moral system
of one society or another
Moral Relativism Presents some unpleasant implications:
1. it undermines any moral criticism of the practices of other
societies as long as their actions conform to their own standards
e.g. can't say that slavery in the American South was immoral as long as
that society allowed it to be morally permissible
2. the concept of ethical progress does not exist
e.g. can't say that our moral standards today are more enlightened
than those in the Middle Ages
Moral Universalism: In contrast, is the belief that variations in moral standards reflect different factual circumstances rather than fundamental differences in values.
Which is right??
It is good to emphasize that in viewing other cultures we should keep an open mind and not simply dismiss their social practices.
Moral Perspectivalism:
Compromise position is between moral relativism and universalism.the consideration of multiple perspectives while at the same time asserting universal truths.through examination of a variety of perspectives, one might be able to come closer to the ideal moral standards toward which to strive.
Ethical Theories:
There are many, many ethical theories, or in other words, ethical frameworks through which we can examine and attempt to understand an ethical dilemma. In the following ...
This document provides an overview of a chapter that discusses different ethical theories and decision-making frameworks. It introduces utilitarianism, which argues that actions should be judged based on their consequences and promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It also discusses deontological ethics, which focuses on following ethical principles and duties even if the consequences are not optimal. The document provides examples of how these theories apply to business decisions and discusses some of their limitations. It also introduces concepts like moral rights, duties, and the social contract as the basis for ethical principles.
English Essay Upsr Example - Writing Practice For UPSSandy Harwell
The document provides instructions for a 5 step process to request an assignment writing from HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, completing an order form, reviewing writer bids and choosing a writer, receiving the completed paper, and having the option to request revisions. It explains that HelpWriting.net uses a bidding system from writers, provides original high-quality content, and offers refunds for plagiarized work.
This document provides an overview of several philosophical foundations of business ethics, including consequentialism, utilitarianism, ethical egoism, and deontological ethics. It discusses concepts like utilitarian decision-making, maximizing overall happiness, and ethical theories proposed by philosophers like John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham, and Immanuel Kant. The document also examines ideas around rights, duties, consequences, social contracts, and treating people with dignity. It aims to help readers understand different approaches to ethical decision-making and analyzing business decisions through a philosophical lens.
Responses1-LA1 The human race is structured in a way that diff.docxronak56
Responses
1-LA1 The human race is structured in a way that different individual have different opinions. Similarly, people might have some similar moral ethics while others differ. The Virtue ethical theory is universal in that attributes are universally recognized as good or bad (The Universal Moral Code). Kant’s and the Utilitarian theories are relative. First, Kant’s theory dwells on the fulfillment of a responsibility. Some responsibilities are accepted in some communities while others do not. Similarly, utilitarianism looks at the consequences of the actions, which differ according to the community.
Ethical relativism and universalism differ in more than one way. However, with the correct attitude towards a particular action, one will be able to distinguish whether it is beneficial or not. Activities that evoke difference in opinions should be minimized at all times. In addition, making sure that the actions are clear so that an individual is able to distinguish between right and wrong is also important. Furthermore, appreciating the different cultures help individuals to adapt to any change brought forward.
Reference
The Universal Moral Code. Retrieved from http://www.universalmoralcode.com/
1-LA2 This is a technological era that we expect more technological discoveries to continue coming in. One of such discoveries is the self-driving car, which makes the effort being put in by human beings almost negligible. Concerns about the vehicle come in when a decision has to be made in the case of an unexpected accident (Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill, 2015). Some people will choose to go over the ten people on crossing the road, while others will choose to have the individual by the sidewalk be a sacrifice.
It is very rare for an individual who bought the car to make himself or herself a sacrifice. This means that in the case of an accident, they are bound to run over other people. The self-driving car evokes different views by different people. However, one thing is clear, one has to either kill others or risk dying. In my opinion, I would rather stay die than see ten other people die.
Reference
Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill. (2015, October 22). Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/542626/why-self-driving-cars-must-be-programmed-to-kill/
2-LA1 From a teleological Virtue Ethic approach, supporters of this theory would conclude that morality is universal. According to Keith (2003), the universal moral code is separated into two sets of statements that involve “do no harm” and “do good.” This concept is based on people acting virtuously. An opposing view may argue the concept of relativism stating a moral code is relative to an individual’s or groups geographical location (Basilthegiant, n.d.). Using an example from Keith’s universal code such as do not murder is something that disproves the opposing view. Some may argue that there are times when murder can be justified such as war or se ...
The document discusses different theories of ethics that can guide business decisions, including consequentialism, utilitarianism, and deontology. It examines concepts like values, ethical values, ethics, and the goals of business ethics. The document also analyzes nine specific theories of ethics and provides examples to illustrate how each theory would approach ethical dilemmas.
This document discusses several ethical theories and principles that can be used in analyzing ethical dilemmas. It outlines the key aspects of utilitarianism, deontology, rights theory, justice, beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, casuistry, and virtue ethics. For each theory, it provides a definition of the core principle and some notable philosophers or concepts associated with that perspective. The document serves as an overview of major approaches in normative ethics that can guide ethical decision-making.
This document provides a framework for ethical decision making. It begins by defining ethics as standards of behavior for how humans ought to act in different situations, rather than being based on feelings, religion, laws, social norms, or science alone. It then discusses two challenges in identifying ethical standards: determining the basis and applying standards to specific situations. Five approaches are described for deriving ethical standards: utilitarianism, rights, fairness, common good, and virtues. While these approaches may provide different answers, they often lead to similar conclusions. The document concludes by outlining a 10-step process for recognizing ethical issues, gathering facts, evaluating options, making a decision, implementing it, and reflecting on the outcome.
This document provides an overview of ethical thinking and decision making. It discusses that ethics relates to how individuals and groups should behave and interact. The document then examines what ethics is and is not, including that ethics is not based solely on feelings, religion, laws, social norms, or science. It explores five sources of ethical standards: utilitarianism, rights, fairness, common good, and virtues. The document notes challenges in applying these standards but also how they often lead to similar ethical outcomes. It concludes by outlining a framework for ethical decision making.
1.6 Classical TheoriesEvery day we are confronted with questions.docxpaynetawnya
1.6 Classical Theories
Every day we are confronted with questions of right and wrong. These questions can appear to be very simple (Is it always wrong to lie?), as well as very complicated (Is it ever right to go to war?). Ethics is the study of those questions and suggests various ways we might solve them. Here we will look at three traditional theories that have a long history and that provide a great deal of guidance in struggling with moral problems; we will also see that each theory has its own difficulties. Ethics can offer a great deal of insight into the issues of right and wrong; however, we will also discover that ethics generally won't provide a simple solution on which everyone can agree.
Classical Theories
The classical ethical theories in a nutshell, with a short lesson in application.
Utilitarianism
A natural way to see whether an act is the right thing to do (or the wrong thing to do) is to look at its results, or consequences. Utilitarianism argues that, given a set of choices, the act we should choose is that which produces the best results for the greatest number affected by that choice.
Definition of Utilitarianism
After helping their mother clean the attic, John and Mary are told they can each have a cookie. When they open the cookie jar, only one is left. What do you think would be the fairest solution for John and Mary?
Those who follow utilitarianism suggest that there is an obvious solution that is fair, and it may be one that appeals to common sense as well: John and Mary should share the cookie. Since each has an equal right to it, they should split it in half. They may not get what they want—each wants the entire cookie—but both are better off with half a cookie than with no cookie. Dividing the cookie produces the greatest good for the greatest number. This is the fundamental principle of utilitarianism: One should choose to do that which produces a better outcome for the largest number of people.
The cookie example is, of course, a very simple case, but it allows us to introduce some of the terminology philosophers use to examine ethical choices. Here, for instance, we might call the pleasure John and Mary get from the cookie their "utility"; a standard assumption among ethicists, economists, and many others is that people seek to maximize their utility. Thus, Mary would like to maximize her utility by having the entire cookie, but that conflicts with John's desire to maximize his utility (by also having the entire cookie). We should also see that part of this calculation is to minimize pain or suffering; a choice that maximizes utility may often be one that produces the least harm, given the options available. Utilitarianism is the theory that people should choose that which maximizes the utility of all those who are affected by a given act.
Unfortunately, many ethical problems aren't as easy to solve as the cookie example. At this point ...
Weeks 5 & 6 – YOU as a stakeholderI Morals & Ethical Pri.docxphilipnelson29183
Weeks 5 & 6 – YOU as a stakeholder
I Morals & Ethical Principles
II Ethical Decision Making in Business
(Why good people do bad things)
Greg Smith
Choice of
Ethical
Perspective
Morality:
The social rules that govern & limit our conduct, especially the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong.
The basic guidelines for cooperative social existence.
Serves to restrain the purely self-interested desires in each of us in order to make it possible for all of us to live together.
When we make a decision or take an action we can be:
Moral - in compliance with moral standards
key operating questions of management is "is this action or decision fair to us and all stakeholders involved?"
Immoral - in opposition to moral standards
key operating question of management is "can we make money with this action or decision regardless of what it takes?"
Amoral - without consideration of moral standards
key operating question of management is "can we make money with this action or decision?"
Nonmoral - outside the sphere of moral concern
Moral standards get confused with:
Law Etiquette
Conscience
Corporate/Professional Codes
Religion
Moral Relativism:
The belief that morality is just a function of what a particular society happens to believe, that what is right is determined by what a society says is right.
abortion is condemned as immoral in Catholic Spain, but is practiced as a morally neutral form of birth control in Japan
Moral relativists believe that there is no absolute moral standard independent of culture, no universal definition of right or wrong.
polygamy, stealing, slavery have all been tolerated by the moral system of one society or another
Moral Universalism is the belief that variations in moral standards reflect different factual circumstances rather than fundamental differences in values.
Which is right?
It is good to emphasize that in viewing other cultures we should keep
an open mind and not simply dismiss their social practices.
Compromise position is Moral Perspectivalism,
the consideration of multiple perspectives while at the same time asserting universal truths.
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
*
1. Preconventional Level:
- how we behave as infants & children
- emphasis in decisions is on ourselves
Stage 1 - Reaction to punishment - pain avoidance
Stage 2 - Seeking of rewards - praise, candy, trip to a movie
2. Conventional Level:
- child learns the importance of conforming to norms of society
Stage 3 - Good boy/nice girl morality - rewards such as feelings of warmth, loyalty acceptance from family & peers
Stage 4 - Law and order morality - certain norms are expected in society - individual sees himself as part of a larger social system
3. Postconventional Level:
- a more advanced notion of right or wrong than that which is conventionally articulated
- moral principles are internalized, seen as "right"
- focus is on humanity as a whole
- f.
This document discusses the evolution and development of business ethics as an academic field. It traces some of the earliest influences on business ethics from ancient Greek philosophers like Epicurus and Sophocles. It then outlines the development of two main approaches - utilitarianism as developed by Bentham and Mill, which focuses on maximizing happiness, and deontological ethics as developed by Kant, which focuses on duties and rules. The document also summarizes some of the strengths and criticisms of each approach. Finally, it provides an overview of how business ethics became institutionalized as an academic field from the 1970s onward through increased writings, conferences, and incorporation into university curriculums.
Ethics refers to standards of right and wrong that prescribe how humans should act. These standards are based on virtues like honesty and compassion, as well as rights and obligations. Ethics also involves studying and examining one's moral beliefs and actions. There are several approaches to determining ethical standards, including considering the consequences of actions (utilitarianism), respecting individual rights, fairness and justice, the common good of society, and virtues of good character. While these approaches don't always agree, together they provide a framework for ethical decision making.
Various approaches to Business Ethics - Theories of Ethics- Friedman’s
Economic theory, Kant’s Deontological theory, Mill & Bentham’s Utilitarianism
theory.
Ethics deals with what is good for individuals and society by establishing obligations and duties between people. It judges behaviors as right or wrong based on the motives and outcomes of actions, following principles like honesty and doing unto others as you would have them do unto you. While laws influence some professions, many ethical issues cannot be settled in courts and what is ethical is sometimes independent of legality. Ethical standards may conflict with existing laws, and there are no absolute ways to resolve all ethical dilemmas.
Please read the case Fraud at WorldCom in the book provided below .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the case Fraud at WorldCom in the book provided below (chapter 13) Page 310
And answer the following questions
1. What is the dilemma?
2. Do shareholders have de facto control over managers? What decisions do shareholders typically make? Please explain
One double-spaced page.
.
Please read the below two discussion posts and provide the response .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the below two discussion posts and provide the response for each discussion in 75 to 100 words.
Post#1
Nowadays, there are numerous advancements in technology. As a result, the traditional workplace has gradually transformed with home offices and virtual workplaces where employees can hold meetings using video teleconferencing tools and communicate through email and other applications such as Slack (Montrief, et al., 2020). This makes the cloud more busy which brings up the need for improved cloud security.
Generally, in a public cloud, there exists a shared responsibility between the user and the Cloud Service Provider (CSP). Due to the rise of cyber-related crimes over the years, security for things like data classification, network controls and physical security need clear owners. The division of such responsibilities is called shared responsibility model for cloud security. “According to Amazon Web Services (AWS), security responsibility is shared by both CSP and CSC and they called it as Shared Security Responsible Model” (Kumar, Raj, & Jelciana, 2018). “While client and endpoint protection, identity and access management and application level controls are a shared responsibility the responsibility resides largely with the client organization” (Lane, Shrestha, & Ali, 2017). However, the responsibilities may vary depending on the cloud service provider and the cloud environment the user is using to operate. Nevertheless, despite the cloud services used, the burden of protecting data lays upon the user.
Normally, security is broken down into two broad categories: security of the cloud and security in the cloud. Security of the cloud is a section of the shared responsibility model handled by the cloud service provider. It comprises of hardware, host operating systems and physical security of the infrastructure. Most of these logistical challenges are offloaded when an organization moves its operations to the cloud. In contrast, security in the cloud is the security responsibility handled by the user. “The cloud service customer is responsible for securing and managing the applications that run in the cloud, the operating systems, data-at-rest, data-in-transit, policies and other responsibilities” (Bennett & Robertson, 2019). Since access to customer data remains the most critical component in cloud computing, it also determined the level of security in the cloud to be implemented by the customer.
The customer is responsible for the following components. First, the customer is responsible for data security. While the provider is responsible for automatically encrypting data in transit and in storage, the customer is expected to configure file system encryption and protection of network traffic. Secondly, the customer is responsible for physical security of computers and other devices used to access the cloud. Thirdly, the customer is responsible for application security. Security of manag.
Please read the below discussion post and provide response in 75 to .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the below discussion post and provide response in 75 to 100 words
Post#1
Cloud security plays an important role in every field like business and personal world. With a large number of benefits it has some myths also. Cloud security is solely the cloud provider’s responsibility: a standard misconception is that the cloud provider automatically takes care of all the safety needs of the customer’s data and process while in the cloud. Password policies, release management for software patches, management of user roles, security training of staff, and data management policies are all responsibilities of the purchasers and a minimum of as critical because the security is done by the general public cloud provider. While users are hardening internal security, don’t assume that cloud provider backs up data and will be able to restore it just in case of a security breach. It is instrumental and important that users simply implement a backup solution that backs up data that's hosted on the cloud to an onsite backup or to a different cloud provider. In addition, in case of a security breach, user will get to restore data from backups. “There is indeed a good case to make for fair taxation and that uneven effective tax rates can distort competition and lead to smaller tax revenues” (Bauer, 2018).
Don’t get to manage the cloud: many people believe that since the cloud infrastructure is usually basically just a managed service, that the safety of the services is additionally managed. Many cloud based systems are left inadvertently unsecured because the customer doesn't know that they have to try to something to secure them, as they assume that the provider has done what an in-house staff would traditionally have done by default. Cloud security requires an equivalent discipline for security of any data center. Cloud data centers are as resilient as any, but the weakness comes if the policies, processes and tools aren’t regularly monitored by the IT operations staff responsible (Determann, 2016).
Ignore BYOD and be more secure: not supporting and implementing a BYOD policy does not mean an enterprise will be less at risk of a data breach, SVP of cloud and hosting sales. The BYOD movement is here to stay. Some experts recommend deploying a mobile content management (MCM) solution, as protecting the data will be what ultimately defines business’ security and compliance requirements. “Despite the Australian Federal Government's ‘cloud-first’ strategy and policies, and the Queensland State Government's ‘digital-first’ strategy, cloud services adoption at local government level has been limited—largely due to data security concerns” (Ali, Shrestha, Chatfield, & Murray, 2020). Cloud data isn’t saved on mobile devices: I still hear people speaking about cloud deployment as if using this service means users are not saving any enterprise data on mobile devices, which this might make device data protection a moot point. Apps that are connecting to de.
Please read the assignment content throughly Internet Resources .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the assignment content throughly
Internet Resources Chart [due Mon]
Assignment Content
Create
a chart of Internet-based resources for early childhood literacy development.
Include
at least two different resources for each of the following topics:
Oral language
Environmental print
Morphemic analysis
Spelling
Vocabulary
Summarize
each resource. A total of 700 words should be used in the chart.
Submit
your assignment.
.
Please read the article by Peterson (2004). Your responses to th.docxchristalgrieg
Please read the article by Peterson (2004). Your responses to the following questions must be typed. Please be sure to include an APA-style citation
1. What is the purpose of this review paper
2. Describe
Incidental teaching
Mand-model
Time delay
Milieu language teaching
How are they the same?
How are they different?
3. What is discrete trial training? How is naturalistic teaching different?
4. What is generalization in language acquisition? How does naturalistic teaching promote generalization in language acquisition?
5. What were the conclusions of this review?
6. Be sure to provide and APA-style source citation for Peterson (2004) at the end of your paper
.
Please read the article which appears below. Write and submit an.docxchristalgrieg
Please read the article which appears below. Write and submit an
600 word report.
There is no right or wrong answer. Your report will be graded on your understanding of the problem of teenagers in high school having babies - and the attitude of the teens - whether you agree or disagree it is a good idea for the school to open a day care center to help these mothers (tell us why you agree or disagree), whether you agree or disagree with the teacher who wrote this article - tell us why you agree or disagree - why sociologists might want to study problems like this one, what sociologists might be able to contribute to solving problems like the one described . Link your answer to material we are studying. How well you express yourself - grammatical construction - spelling - is important. Maybe you can't make up your mind about this article. That's OK too. But it is important that you explain WHY.
Material you studied about agents of social change, primary and secondary groups in the chapters on
Culture - Socialization- Social Interaction - Social Structures - Groups and Organizations- should give you lots of ideas for your assignment.
They're Having Babies. Are We Helping?
By Patrick Welsh
The girls gather in small groups outside Alexandria's T.C. Williams High School most mornings, standing with their babies on their hips, talking and giggling like sorority sisters. Sometimes their mothers drop the kids (and their kids) off with a carefree smile and a wave. As I watch the girls carry their children into the Tiny Titans day-care center in our new $100 million building, I can't help wondering what Sister Mary Avelina, my 11th-grade English teacher, would have thought.
Okay, I'm an old guy from the 1950s, an era light-years from today. But even in these less censorious times, I'm amazed -- and concerned -- by the apparently nonchalant attitude both these girls and their mothers exhibit in front of teachers, administrators and hundreds of students each day. Last I heard, teen pregnancy is still a major concern in this country -- teenage mothers are less likely to finish school and more likely to live in poverty; their children are more likely to have difficulties in school and with the law; and on and on.
But none of that seems to register with these young women. In fact, "some girls seem to be really into it," says T.C. senior Mary Ball. "They are embracing their pregnancies." Nor is the sight of a pregnant classmate much of a surprise to the students at T.C. anymore. "When I was in middle school, I'd be shocked to see a pregnant eighth-grader," says Ball. "Now it seems so ordinary that we don't even talk about it."
Teenage pregnancy has been bright on American radar screens for the past year: TV teen starlet Jamie Lynn Spears's pregnancy caused a minor media storm last December. The pregnant-teen movie "Juno" won Oscar nods. And there was Bristol Palin, daughter of Alaska Gov. Sarah Palin, bringing the issue front and center d.
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“The biggest corporation, like the humblest citizen, must be held to strict compliance with the will of the people.”
--Theodore Roosevelt
Ethics:
The values an individual uses to interpret whether any particular action or behavior is considered acceptable or appropriate.
The social rules that govern & limit our conduct, especially the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong.
The basic guidelines for cooperative social existence.
Serves to restrain the purely self-interested desires in each of us in order to make it possible for all of us to live together.
The collective values of a business organization that can be used to evaluate whether the behavior of the collective members of the organization are considered acceptable and appropriate.
Business Ethics:
Moral/Ethical problems in business:
a conflict between financial performance (revenues, costs, & profits) and social performance (obligations to all stakeholders).
Ethical standards get confused with:
Law
Etiquette
Conscience
Corporate/Professional codes
Religion
Moral or Ethical Perspectives:
Moral RelativismMoral UniversalismMoral Perspecivalism
Moral Relativism:
The belief that morality is just a function of what a particular society happens to believe, that what is right is determined by what a society says is right.
e.g. abortion is condemned as immoral in Catholic Spain, but is practiced
as a morally neutral form of birth control in Japan.
Moral relativists believe that there is no absolute moral standard, no universal definition of right or wrong.
e.g. polygamy, stealing, slavery have all been tolerated by the moral system
of one society or another
Moral Relativism Presents some unpleasant implications:
1. it undermines any moral criticism of the practices of other
societies as long as their actions conform to their own standards
e.g. can't say that slavery in the American South was immoral as long as
that society allowed it to be morally permissible
2. the concept of ethical progress does not exist
e.g. can't say that our moral standards today are more enlightened
than those in the Middle Ages
Moral Universalism: In contrast, is the belief that variations in moral standards reflect different factual circumstances rather than fundamental differences in values.
Which is right??
It is good to emphasize that in viewing other cultures we should keep an open mind and not simply dismiss their social practices.
Moral Perspectivalism:
Compromise position is between moral relativism and universalism.the consideration of multiple perspectives while at the same time asserting universal truths.through examination of a variety of perspectives, one might be able to come closer to the ideal moral standards toward which to strive.
Ethical Theories:
There are many, many ethical theories, or in other words, ethical frameworks through which we can examine and attempt to understand an ethical dilemma. In the following ...
This document provides an overview of a chapter that discusses different ethical theories and decision-making frameworks. It introduces utilitarianism, which argues that actions should be judged based on their consequences and promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It also discusses deontological ethics, which focuses on following ethical principles and duties even if the consequences are not optimal. The document provides examples of how these theories apply to business decisions and discusses some of their limitations. It also introduces concepts like moral rights, duties, and the social contract as the basis for ethical principles.
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This document provides an overview of several philosophical foundations of business ethics, including consequentialism, utilitarianism, ethical egoism, and deontological ethics. It discusses concepts like utilitarian decision-making, maximizing overall happiness, and ethical theories proposed by philosophers like John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham, and Immanuel Kant. The document also examines ideas around rights, duties, consequences, social contracts, and treating people with dignity. It aims to help readers understand different approaches to ethical decision-making and analyzing business decisions through a philosophical lens.
Responses1-LA1 The human race is structured in a way that diff.docxronak56
Responses
1-LA1 The human race is structured in a way that different individual have different opinions. Similarly, people might have some similar moral ethics while others differ. The Virtue ethical theory is universal in that attributes are universally recognized as good or bad (The Universal Moral Code). Kant’s and the Utilitarian theories are relative. First, Kant’s theory dwells on the fulfillment of a responsibility. Some responsibilities are accepted in some communities while others do not. Similarly, utilitarianism looks at the consequences of the actions, which differ according to the community.
Ethical relativism and universalism differ in more than one way. However, with the correct attitude towards a particular action, one will be able to distinguish whether it is beneficial or not. Activities that evoke difference in opinions should be minimized at all times. In addition, making sure that the actions are clear so that an individual is able to distinguish between right and wrong is also important. Furthermore, appreciating the different cultures help individuals to adapt to any change brought forward.
Reference
The Universal Moral Code. Retrieved from http://www.universalmoralcode.com/
1-LA2 This is a technological era that we expect more technological discoveries to continue coming in. One of such discoveries is the self-driving car, which makes the effort being put in by human beings almost negligible. Concerns about the vehicle come in when a decision has to be made in the case of an unexpected accident (Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill, 2015). Some people will choose to go over the ten people on crossing the road, while others will choose to have the individual by the sidewalk be a sacrifice.
It is very rare for an individual who bought the car to make himself or herself a sacrifice. This means that in the case of an accident, they are bound to run over other people. The self-driving car evokes different views by different people. However, one thing is clear, one has to either kill others or risk dying. In my opinion, I would rather stay die than see ten other people die.
Reference
Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill. (2015, October 22). Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/542626/why-self-driving-cars-must-be-programmed-to-kill/
2-LA1 From a teleological Virtue Ethic approach, supporters of this theory would conclude that morality is universal. According to Keith (2003), the universal moral code is separated into two sets of statements that involve “do no harm” and “do good.” This concept is based on people acting virtuously. An opposing view may argue the concept of relativism stating a moral code is relative to an individual’s or groups geographical location (Basilthegiant, n.d.). Using an example from Keith’s universal code such as do not murder is something that disproves the opposing view. Some may argue that there are times when murder can be justified such as war or se ...
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This document provides a framework for ethical decision making. It begins by defining ethics as standards of behavior for how humans ought to act in different situations, rather than being based on feelings, religion, laws, social norms, or science alone. It then discusses two challenges in identifying ethical standards: determining the basis and applying standards to specific situations. Five approaches are described for deriving ethical standards: utilitarianism, rights, fairness, common good, and virtues. While these approaches may provide different answers, they often lead to similar conclusions. The document concludes by outlining a 10-step process for recognizing ethical issues, gathering facts, evaluating options, making a decision, implementing it, and reflecting on the outcome.
This document provides an overview of ethical thinking and decision making. It discusses that ethics relates to how individuals and groups should behave and interact. The document then examines what ethics is and is not, including that ethics is not based solely on feelings, religion, laws, social norms, or science. It explores five sources of ethical standards: utilitarianism, rights, fairness, common good, and virtues. The document notes challenges in applying these standards but also how they often lead to similar ethical outcomes. It concludes by outlining a framework for ethical decision making.
1.6 Classical TheoriesEvery day we are confronted with questions.docxpaynetawnya
1.6 Classical Theories
Every day we are confronted with questions of right and wrong. These questions can appear to be very simple (Is it always wrong to lie?), as well as very complicated (Is it ever right to go to war?). Ethics is the study of those questions and suggests various ways we might solve them. Here we will look at three traditional theories that have a long history and that provide a great deal of guidance in struggling with moral problems; we will also see that each theory has its own difficulties. Ethics can offer a great deal of insight into the issues of right and wrong; however, we will also discover that ethics generally won't provide a simple solution on which everyone can agree.
Classical Theories
The classical ethical theories in a nutshell, with a short lesson in application.
Utilitarianism
A natural way to see whether an act is the right thing to do (or the wrong thing to do) is to look at its results, or consequences. Utilitarianism argues that, given a set of choices, the act we should choose is that which produces the best results for the greatest number affected by that choice.
Definition of Utilitarianism
After helping their mother clean the attic, John and Mary are told they can each have a cookie. When they open the cookie jar, only one is left. What do you think would be the fairest solution for John and Mary?
Those who follow utilitarianism suggest that there is an obvious solution that is fair, and it may be one that appeals to common sense as well: John and Mary should share the cookie. Since each has an equal right to it, they should split it in half. They may not get what they want—each wants the entire cookie—but both are better off with half a cookie than with no cookie. Dividing the cookie produces the greatest good for the greatest number. This is the fundamental principle of utilitarianism: One should choose to do that which produces a better outcome for the largest number of people.
The cookie example is, of course, a very simple case, but it allows us to introduce some of the terminology philosophers use to examine ethical choices. Here, for instance, we might call the pleasure John and Mary get from the cookie their "utility"; a standard assumption among ethicists, economists, and many others is that people seek to maximize their utility. Thus, Mary would like to maximize her utility by having the entire cookie, but that conflicts with John's desire to maximize his utility (by also having the entire cookie). We should also see that part of this calculation is to minimize pain or suffering; a choice that maximizes utility may often be one that produces the least harm, given the options available. Utilitarianism is the theory that people should choose that which maximizes the utility of all those who are affected by a given act.
Unfortunately, many ethical problems aren't as easy to solve as the cookie example. At this point ...
Weeks 5 & 6 – YOU as a stakeholderI Morals & Ethical Pri.docxphilipnelson29183
Weeks 5 & 6 – YOU as a stakeholder
I Morals & Ethical Principles
II Ethical Decision Making in Business
(Why good people do bad things)
Greg Smith
Choice of
Ethical
Perspective
Morality:
The social rules that govern & limit our conduct, especially the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong.
The basic guidelines for cooperative social existence.
Serves to restrain the purely self-interested desires in each of us in order to make it possible for all of us to live together.
When we make a decision or take an action we can be:
Moral - in compliance with moral standards
key operating questions of management is "is this action or decision fair to us and all stakeholders involved?"
Immoral - in opposition to moral standards
key operating question of management is "can we make money with this action or decision regardless of what it takes?"
Amoral - without consideration of moral standards
key operating question of management is "can we make money with this action or decision?"
Nonmoral - outside the sphere of moral concern
Moral standards get confused with:
Law Etiquette
Conscience
Corporate/Professional Codes
Religion
Moral Relativism:
The belief that morality is just a function of what a particular society happens to believe, that what is right is determined by what a society says is right.
abortion is condemned as immoral in Catholic Spain, but is practiced as a morally neutral form of birth control in Japan
Moral relativists believe that there is no absolute moral standard independent of culture, no universal definition of right or wrong.
polygamy, stealing, slavery have all been tolerated by the moral system of one society or another
Moral Universalism is the belief that variations in moral standards reflect different factual circumstances rather than fundamental differences in values.
Which is right?
It is good to emphasize that in viewing other cultures we should keep
an open mind and not simply dismiss their social practices.
Compromise position is Moral Perspectivalism,
the consideration of multiple perspectives while at the same time asserting universal truths.
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
*
1. Preconventional Level:
- how we behave as infants & children
- emphasis in decisions is on ourselves
Stage 1 - Reaction to punishment - pain avoidance
Stage 2 - Seeking of rewards - praise, candy, trip to a movie
2. Conventional Level:
- child learns the importance of conforming to norms of society
Stage 3 - Good boy/nice girl morality - rewards such as feelings of warmth, loyalty acceptance from family & peers
Stage 4 - Law and order morality - certain norms are expected in society - individual sees himself as part of a larger social system
3. Postconventional Level:
- a more advanced notion of right or wrong than that which is conventionally articulated
- moral principles are internalized, seen as "right"
- focus is on humanity as a whole
- f.
This document discusses the evolution and development of business ethics as an academic field. It traces some of the earliest influences on business ethics from ancient Greek philosophers like Epicurus and Sophocles. It then outlines the development of two main approaches - utilitarianism as developed by Bentham and Mill, which focuses on maximizing happiness, and deontological ethics as developed by Kant, which focuses on duties and rules. The document also summarizes some of the strengths and criticisms of each approach. Finally, it provides an overview of how business ethics became institutionalized as an academic field from the 1970s onward through increased writings, conferences, and incorporation into university curriculums.
Ethics refers to standards of right and wrong that prescribe how humans should act. These standards are based on virtues like honesty and compassion, as well as rights and obligations. Ethics also involves studying and examining one's moral beliefs and actions. There are several approaches to determining ethical standards, including considering the consequences of actions (utilitarianism), respecting individual rights, fairness and justice, the common good of society, and virtues of good character. While these approaches don't always agree, together they provide a framework for ethical decision making.
Various approaches to Business Ethics - Theories of Ethics- Friedman’s
Economic theory, Kant’s Deontological theory, Mill & Bentham’s Utilitarianism
theory.
Ethics deals with what is good for individuals and society by establishing obligations and duties between people. It judges behaviors as right or wrong based on the motives and outcomes of actions, following principles like honesty and doing unto others as you would have them do unto you. While laws influence some professions, many ethical issues cannot be settled in courts and what is ethical is sometimes independent of legality. Ethical standards may conflict with existing laws, and there are no absolute ways to resolve all ethical dilemmas.
Similar to TheoriesVirtue EthicsVirtue ethics is distinct from both uti.docx (16)
Please read the case Fraud at WorldCom in the book provided below .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the case Fraud at WorldCom in the book provided below (chapter 13) Page 310
And answer the following questions
1. What is the dilemma?
2. Do shareholders have de facto control over managers? What decisions do shareholders typically make? Please explain
One double-spaced page.
.
Please read the below two discussion posts and provide the response .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the below two discussion posts and provide the response for each discussion in 75 to 100 words.
Post#1
Nowadays, there are numerous advancements in technology. As a result, the traditional workplace has gradually transformed with home offices and virtual workplaces where employees can hold meetings using video teleconferencing tools and communicate through email and other applications such as Slack (Montrief, et al., 2020). This makes the cloud more busy which brings up the need for improved cloud security.
Generally, in a public cloud, there exists a shared responsibility between the user and the Cloud Service Provider (CSP). Due to the rise of cyber-related crimes over the years, security for things like data classification, network controls and physical security need clear owners. The division of such responsibilities is called shared responsibility model for cloud security. “According to Amazon Web Services (AWS), security responsibility is shared by both CSP and CSC and they called it as Shared Security Responsible Model” (Kumar, Raj, & Jelciana, 2018). “While client and endpoint protection, identity and access management and application level controls are a shared responsibility the responsibility resides largely with the client organization” (Lane, Shrestha, & Ali, 2017). However, the responsibilities may vary depending on the cloud service provider and the cloud environment the user is using to operate. Nevertheless, despite the cloud services used, the burden of protecting data lays upon the user.
Normally, security is broken down into two broad categories: security of the cloud and security in the cloud. Security of the cloud is a section of the shared responsibility model handled by the cloud service provider. It comprises of hardware, host operating systems and physical security of the infrastructure. Most of these logistical challenges are offloaded when an organization moves its operations to the cloud. In contrast, security in the cloud is the security responsibility handled by the user. “The cloud service customer is responsible for securing and managing the applications that run in the cloud, the operating systems, data-at-rest, data-in-transit, policies and other responsibilities” (Bennett & Robertson, 2019). Since access to customer data remains the most critical component in cloud computing, it also determined the level of security in the cloud to be implemented by the customer.
The customer is responsible for the following components. First, the customer is responsible for data security. While the provider is responsible for automatically encrypting data in transit and in storage, the customer is expected to configure file system encryption and protection of network traffic. Secondly, the customer is responsible for physical security of computers and other devices used to access the cloud. Thirdly, the customer is responsible for application security. Security of manag.
Please read the below discussion post and provide response in 75 to .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the below discussion post and provide response in 75 to 100 words
Post#1
Cloud security plays an important role in every field like business and personal world. With a large number of benefits it has some myths also. Cloud security is solely the cloud provider’s responsibility: a standard misconception is that the cloud provider automatically takes care of all the safety needs of the customer’s data and process while in the cloud. Password policies, release management for software patches, management of user roles, security training of staff, and data management policies are all responsibilities of the purchasers and a minimum of as critical because the security is done by the general public cloud provider. While users are hardening internal security, don’t assume that cloud provider backs up data and will be able to restore it just in case of a security breach. It is instrumental and important that users simply implement a backup solution that backs up data that's hosted on the cloud to an onsite backup or to a different cloud provider. In addition, in case of a security breach, user will get to restore data from backups. “There is indeed a good case to make for fair taxation and that uneven effective tax rates can distort competition and lead to smaller tax revenues” (Bauer, 2018).
Don’t get to manage the cloud: many people believe that since the cloud infrastructure is usually basically just a managed service, that the safety of the services is additionally managed. Many cloud based systems are left inadvertently unsecured because the customer doesn't know that they have to try to something to secure them, as they assume that the provider has done what an in-house staff would traditionally have done by default. Cloud security requires an equivalent discipline for security of any data center. Cloud data centers are as resilient as any, but the weakness comes if the policies, processes and tools aren’t regularly monitored by the IT operations staff responsible (Determann, 2016).
Ignore BYOD and be more secure: not supporting and implementing a BYOD policy does not mean an enterprise will be less at risk of a data breach, SVP of cloud and hosting sales. The BYOD movement is here to stay. Some experts recommend deploying a mobile content management (MCM) solution, as protecting the data will be what ultimately defines business’ security and compliance requirements. “Despite the Australian Federal Government's ‘cloud-first’ strategy and policies, and the Queensland State Government's ‘digital-first’ strategy, cloud services adoption at local government level has been limited—largely due to data security concerns” (Ali, Shrestha, Chatfield, & Murray, 2020). Cloud data isn’t saved on mobile devices: I still hear people speaking about cloud deployment as if using this service means users are not saving any enterprise data on mobile devices, which this might make device data protection a moot point. Apps that are connecting to de.
Please read the assignment content throughly Internet Resources .docxchristalgrieg
Please read the assignment content throughly
Internet Resources Chart [due Mon]
Assignment Content
Create
a chart of Internet-based resources for early childhood literacy development.
Include
at least two different resources for each of the following topics:
Oral language
Environmental print
Morphemic analysis
Spelling
Vocabulary
Summarize
each resource. A total of 700 words should be used in the chart.
Submit
your assignment.
.
Please read the article by Peterson (2004). Your responses to th.docxchristalgrieg
Please read the article by Peterson (2004). Your responses to the following questions must be typed. Please be sure to include an APA-style citation
1. What is the purpose of this review paper
2. Describe
Incidental teaching
Mand-model
Time delay
Milieu language teaching
How are they the same?
How are they different?
3. What is discrete trial training? How is naturalistic teaching different?
4. What is generalization in language acquisition? How does naturalistic teaching promote generalization in language acquisition?
5. What were the conclusions of this review?
6. Be sure to provide and APA-style source citation for Peterson (2004) at the end of your paper
.
Please read the article which appears below. Write and submit an.docxchristalgrieg
Please read the article which appears below. Write and submit an
600 word report.
There is no right or wrong answer. Your report will be graded on your understanding of the problem of teenagers in high school having babies - and the attitude of the teens - whether you agree or disagree it is a good idea for the school to open a day care center to help these mothers (tell us why you agree or disagree), whether you agree or disagree with the teacher who wrote this article - tell us why you agree or disagree - why sociologists might want to study problems like this one, what sociologists might be able to contribute to solving problems like the one described . Link your answer to material we are studying. How well you express yourself - grammatical construction - spelling - is important. Maybe you can't make up your mind about this article. That's OK too. But it is important that you explain WHY.
Material you studied about agents of social change, primary and secondary groups in the chapters on
Culture - Socialization- Social Interaction - Social Structures - Groups and Organizations- should give you lots of ideas for your assignment.
They're Having Babies. Are We Helping?
By Patrick Welsh
The girls gather in small groups outside Alexandria's T.C. Williams High School most mornings, standing with their babies on their hips, talking and giggling like sorority sisters. Sometimes their mothers drop the kids (and their kids) off with a carefree smile and a wave. As I watch the girls carry their children into the Tiny Titans day-care center in our new $100 million building, I can't help wondering what Sister Mary Avelina, my 11th-grade English teacher, would have thought.
Okay, I'm an old guy from the 1950s, an era light-years from today. But even in these less censorious times, I'm amazed -- and concerned -- by the apparently nonchalant attitude both these girls and their mothers exhibit in front of teachers, administrators and hundreds of students each day. Last I heard, teen pregnancy is still a major concern in this country -- teenage mothers are less likely to finish school and more likely to live in poverty; their children are more likely to have difficulties in school and with the law; and on and on.
But none of that seems to register with these young women. In fact, "some girls seem to be really into it," says T.C. senior Mary Ball. "They are embracing their pregnancies." Nor is the sight of a pregnant classmate much of a surprise to the students at T.C. anymore. "When I was in middle school, I'd be shocked to see a pregnant eighth-grader," says Ball. "Now it seems so ordinary that we don't even talk about it."
Teenage pregnancy has been bright on American radar screens for the past year: TV teen starlet Jamie Lynn Spears's pregnancy caused a minor media storm last December. The pregnant-teen movie "Juno" won Oscar nods. And there was Bristol Palin, daughter of Alaska Gov. Sarah Palin, bringing the issue front and center d.
Please Read instructions Role Model LeadersChoose one • 1 .docxchristalgrieg
Please Read instructions
Role Model Leaders
Choose one • 1 point
In a study by Kouzes and Posner, who was identified as the person that the majority of people would select as their most important role model for leadership?
Teacher or coach
Business leader
Family member
Community or religious leader
QUESTION 2
Five Practices
Choose one • 1 point
Which of the following is
not
one of the Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership?
Model the Way
Leave a Legacy
Encourage the Heart
Enable Others to Act
QUESTION 3
Organizational Behavior
Choose one • 1 point
Organizational Behavior is a defined business function that has nothing to do with human behavior.
True
False
QUESTION 4
Leader and Constituents
Choose one • 1 point
What strengthens and sustains the relationship between leader and constituents is that leaders are:
Obsessed with what is best for others, not themselves
Obsessed with what is best for making the most money for themselves
Obsessed with what is best for themselves, not others
Obsessed with what is best for the business, not others
QUESTION 5
The Most Fundamental Truth
Choose one • 1 point
According to Kouzes and Posner, which of the Ten Truths about Leadership is the most fundamental truth of all?
Credibility is the Foundation of Leadership
Challenge is the Crucible for Greatness
You Can’t Do It Alone
You Make a Difference
QUESTION 6
Credibility
Choose one • 1 point
A culture of leadership ______________ and ______________ is created when people at all levels genuinely expect each other to be credible, and they hold each other accountable for the actions that build and sustain credibility.
Excellence and integrity
Independence and coerciveness
Confidence and charisma
Dissatisfaction and distrust
QUESTION 7
Organizational Behavior
Choose one • 1 point
The study of Organizational Behavior helps us to understand organizational culture, power, and political behavior.
True
False
QUESTION 8
Organization’s vision and values
Choose one • 1 point
Who is the person that has the most influence over your desire to stay or leave an organization, and your commitment to the organization’s vision and values?
CEO
Co-workers
Board of Directors
Your most immediate manager
QUESTION 9
Willingly Follow
Choose one • 1 point
In a survey by Kouzes and Posner, which of the following characteristics scored the highest that people looked for in someone that they would be willing to follow:
Independent
Supportive
Honest
Straightforward
QUESTION 10
Expectation of Leaders
Choose one • 1 point
In addition to the three factors that measure source credibility, the vast majority of constituents have one other expectation of leaders. They expect leaders to be:
Admired
Forward-looking
Independent
Enthusiastic
QUESTION 11
Leadership is a Relationship
Choose one • 1 point
Leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who are learning to lead
.
Tru.
Please read each attachment for instructions, please answer each q.docxchristalgrieg
Please read each attachment for instructions, please answer each question all 8 with an answer after reading each attachment. Do not answer each question in a running paragraph. question/answer in at least 200 -300 word detailed with references from attachments and one extra where needed.
I do not have a second chance to correct
Activity: Counseling Immigrants
Instructions:
This activity is composed of three parts. In order to complete part I, you must read the article “Counseling Haitian Students and their Families: Issues and Interventions.” In order to complete part II, you must read the “APA Immigration Report Executive Summary,” and in order to complete part III, you must read “Counseling Model for Immigrants.”
Part I
1) Explain the differences between what parents are expected to do in American schools and what parents are expected to do in Haitian schools.
2) Why did Jean’s parents did not seek contact with teachers?
3) Haitian students face significant prejudice from teachers and classmates based on their race, the negative image of voudou, their former classification as a high-risk group for AIDS, and the violence and corruption of Haiti’s domestic politics. Name the interventions suggested by Joseph (1984).
Part II
1. The United States today has approximately _______ million immigrants—the largest number in its history. As a nation of immigrants, the United States has successfully negotiated larger proportions of newcomers in its past (______% in 1910 vs. _____% today). Notably, nearly _________ ____________of the foreign-born are naturalized citizens or authorized noncitizens.
2. Nearly a ___________ of children under the age of 18 have an immigrant __________.
3. One third of the foreign-born population in the United States is from ________, and a total of _______% originate from Latin America (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).The four states with the largest numbers of immigrants (California, __________, New Mexico, and _________) have already become “majority/minority” (______ than ________% White) states (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011a).
4. Immigrants arrive in the United States with varied levels of education. At one end of the spectrum are highly educated immigrant adults (Portes & Rumbaut, 2006) who comprise a ___________ of all U.S. __________, ________% of the nation’s __________ and ____________ workers with bachelor’s degrees, and _______% of scientists with ______________.
5. An estimated ________ languages are currently spoken in homes in the United States.
6. Psychological acculturation refers to the dynamic process that immigrants experience as they __________ to the culture of the new country.
7. The constellation of presenting issues for immigrants tends to fall within the areas of _________________- based presenting problems, __________-based presenting problems, and _________________, ____________, and ______________–based problems.
8. To increase the accessibility and efficacy of services, clinicians and p.
PLEASE READ BEFORE STARTING! 500 WORD PAPER ONLY USING THE NOTES I.docxchristalgrieg
**PLEASE READ BEFORE STARTING! 500 WORD PAPER ONLY USING THE NOTES I HAVE PROVIDED BELOW. ESSAY QUESTION IS RIGHT BELOW AS WELL.**
Three common approaches to understanding leading – traits, behaviors, and situational or contingency approaches - may or may not be effective in leading/managing a healthcare program. Briefly summarize each and its appropriateness for healthcare management.
Health Program Management (Longest, 2015)
“Leading effectively means influencing participants to make contributions that help accomplish the mission and objectives established for a program.” (Longest, 2015, p. 139)
Traits approach
“Based on the proposition that traits - encompassing skills, abilities, or characteristics - inherent in some people explain why they are more effective at leading than others.” (Longest, 2015, p. 140)
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991, 48) stated, “Key leader traits include: drive (a broad term which includes achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative); leadership, motivation (the desire to lead but not to seek power as an end in itself); honesty and integrity; self-confidence (which is associated with emotional stability); cognitive ability; and knowledge.” (as cited in Longest, 2015, p. 140)
Behaviors approach
“Traits cannot fully explain effectively leading, is based on the assumption that particular behaviors or sets of behaviors that make up a style of leading might be associated with success in leading.” (Longest, 2015, p. 140)
Planning, clarifying, monitoring, problem solving, supporting, recognizing, developing, empowering, advocating change, envisioning change, encouraging innovation, facilitating collective learning, networking, external monitoring, representing (Longest, 2015, p. 142)
Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s continuum of leader styles model: (Longest, 2015, p. 147)
Autocratic leaders - makes decisions and announces them to other participants
Consultative leaders - convince other participants of the correctness of a decision by carefully explaining the rationale for the decision and its effect on the other participants and on the program
Participative leaders - present tentative decisions that will be changed in other participants can make a convincing case for different decisions
Democratic leaders - define the limits of the situation and problem to be solved and permit other participants to make the decision
Laissez-faire leaders - permit other participants to have great discretion in decision making
“Leaders must adapt and change styles to fit different situations.” (Longest, 2015, p. 147)
“An autocratic style might be appropriate in certain clinical situations in programs where work frequently involves a high degree of urgency. But this style could be disastrous in other situations, such as when a manager must decide how to offer a new service in a program or improve communication with participants.” (Longest, 2015, p. 147)
Situational/Contingency approach
“.
Please read Patricia Benners Five Stages of Proficiency. Explai.docxchristalgrieg
Please read Patricia Benner's Five Stages of Proficiency. Explain the importance of this theory through a nurse's perspective. No references are required. Your summary should be at least 300 words using good spelling and grammar. Can be single or double spaced.
Attached Files:
Dr. Patricia Benner is a nursing theorist who first developed a model for the stages of clinical competence in her classic book “From Novice to Expert: Excellence and Power in Clinical Nursing Practice”. Her model is one of the most useful frameworks for assessing nurses’ needs at different stages of professional growth. She is the Chief Faculty Development Officer for Educating Nurses, the Director of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching National Nursing Education and honorary fellow of the Royal College of Nursing.
Dr. Benner was born in Hampton, Virginia, and received her bachelor’s degree in Nursing from Pasadena College in 1964, and later a master’s degree in Medical-Surgical Nursing from the University of California, Berkeley. After completing her doctorate in 1982, she became an Associate Professor in the Department of Physiological Nursing at the University of California, San Francisco. Dr. Benner is an internationally known lecturer and researcher on health, and her work has influenced areas of clinical practice as well as clinical ethics.
This nursing theory proposes that expert nurses develop skills and understanding of patient care over time through a proper educational background as well as a multitude of experiences. Dr. Benner’s theory is not focused on how to be a nurse, rather on how nurses acquire nursing knowledge – one could gain knowledge and skills (“knowing how”), without ever learning the theory (“knowing that”). She used the Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition as a foundation for her work. The Dreyfus model, described by brothers Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus, is a model based on observations of chess players, Air Force pilots, army commanders and tank drivers. The Dreyfus brothers believed learning was experiential (learning through experience) as well as situation-based, and that a student had to pass through five very distinct stages in learning, from novice to expert.
Dr. Benner found similar parallels in nursing, where improved practice depended on experience and science, and developing those skills was a long and progressive process. She found when nurses engaged in various situations, and learned from them, they developed “skills of involvement” with patients and family. Her model has also been relevant for ethical development of nurses since perception of ethical issues is also dependent on the nurses’ level of expertise. This model has been applied to several disciplines beyond clinical nursing, and understanding the five stages of clinical competence helps nurses support one another and appreciate that expertise in any field is a process learned over time.
Dr. Benner’s Stages of Clinical Competence
Stage 1 Novice: .
***************Please Read Instructions **************
OBJECTIVES:
Use personal influence with a group or team.
Identify the behaviors that exemplify the leadership truths.
Understand the stages of team development.
Explain how motivation impacts performance.
GOAL:
The purpose of this assignment is to provide an opportunity to express understanding of content associated with the chapters covered in Week Two (
Values Drive Commitment
,
Focusing on the Future Sets Leaders Apart
, and
You Can't Do It Alone
). For this assignment, you must use the Full Sail Online Library resources for at least one source in answering the questions. Make sure you clearly indicate which source(s) are from the online library. To access the Full Sail Library sources, go to Connect/Departments/Library. You will see a list of databases available. The library is open Monday-Friday 8:00 am - 9:00 pm and Saturday 8:00 am - 5:00 pm and can be reached at x8438.
Chapter Five
discusses the importance of
working in teams
and the
importance of emotional intelligence
in both your personal and social skills. How well are you in these areas? The goal of this week's discussion is to use the resources from this week to
develop, create, and implement a team activity with you being the leader.
INSTRUCTIONS:
First Post – due Thursday by 11:59pm EST *Due date extended due to the nature of the activity. Use this time to create an amazing activity!
Persuade at least four to eight people to do some notable activity together for at least two hours
that they would not otherwise do without your intervention. Your only restriction is that you cannot tell them why you are doing this.
The group can be any group of people: friends, family, teammates, club members, neighbors, students, or work colleagues
. It can be almost any activity
except for
watching television, eating, going to a movie, or just sitting around talking. It must be more substantial than that. Some options include a party, an organized debate, a songfest, a long hike, a visit to a museum, or volunteer work such as picking up litter, visiting a nursing home, or helping on a community project.
After completing your leadership activity, be prepared to discuss:
1. What was the activity selected?
Use specifics to describe your activity including
who attended (friends, family, co-workers, etc), location, and date. What did it feel like to make something happen in the world that would not have happened otherwise without you?
2.
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
is important to develop to build relationships with others. How did you use EQ to empower others, listen to individual needs, and build relationships?
3. With this act of leadership,
what values did you exemplify
? (Use the
Values Drive Commitment c
hapter
concepts in your response.)
4. Were your members a group or a team? Using the
stages of team development
(Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing), describe the specific behaviors that de.
Please react to this student post. remember references and plarigari.docxchristalgrieg
Please react to this student post. remember references and plarigarism
Descending Spinal Tract
Corticospinal, reticulospinal, and vestibulospinal
Sends impulses from the brain to muscle groups
Control muscle tone, posture, and motor movements
Efferent
A
scending Spinal Tract
Spinothalamic and spinocerebellar
Sends sensory signals to accomplish complex tasks
Ascending tracts recognize exact stimulus and location
Contains fibers that discriminate rough from light touch, temperature and pain
Afferent
If the spinal cord is completely severed, then complete loss of function below the point if injury is expected (Ball, Dains, Flynn, Solomon & Stewart, 2015).
The nervous system is a group of nerves and neurons that transmit messages to different parts of the body. It is in charge of coordinating and controlling the body (Ball et al., 2015). The nervous system is divided into the central and the peripheral nervous system, further subdivided into autonomic, sympathetic and parasympathetic. The central nervous system is comprised of the brain. The peripheral nervous systems is comprised of the cranial and spinal nerves and the ascending and descending pathways (Ball et al., 2015). With all parts functioning properly the nervous system is able to receive and identify stimuli, control voluntary and involuntary body functions (Ball et al., 2015).
The three major units of the brain are the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem (Ball et al., 2015).
The difference between the ascending and descending tracts is that the ascending is sensory (afferent) because it delivers information to the brain and the descending tract delivers motor (efferent) information to the periphery (Ball et al., 2015)
The pituitary gland regulates metabolic processes and controls growth, lactation, and vasoconstriction through hormonal regulation (Ball et al., 2015).
The fourth cranial nerve is called trochlear and it is in charge of the downward and inward movement of the eye (Ball et al., 2015).
Risk factors for cerebrovascular accidents include hypertension, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, smoking, stress, high cholesterol/triglycerides/lipoproteins, congenital conditions and family history of cerebrovascular accidents (Ball et al., 2015).
The 5.07 monofilament test is used to test sensation in different parts of the foot in patients suffering from diabetes mellitus or peripheral neuropathy (Ball et al., 2015).
The 0 to 4+ scale is used to grade the response when testing the reflex. 0 indicates no response and 4+ indicates hyperactive reflex (Ball et al., 2015).
Older adults may be taking medication for other conditions that can affect their balance, mental status and coordination and it is important know this in order to rule out whether a symptom is due to a side effect or a cause for concern (Ball et al., 2015).
Meningitis that occurs during the first year may cause epilepsy later on in life, also any infection in the first year of life can impa.
Please provide the following information about your culture which is.docxchristalgrieg
Please provide the following information about your culture which is the ANCIENT EMPIRE:
Content
Introduction with a thesis statement
Provide a brief history of your culture
Explain how your chosen culture is represented in the United States
Is your culture individualistic or collectivistic? Provide at least one example
What are some of the artistic (art, music, architecture, dance) contributions of your culture?
What are some values of your culture? Provide at least three examples
Discuss your culture’s religion(s)? Include name and basic belief system of at least one of the major faiths
What are some of the sex and gender role differences in your culture? Provide at least three examples
Discuss what we would need to know to acculturate into your culture (if it is a culture from the past, what would we need to do in order to fit in during that timeframe). Provide at least one concrete suggestion
Conclusion
Specific Paper Requirements:
Four-page minimum: six-page maximum (Times New Roman, 1-inch marginsm 12-pt. font, double-spaced)
Quality of writing: Must contain in-text citations in APA format
Spelling and Grammar
Correct APA style format
A minimum of three or more credible sources (books, journal articles, magazine/newspaper articles, etc.)
Paper Outline:
Introduction
History
Cultural Context
Represented in the United States
Individualistic/Collective
Artistic
Values
Religion
Sex and Gender Roles
Acculturation
Conclusion
References
.
Please proof the paper attached and complete question 6 and 7..docxchristalgrieg
Please proof the paper attached and complete question 6 and 7.
Moore Plumbing Supply Company
Capital Structure
Mort Moore founded Moore Plumbing Supply after returning from duty in the South Pacific during World War II. Before joining the armed forces, he had worked for a locally owned plumbing company and wanted to continue with that type of work once the war effort was over. Shortly after returning to his hometown of Minneapolis, Minnesota, he became aware of an unprecedented construction boom. Returning soldiers needed new housing as they started families and readjusted to civilian life. Mort felt that he could make more money by providing plumbing supplies to contractors rather than performing the labor, and he decided to open a plumbing supply company. Mort’s parents died when he was young and was raised by his older brother, Stan, who ran a successful shoe business during the 1920’s. Stan often shared stories about owning his own business and in particular about a large expansion that was completed just before the market collapsed. Because of the economic times, Stan lost the business but was lucky to find employment with the railroad. He dutifully saved part of each paycheck and was so thankful that his brother returned home safely that he decided to use his sizable savings to help his brother open his business. Mort kept in mind his brother’s failed business and vowed that his company would operate in such a way that it would minimize its vulnerability of general business downturns.
Moore’s extensive inventory and reasonable prices made the company the primary supplier of the major commercial builders in the area. In addition, Mort developed a loyal customer base among the home repair person, as his previous background allowed him to provide excellent advice about specific projects and to solve unique problems. As a result, his business prospered and over the past twenty years, sales have grown faster than the industry. Because of the large orders, the company receives favorable prices from suppliers, allowing Moore Plumbing Supply to remain competitive with the discount houses that have sprung up in the area. Over the years, Mort has kept his pledge and the company has remained a very strong financial position. It had a public sale of stock and additional stock offers to fund expansions including regional supply outlets in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Sioux City, Iowa.
Recently, Stan decided that the winters were too long and he wanted to spend the coldest months playing golf in Florida. He retired from the day-to-day operations but retained the position of President and brought in his grandson, Tom Moore, to run the company as the new Chief Executive Officer. Tom was an excellent choice for the position. After graduating summa-cum-laud with a degree in communications from the University of Wisconsin, he worked in the Milwaukee operation where he was quickly promoted to manager. In ten years, sa.
Please prepare PPT( 5 Slides and 1 citation slide) and also explain .docxchristalgrieg
Please prepare PPT( 5 Slides and 1 citation slide) and also explain all slides in word format about 300 words to give presentation
Types of Stakeholders:
Suppliers - Sandeep
Owners - Sandeep
Employees - Sandeep
Stakeholder Impact of Ethics on Stakeholders – Ravi/Rushil/Sandeep/Krishna
References
.
Please prepare a one-pageProject Idea that includes the .docxchristalgrieg
Please prepare a
one-page
Project Idea
that includes the following:
1. What type of project
would you like to do: develop a proposal for a new business; develop a plan to green an existing business; creative project; or research project?
2. What is the big idea
that you would like to pursue? (1-2 sentences)
3. Why
did you decide on this idea? (2-3 sentences)
4. If working in a team
, please list each team member and include either one specific role that they will play in the project or one link to a helpful resource that they have found that will inform the team’s project.
If doing an individual project
, please list at least one resource that will inform your thinking.
5. Develop a
proposed timeline
for the project (including the deliverables below, plus additional steps needed to produce the deliverables).
See the project guidelines under Course Documents or linked
here
for more information.
.
Please prepare at least in 275 to 300 words with APA references and .docxchristalgrieg
Please prepare at least in 275 to 300 words with APA references and citation.
1) Please describe the meaning of diversification. How does diversification reduce risk for the investor?
2) What is the opportunity cost of capital? How can a company measure opportunity cost of capital for a project that is considered to have average risk?
.
Please provide references for your original postings in APA form.docxchristalgrieg
Please provide references for your original postings in APA format.
1. Discuss the types of backup locations, per the text and Powerpoint presentation raeadings for the week.
2. Would a single backup location be adequate or should a combination be used? What combination would you recommend?
.
Please provide an update to include information about methodology, n.docxchristalgrieg
Please provide an update to include information about methodology, new literature discovered, or even questions regarding current progress. Topic selection is Cyber Security in Industry 4.0: The Pitfalls of Having Hyperconnected Systems can be found at https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/iasme/10/1/10_100103/_pdf. APA citation is the following. Dawson, M. (2018). Cyber Security in Industry 4.0: The Pitfalls of Having Hyperconnected Systems. Journal of Strategic Management Studies, 10(1), 19-28. (250 words)
.
Please provide an evaluation of the Path to Competitive Advantage an.docxchristalgrieg
Please provide an evaluation of the Path to Competitive Advantage and Motivation and
Feedback and answer the following questions:
1. How can managers enhance employee motivation through performance management
techniques?
2. It is well known that individuals on international assignments operate under unique
contextual and cultural realities. How would motivation differ in such environments?
*********
1 page follow APA 7 citation.
.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
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The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
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Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
TheoriesVirtue EthicsVirtue ethics is distinct from both uti.docx
1. Theories
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is distinct from both utilitarianism and deontology
. Rather than focusing on the
consequences of the act we wish to evaluate, or the reason or rul
e that guides the action, we
look at the character of the person performing the act. Virtue et
hics, thus, seeks to determine
not what makes an act good but what makes a person virtuous.
Deontology
Rather than looking at the consequences of an act, deontology l
ooks at the reason for which an act is done, and the rule accordi
ng to which one chooses to act. Deontology doesn't deny that
acts have consequences; rather, it insists that those consequence
s should not play a role in our moral evaluation of such acts.
Definition of Deontology
Utilitarianism is sometimes called a consequentialist theory bec
ause it evaluates whether an act is right or wrong in terms of the
act's consequences. In contrast to consequentialist theories, a n
umber of different approaches suggest distinct ways of evaluati
ng the morality of an act.
Perhaps the most famous of these is deontology. Coming from t
he Greek deon, which means
"duty," deontology (sometimes referred to as duty ethics) focuse
s on what we are obligated to do as rational moral agents. It is p
articularly important to see that the deontologist does not say th
at actions do not have consequences; rather, the deontologist ins
ists that actions should not be evaluated on the basis of the actio
n's consequences.
Utilitarianism
A natural way to see whether an act is the right thing to do (or t
2. he wrong thing to do) is to look at its results, or consequences.
Utilitarianism argues that, given a set of choices, the act we
should choose is that which produces the best results for the gre
atest number affected by that choice.
We should also see that part of this calculation is to minimize p
ain or suffering; a choice that maximizes utility may often be on
e that produces the least harm, given the options available. Utili
tarianism is the theory that
people should choose that which maximizes the utility of all tho
se who are affected by a given act.
At thispoint, however, we see the basic utilitarian principle and
how to apply it. Now we can start to make it a bit more precise.
According to utilitarianism, one should always act in a way that
produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people rel
ative to any other way one
might act, or act in a way that maximizes the utility of all affect
ed by an act, relative to any alternative to that act.
Perspectives
Emotivism
Emotivism offers a perspective on our ethical claims that elimin
ates much of the traditional
kind of argument based on reason. Emotivism, instead, sees our
moral evaluations as simply
the expression of whether we respond to a given act by liking it
or not liking it. Something is
good, on this view, if it is something about which we feel good;
something is wrong if it is
something about which we feel bad.
Definition of Emotivism
Emotivism is a noncognitive theory of ethics because it denies,
among other things, that moral claims can appeal to "facts." Rat
her, emotivism, as the name indicates, simply says that moral
claims express an emotional response, or an attitude, we may ha
ve toward a given kind of
3. behavior. Emotivists insist that there is a significant difference t
hat we should recognize between moral
claims and other kinds of claims.
Ethical Egoism
Egoism—specifically ethical egoism—
argues that our moral evaluations should be made in terms of ou
r desires and goals. Something that promotes what I want is reg
arded as right; something that interferes with what I want, or
prevents me from reaching my goals, is regarded as wrong.
Definition of Ethical Egoism
A position that contrasts sharply with the classic ethical theorie
s of utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics—
and most religions—
is called ethical egoism. The literal meaning of "ego" comes fro
m the Greek word for "self," or "I," and that notion is at the cen
ter of egoism: I do what I want to do in order to increase my
own happiness, my own pleasure. Simply put, I know what I wa
nt, and something is good, or
right, if it helps me to obtain that desire (and bad, or wrong, if i
t interferes with my doing so). If doing something promotes my
own happiness or helps me reach my desired goals, I should do
it. That is the fundamental principle of ethical egoism.
Ethical egoism, obviously enough, is an approach to ethics, but
it should be noted that another kind of egoism, psychological eg
oism, needs to be kept distinct from ethical egoism.
Relativism
The view of ethical relativism regards values as determined by
one's own ethical standards,
often those provided by one's own culture and background. Rath
er than insisting that there are moral absolutes, moral claims mu
st be interpreted in terms of how they reflect a person's viewpoi
nt; moral claims are then said to be "right in a given culture" or
"wrong for a given society."
Definition of Relativism
Have you ever ended an argument by simply agreeing to disagre
4. e? Relativism is the idea that
one's beliefs and values are understood in terms of one's societ
y, culture, or even one's own
individual values. You may disagree with someone and believe
your view is superior, relative to you as an individual; more oft
en, relativism is described in terms of the values of the
community in which one lives.
The economy is driven by the exchange of goods and services—
the purchase and sale of products. In some cases, these products
are tangible items that we can see and feel, like cell phones,
medications, vehicles, and baseballs. In other situations, the
product might be a service—such as lawn care, massage
therapy, or a legal consultation. The American economy, in
2012, showed a gross domestic product (the value of goods and
services produced) of $13.5 trillion (Federal Reserve Bank of
St. Louis, 2013).
A number of laws govern business practices, including
everything from marketing and advertising to packaging to
liability issues regarding consumer harm. Regulatory agencies
also exist to oversee commerce: the National Transportation
Safety Board (NTSB); the Federal Trade Commission (FTC);
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC); and the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) are examples.
Product liability—determining who is responsible when a
consumer is harmed—is a primarily legal issue. This chapter
will focus more directly on the ethical issues that arise in
business practices. Because trade ultimately occurs between
individuals (companies are made up of people, just as
consumers are persons), moral reasoning is clearly applicable in
guiding decisions and actions. This chapter will explore several
moral concerns that arise in the relationship between businesses
(producers and sellers) and their customers.
9.1 The Issue: Design Flaws in Products
The Ford Pinto is a classic example of a product with a design
5. flaw.
In 1968, the Ford Motor Company began producing a new
subcompact car called the Pinto. This vehicle was designed and
developed on an abbreviated timeline in order to get to market
as quickly as possible. The Volkswagen Beetle was extremely
popular, and Ford executives also feared that Japanese
manufacturers would dominate the subcompact market if they
did not get something on the market soon. With this in mind,
the Pinto was designed and developed in about half the time that
is spent on most vehicles. During its 10-year production, Ford
sold over 2.3 million Pintos.
The vehicles had safety problems, however. In May 1972, the
problem was first identified when a Pinto driven by Lily Gray
was struck from the rear by another car. The fuel tank in the
Pinto exploded, killing Gray and severely injuring her
passenger, Richard Grimshaw. Several other instances of fuel
tank explosions involving Pintos were reported; in one such
case, a van traveling at about 55 miles per hour rear-ended a
Pinto stopped on the side of the highway. The Pinto exploded,
killing all three women inside as well as the van's driver. In
total, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) determined that 27 people died as a result of the
faulty fuel tank design in the Pinto; another 24 suffered severe
burn injuries.
The Manufacturer Perspective
Without minimizing the seriousness of injury and death, it must
be recognized that new technologies introduce new risks. Any
product can cause harm, especially when that product is misused
in some way. This is why products have warning labels that
remind consumers not to use an electrical appliance near water
(in the sink or the bathtub, for example), why ladders and
elevators list the maximum weight they are designed to safely
support, and so forth.
The only way to completely avoid being harmed by a product is
to avoid the use of that product. The point here is not to be
6. overly simplistic, but to recognize that benefits are offset by
risks. I could walk to work (approximately 7 miles), but it
would take a long time, it would be tiring, and it would be
especially inconvenient when the weather isn't ideal (too hot,
too cold, too wet, etc.). In order to complete the journey more
quickly and in greater comfort, I can drive my car. When I
choose to do so, I must accept the risks involved in driving. To
put it simply: To receive the benefits of personal transportation,
consumers assume the risk.
Additionally, 27 deaths among 2.3 million vehicles (the number
of Pintos sold by Ford) is far lower than the number of deaths
caused by rear-end collisions in other car models where the fuel
tank did not explode (rear-end collisions account for nearly one-
third of all motor vehicle collisions.) The specific design of the
Ford Pinto may have introduced a new risk, but there is no clear
indication that it increased the likelihood of death from a rear-
end collision. To put a different way, had Ford corrected the
fuel tank issue, it might have prevented explosions but would
not necessarily have increased the chances of its passengers
surviving a rear-end collision.
None of these arguments are intended to suggest that the fuel
tank design was not an important factor. They do, however,
suggest that the design issues may not be as important in overall
passenger safety as they initially appear. This point is
underscored by the fact that in many of the accidents involving
a Ford Pinto, the driver of the vehicle that struck the Pinto was
under the influence of alcohol or drugs. For example, consider
an accident in August 1981, which killed three women in a
Pinto. In that case, the victims were struck by a vehicle driven
by a man with open beer bottles, marijuana, caffeine pills, and
other illegal drugs in the car with him.
When these factors are taken into consideration, the bulk of the
fault lies not with the design of the Pinto itself, but with those
who caused the collisions (especially if they were illegally
operating their own vehicle). Had those people never rear-ended
the Pintos, the fires would not have occurred. Should liability
7. fall on the company for a possible design flaw in the car when
the driver directly responsible for the collision is at fault?
A company should be responsible for a product that harms
consumers when used as intended. When a product meets
existing safety regulations, it is not clear that it is fair to hold
the manufacturer responsible for harm caused when the product
is misused (in the case of the Pinto, the misuse stemmed from
the drivers of the cars who collided with Ford's product).
The Consumer-Safety Perspective
Products should be safe to use under normal conditions. We
might grant that an injury caused by a misuse of the product is
not necessarily a flaw in the product's design. However,
consumers can appropriately demand that products be safe in all
situations in which their use might be reasonably expected.
In the case of the Ford Pinto, those who argue for the
consumer's rights acknowledge it is true that vehicles are not
designed to be run into from the rear. (It isn't clear that any
automobile manufacturer specifically sells cars designed to be
used in a demolition derby!) But, given that nearly one-third of
all vehicle crashes involve rear-end collisions, it is reasonable
to expect that cars will be involved in those accidents. Because
of this, manufacturers do have an obligation—to public safety—
to ensure that their vehicles are as safe as possible when such
collisions occur. The fact that the Ford Pinto was designed and
produced far more quickly than other vehicles suggests, at the
very least, that thorough safety testing was not conducted. For
this reason, it is appropriate to hold the manufacturer liable for
a defect that should have been foreseen.
The claim that deaths caused by the faulty fuel tank design were
no greater than those involving rear-end collisions in other
vehicles may also be challenged. The use of a product does
involve the acceptance of risk. The question, however, is
whether otherwise avoidable risks were introduced because of
the product itself.
In the post-Pinto era, the discovery of such a defect often
results in a product recall. Sometimes one of the regulatory
8. agencies demands it; frequently, a manufacturer will issue a
voluntary recall when a problem has been identified. For
example, in July 2013, Mitsubishi Motors issued a recall on
2013 Outlander Sport vehicles manufactured during a single
week in January 2013; the stabilizer link on the front of the
vehicle was found to be welded incorrectly, increasing the
likelihood that it would become detached. The result of such a
failure could be damage to the tire (resulting in a loss of
control) or to the brake line (meaning that the driver would have
difficulty stopping). The manufacturer agreed to perform repairs
on these vehicles free of charge (Safercar.gov, 2013).
Product Recalls
Products are recalled by manufacturers either voluntarily, at the
request of a regulatory agency, or by order of such an agency.
Examples of product recalls include:
medications that have adverse side effects;
foods that are found to cause health problems or that contain
previously unidentified allergens;
products (such as vehicles or toys) that have been shown to
break and cause physical harm to the user; and
products whose design reveals that unintended harm may be
caused to consumers (for example, clothing that presents a
choking hazard for children).
In some cases, a company may choose to recall a product
because of other reasons, related to moral issues or to the
company's image. For example, in January 1999, Disney
recalled approximately 3.4 million copies of the home video
version of The Rescuers because a background image, showing
a topless woman, had been inserted into two frames of the
movie. While Disney maintains that the image was not inserted
by one of its own animators— but was introduced in
postproduction processing—Disney issued the recall because of
its commitment to provide trustworthy family entertainment.
Companies generally issue recalls on products—to either repair
or replace the product, or to issue a refund to the consumer—
whenever dangers are recognized. In the case of the Ford Pinto,
9. the company was faulted for failing to exercise such diligence
for financial reasons. Ford estimated that the costs of recalling
and repairing all of the vehicles (11 million cars, 1.5 million
light trucks—not exclusive to the Ford Pinto) with questionable
fuel tank designs would have topped $137 million, whereas the
costs associated with deaths and injuries in those vehicles
(recognizing that not all of them will be involved in rear-end
collisions) was closer to $50 million. Thus, this widely
publicized cost analysis suggested that for the company, it was
less expensive to leave potentially unsafe vehicles on the road
than to attempt a recall.
From a safety standpoint, the cost of a recall should not be a
deciding factor, because human lives cannot be reduced to a
monetary value. Consumers should be able to trust that the
products they purchase and use are designed in such a way that
will not pose a threat under conditions that, while not "normal,"
should nevertheless be expected as reasonable occurrences.
(That is, while it is not expected that drivers will seek to be
involved in rear-end collisions, it is known that such accidents
occur relatively frequently, so a reasonable expectation exists
that a vehicle would be safe in such a "reasonably expected"
event.) Thus, in the consumer advocate view, companies bear
the moral responsibility to ensure that their products may be
safely used. A failure to design a safe product—or to recall and
repair or replace a defective product once a safety hazard is
known—represents a failure of the company to uphold its
ethical obligations to both individual consumers and to society
as a whole. While manufacturers are not responsible if a person
intentionally misuses a product, it is their job to make sure that
consumers understand how a product can be used safely.
Product Tampering
Thus far this chapter has examined two views of manufacturer
liability with respect to defective products. There is one more
aspect of this issue to consider: product tampering. Who is
responsible if an otherwise safe product was tampered with after
its manufacture, but before its purchase by a consumer? Further,
10. how should liability be divided between the manufacturer of the
product (who created a product that could be tampered with
before its sale) and the distributor (the store in which the
product was sold, which placed compromised products on its
shelves)?
Product tampering arises most often with foods and
medications. This might seem strange, in light of the packaging
that we now find, particularly with medicines. The bottle of
medicine is sold inside a sealed box; the cap of the medicine
bottle itself is covered by a clear plastic film which must be
removed; once the cap is removed, the opening of the bottle is
covered by a seal, generally made of cardboard or foil.
Not long ago, this was not the case. Bottles of aspirin were on
display on the shelves, not enclosed in boxes. The cap of the
bottle might have had a child safety device but there was no
seal once that childproof cap had been removed, only a piece of
cotton stuffed into the neck of the bottle.
Safe packaging became a concern in the early 1980s, fueled by a
situation involving Tylenol pain relievers. In September 1982,
parents gave a Tylenol capsule to a 12-year-old girl living in the
Chicago area. Hours later, the girl, Mary Kellerman, was dead.
That same morning, in another Chicago suburb, Adam Janus
died. While the family was still mourning his loss, Janus's
brother and brother-in-law both died. What was the connection
between these deaths and three others (a total of seven in the
Chicago area)? Each victim had taken Extra Strength Tylenol.
A police investigation revealed that the victims' capsules had
been laced with potassium cyanide. The capsules came from
bottles of Tylenol produced at different plants and purchased at
different drug stores, a fact that prompted the suspicion—still
believed to be true, though the case remains unsolved—that
someone had tampered with the product after it reached the
store shelves.
A direct consequence of the Tylenol poisonings was that
companies introduced tamper-evident packaging. The Food and
11. Drug Administration now requires such packaging, especially
for over-the-counter medications. The goal of such packing is
not to guarantee that tampering cannot occur: The packaging is
not referred to as tamper-proof, or even tamper-resistant.
Instead, the goal of tamper-evident packaging is to help
consumers identify products that may have been compromised,
so that potential buyers can avoid those items.
The packaging used for over-the-counter medication is designed
to alert consumers if the product has been tampered with.
The ethical claim in situations like this is that manufacturers
should be responsible not simply for creating safe products, but
also for safely delivering those products to consumers. If a
manufacturer fails to package a product in such a way that the
customer cannot be reasonably assured that the product has not
been made unsafe after the manufacturing process was
completed, then it could be argued that the company bears at
least some of the responsibility for enabling such tampering to
occur.
On the other hand, companies are themselves victims when
product tampering occurs because the product (and brand name)
will be affected by adverse publicity. Corporate executives will
be seeking to determine how to protect themselves (against
potential legal liability) and save the product. Apart from these
legal considerations, the company bears a moral responsibility
to act in the best interests of the consumers. Instead of simply
identifying themselves as victims, companies have the ability—
and the obligation—to take positive steps to ensure public
safety.
Johnson & Johnson reacted quickly after the Tylenol tampering
in Chicago. Once a connection was made between the deaths
and Extra Strength Tylenol capsules, the company issued a
national recall of the medication, with some estimates
suggesting a cost of over $100 million to the company. Many
would argue that this is one of the best examples of appropriate
ethical conduct by a company, because this recall was issued
voluntarily, before the Food and Drug Administration was even
12. involved in the case.
9.2 The Issue: Working Conditions
Companies exist to make a profit. That is, simply stated, the
primary purpose for which a company is founded. The owners
of the company are providing some type of product or service
designed to meet a need in the marketplace; by meeting that
need, the company receives income.
Economically, the profit earned by a company consists of
revenue (income) minus expenses (including the costs of raw
materials, labor, packaging, shipping, and so forth). To increase
profits, the company must increase revenue (by charging a
higher price or selling more products—or both), or decrease
expenses (by finding cheaper raw materials, streamlining
production, or lowering labor costs). What limits, if any, should
exist on what a company might ethically do to increase its
profits? The first section of this chapter discussed the ethics
involved in changes to product safety (whether in the design of
the product itself or in safe packaging practices). In recent
years, a cost-cutting measure that has come under intense
scrutiny concerns the use of cheap labor in developing
countries. Often referred to as sweatshops, these factories may
place workers in unsafe environments and fail to pay decent
wages. This practice enables companies to keep manufacturing
costs extremely low, substantially boosting profits. But at what
cost?
Price and Prestige
When targeting customers, a company may employ different
strategies. One, perhaps the most widely used method, is to
keep prices low to sell more products. However, if the price is
set too low, then the implication is that the product isn't as
valuable. Instead of being seen as a bargain, the product will be
regarded as inferior.
Because of this, companies may often opt for premium pricing,
where the price of the product is set higher than that of similar
products. This strategy targets a smaller segment of the
13. consumer market—focusing on those willing and able to pay
more—by offering them the prestige of owning a "top of the
line" product.
The premium-pricing strategy can create a competitive
advantage for a company. After all, statistics show that the
Android operating system is used by more people than the iOS
(for iPhone) on their mobile devices and that Apple sells less
than 25% of smart phones in the worldwide market (McCracken,
2013). Even so, the Apple iPhone continues to be the "standard"
against which all other phones are measured. By using a
premium-pricing model, most people think that the Apple
iPhone is the most popular smartphone on the market.
In the same way, many companies have tried to make their
carryout coffee cups resemble those of Starbucks. Carrying a
cup of Starbucks coffee is not a statement about one's love of
coffee so much as it is a status symbol (the fact that the
individual can afford to splurge on Starbucks each morning)
(Vanek-Smith, 2008). Starbucks has used the premium-pricing
strategy successfully
Given that companies seek to maximize profits, is it misleading
to create a brand image that justifies a higher price, when the
product does not clearly offer features that justify the additional
expense (compared to products offered by competitors)? Or is
the marketplace driven solely by supply and demand, leaving
companies free to price products at whatever level can sustain
sales and profits?
The Business Perspective
From a business perspective, foreign labor represents a difficult
but inescapable necessity. After all, consumers demand lower
prices; to meet this demand, companies must keep
manufacturing costs as low as possible. If production were
moved back to domestic locations, labor costs and other
expenses related to production would increase, meaning that the
price of the product would have to go up in order to maintain
profitability. As long as some companies choose to use foreign
labor, all companies in the marketplace find themselves hard-
14. pressed not to follow suit; to fail to do so means that they
cannot compete in that market.
The difficulty in maintaining profitability is compounded by the
fact that some industries are vulnerable to changing trends.
Perhaps fashion is the best example of one such industry. Styles
change quickly from one season to the next, and a company's
ability to adapt quickly to a changing market will be evident in
its profitability. It is expensive to reconfigure production lines
and retrain employees. To keep pace with shifting customer
desires, companies benefit by establishing production facilities
in locations where equipment and labor are both cheap and
where trainable workers are plentiful.
Both of these reasons—competitive edge and speed to market—
speak to the corporation's market benefit. However, sweatshop
labor is not just an isolated business decision based on
productivity concerns. These corporations are owned by
stockholders, investors who choose to invest in the company
because of its profitability—meaning that they will share in
those profits. And the more money these stockholders earn, the
more money that flows through the economy—money that is
spent on goods and services produced by other companies.
Thus, it might be argued that keeping a company profitable is
important on a social scale because the profitability of
corporations affects the economy as a whole
Most importantly, however, the issue of sweatshops has to be
understood in terms of cultures and regional conditions. Those
who argue that sweatshops are unacceptable are basing their
claim on the labor standards of a developed country. Those
opposed to sweatshop labor point out that American workers,
for example, would not be willing to accept the working
conditions present in those factories. The wages paid to those
workers do not represent a living wage that enables employees
to provide even the most basic food, clothing, and shelter
needed by their families.
This argument, say those who support the foreign-labor model,
15. is tempered by the fact that the demand for jobs in these regions
is often so high that applicants line up outside these factories
hoping to get hired. While the working conditions are not
acceptable from the point of view of workers in more developed
countries, for these people it is far better than anything else
available. Working conditions should be judged against cultural
standards within a region, not those of First World countries.
When judged by the standards of the workers in these countries,
so-called sweatshop conditions do more than measure up—they
often exceed local standards.
The argument might be framed in a different way. Local market
conditions are expected to determine appropriate compensation
for American workers; employees working in Dallas, Texas, for
example, are able to maintain a particular standard of living for
less than employees in New York, New York, would have to
spend in order to maintain that same living standard. (See, for
example, the cost-of-living calculator available at
www.salary.com). Because the cost of living varies between
locales, companies are justified in providing different rates of
pay for employees working in those locations, enabling
employees to enjoy comparable standards of living.
If this is extended to the foreign workers, companies are able to
provide a comparable standard of living for those employees at
far less expense; the local economies are such that employees
require significantly less compensation. By comparison to
others in the area, the workers are not being unfairly
compensated. Thus, from the company's perspective, labor
conditions, employment rates, and cost of living information are
necessary to making an informed judgment about what might be
considered appropriate.
The Humanist Perspective
The primary argument against sweatshops is based on human
rights: People have a right to work in places that are clean,
healthy, and safe. Furthermore, workers deserve a living wage
in return for their labor. Workers employed in sweatshops are
treated little better than slaves. They must work long hours and
16. receive no paid leave, even for medical emergencies, which
encourages them to continue working even when they pose a
health hazard to other employees. These workers are paid a
salary that often fails to represent even a basic subsistence.
Those in favor of sweatshops argue that these workers are still
better off than they would be with no source of income. This
response belies the fact that the hardships of laborers are being
exploited for the company's benefit. It may be unrealistic to
require that conditions be exactly the same as what would be
expected in an American manufacturing plant, given cultural
differences. But those who criticize sweatshops insist that
workers deserve to be treated with appropriate respect and
dignity, regardless of the culture in which they are employed.
Just as a human life cannot be gauged by how much it costs to
make products safer, neither can human dignity be measured in
terms of labor conditions, especially when the laborers have no
choice in the matter.
One argument against outsourcing is that it takes jobs away
from Americans.
This is particularly true, argue opponents of sweatshop
conditions, when the profits earned by companies utilizing them
continue to soar. The CEO of Nike—which has long been
criticized for using sweatshops—made over $6 million in 2007;
the company's advertising budget that year was $678 million.
Human rights advocates claim that just 1% of this advertising
budget would be sufficient to pay a living wage to every one of
the factory workers (DoSomething.org, n.d.). Clearly, the
companies are making enough money to change the poor
working conditions, if they wanted to do so. The fact that the
companies continue to rake in massive profits at the expense of
laborers who barely earn a living wage, say human rights
supporters, indicates that the companies do not truly care about
their employees. While companies exist to make money, they
are designed to do so by providing for all of the employees
involved in the production of those goods and services. To fail
17. to provide adequately for the employees indicates that the
company is failing to uphold the moral obligations it possesses
with regard to its employees.
The other argument often used against companies employing
cheap foreign labor is the fact that American jobs are being sent
overseas. It is true that U.S. workers would have to be paid
more and be provided with better working conditions (as U.S.
culture and law demands). These factors increase the company's
expenses and cut into its profits—potentially resulting in job
losses for those same American employees. But paying more
American workers would boost the economy (and thereby
enable companies to raise prices), as more people would have
money to spend. Instead of isolating large profits in the hands
of relatively few corporate stockholders, wealth would be
distributed more equally, which, argue the proponents of
domestic labor, would have a greater positive impact on the
economy as a whole.
9.3 The Issue: Marketing and Advertising Practices
In a 2011 Super Bowl advertisement, reality TV star Kim
Kardashian is shown dumping her personal trainer for a pair of
Shape-Up toning shoes, sold by Skechers. In other
advertisements for this product, consumers were told that the
shoes enabled them to shape and tone their bodies while going
about their everyday tasks—losing weight and gaining muscle
tone without ever actually exercising.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) takes particular interest
in claims made by companies selling products related to health
and fitness. In this instance, as in many others, the FTC
determined that the claims being made by Skechers were
unproven, and in a May 2012 ruling, the company was assessed
$40 million in fines (a record amount at that time). The
Skechers case points to a particular problem with the marketing
campaigns companies use to sell their products.
Deceptive or misleading advertising practices raise concerns
when companies suggest that products can deliver results or
performance that goes beyond what the product is actually
18. capable of producing. Marketing practices can be questionably
ethical in other ways, however, including the following:
the use of customer, celebrity, and expert (doctor or scientist)
testimonials;
dubious claims about pricing;
fictitious customer reviews (especially for online retailers); and
inappropriate humor or suggestive content.
Companies may choose to risk using any of these methods for a
variety of reasons. The ethical issues involved, however,
demand investigation.
The Marketing Perspective
Advertisements are used to create consumer demand, thereby
helping a company sell products.
The goal of marketing, simply stated, is to help a company sell
products. To achieve this end, advertisements are created with
the hope of instilling in consumers a desire for a product or
service. The greater the consumer demand for an item—whether
it be a pair of shoes, a particular brand of spaghetti, a business
service, or a certain person in a political office—the more
effective the marketing campaign has been. In a competitive
marketplace, this goal is achieved when the product is able to
appeal to consumers in a way that no other product can match.
But exactly how marketers may ethically pursue those goals
presents some grounds for discussion.
Beneficial Claims
Advertisers frequently rely on tactics like the Skechers fitness
claim. If studies do in fact suggest that Skechers shoes help
people lose weight and tone muscle while going about their
everyday routines, such information represents a clear benefit—
one that no other shoe manufacturer can claim. When a company
finds experts—doctors or scientists, for example—who are able
to support these claims, it helps customers recognize the
benefits that are available from the product.
Good marketing strategies do not involve intentional deception.
And because the Federal Trade Commission is quick to ban
advertising that contains obviously false claims once they are
19. identified, companies generally do not make claims without
some basis in fact. Marketers contend, however, that customers
potentially benefit by knowing about a product's advantages as
early as possible so that those customers can reap the benefits.
In other words, from a marketing viewpoint, using the results of
a study—even when the results might still be murky or not fully
substantiated—to show the link between a product and potential
benefits is just good business.
Testimonials and Endorsements
Along these same lines, advertisements often feature
testimonials from satisfied customers as a means of convincing
like-minded consumers of the advantages of buying. FTC
guidelines require customer testimonials to come from actual
consumers who are giving their honest opinion about the
product; additionally, the customers included in advertising
should be representative of customer views as a whole. (That is,
if a company sells a new product to 500 customers, 495 of
whom were displeased with the product but five of whom really
liked it, the company would be violating FTC guidelines with a
commercial that showed only the five customers who liked the
product, because those five individuals do not fairly represent
the customer base.)
Celebrity spokespeople are often used in advertising, as well.
People admire celebrities, adopt them as role models, and want
to be like them. Learning that a particular celebrity uses a
product and finds it beneficial gives consumers a reason to use
the product as well—to become more like the person they
admire. In all types of customer testimony— whether from
typical customers or celebrity endorsers—marketers are seeking
to help consumers achieve their own goals. From the marketing
perspective, then, no ethical lines are crossed when a company
truthfully shares information about a product that has helped
other people achieve similar goals.
As society becomes increasingly technological, advertising that
is clearly deceptive is on the decline. After all, more consumers
20. check the content of advertisements, even using mobile devices
to verify claims while they are standing in a store. Thus,
consumers themselves serve as watchdogs when it comes to
advertising—and they share the information they find
(concerning both good products and those that fail to live up to
their claims) widely through their social networks. In such an
environment, marketers are careful to only make claims that can
be substantiated, giving consumers a reason to believe that
advertising claims are reliable and trustworthy.
Emotional Responses
Another widespread practice in marketing campaigns is the use
of humor or sentimentality, seeking to create an emotional
reaction. In the United States, commercials for beer often utilize
humor in an attempt to make a connection between the brand
and the fun that people will have while using those products.
Other products might use humor simply as a way to make a
brand name stick in a consumer's mind. A notable example of
this approach (which has drawn mixed reviews) is Kmart's
advertising campaign, launched in April 2013. To let customers
know about the free shipping available from Kmart's online
store, the company commissioned a commercial in which
customers talk about the ability to "ship my pants" (as well as
other items). Following this, another Kmart ad touted fuel
savings ("big gas savings") at their gas stations. The humor in
these advertisements was intended to catch people's attention
and bring positive publicity to the brand.
Sentimental messages aim to accomplish the same result.
During the 2013 Super Bowl, carmaker Chrysler ran two
separate 2-minute commercials. One focused on the American
farmer and featured a voiceover by radio legend Paul Harvey. In
the other commercial, an Oprah Winfrey narrative honored
military personnel who were serving away from home. A third
commercial, this time from brewing giant Anheuser-Busch,
featured one of the famous Budweiser Clydesdale horses being
reunited with the man who trained him as a colt. Each of these
commercials sought to create an emotional attachment between
21. the corporate brand and the consumer. All three received high
marks in consumer rankings; the commercials were effective in
creating favorable emotional responses.
From a marketing perspective, no ethical lines are being crossed
through these practices. Product claims that can be supported
are offered; testimonials help customers understand the benefits
of the product for people to whom they can relate; and humor or
sentiment may be used to convey feelings that the consumer can
expect to enjoy when using the product. Thus, advertisers seek
to create a demand for a product, which, from their perspective,
does not rely on deception or misrepresentation.
The Consumer Perspective
Historically, the Latin phrase caveat emptor—"let the buyer
beware"—ruled the marketplace. The idea contained here is that
the purchaser of a product bears the responsibility for checking
to be certain that the product is worth the expense. When it
comes to marketing claims, is it in fact the consumer's
responsibility to determine whether the product will achieve the
desired results?
In modern law, the doctrine of caveat emptor still applies to
most personal transactions. Most people who buy a used car
from an individual (not a dealer), or a house, or something at a
garage sale recognize that the sellers are not responsible for the
condition of the purchase the same way that a manufacturer
would be. They are selling the product "as is," and it is the
buyer's responsibility to ensure that the product is worth what is
being paid for it.
From the point of view of a retail consumer, however,
companies have a greater responsibility toward the buyer
precisely because they have control over the design, production,
manufacturing, and—most importantly—marketing of the
products they sell. They know the product more fully than does
the consumer. Because of this, companies are responsible for
claims that are made concerning their goods and services.
The fact that marketing claims are often based on information
22. unavailable to the consumer serves as the basis for one of the
chief criticisms of modern marketing. When a doctor or
scientist endorses a particular product, the average consumer
has no way of knowing whether that spokesperson is connected
to the development of that product in some way. Is this an
independent researcher, or did this person conduct research that
was funded by the company? In the case of the Skechers
advertisements, for example, it turned out that one of the
studies the company used to support its claims came from a
chiropractor who happened to be married to a Skechers
marketing executive. Serious issues of complicity can arise
when so-called expert testimony amounts to inside information
that consumers are not able to substantiate on their own.
Online retailers attempt to alleviate some of this concern by
allowing for customer reviews on their websites. The difficulty,
however, lies in the knowledge that the company has the power
to remove any customer reviews it chooses; it can also post
favorable reviews that sound like customer testimonials even
though they were written by company personnel. The same sorts
of issues arise with paid celebrity spokespersons; if they are
paid for their endorsement, why should consumers be expected
to believe that celebrities are truly endorsing the product based
on their own experience?
All of these are concerns for the consumer, who has no means
of verifying the content being encountered through the
advertisement. Without more information, customers are at the
mercy of what marketers want them to hear about a product,
which increases the possibility that deception may occur.
The same can be said for the use of emotional appeals—whether
humorous or sentimental. Most people would agree that they
don't like it when someone gets them to do something by
making them feel guilty if they refuse. This can occur between
friends or family members quite easily. Because of the
relationship we share with the person, we will often go along—
even though we may resent being "guilted" into compliance.
23. With marketing, emotional appeals—some would say
manipulation—become even more suspect. The Chrysler Super
Bowl auto commercials did not even appear to be
advertisements until the very end. Nonetheless, the ads leave
consumers feeling a sentimental attachment to the images in the
commercial, which have little to do with the actual products or
brands being advertised.
Consumers often do make purchasing decisions based on a
company's image and reputation. In the case of sweatshop labor,
many consumers choose to boycott clothing brands that engage
in such practices. Since the company is using unethical
employment practices, the customer chooses not to support the
company through his or her purchases. In this respect, what the
company represents does influence the buying decision.
Some would point out that Chrysler Corporation does support
American military personnel serving abroad, so associating the
brand with that support is not problematic. Jeep (a Chrysler
brand) has funded Operation SAFE Return, a program designed
to generate community support for military personnel and their
families (see
http://www.chryslergroupllc.com/community/Pages/MilitarySup
port.aspx and http://www.jeep.com/en/operation_safe_return/).
The commercials' implied claim, however, is that Chrysler is
more supportive than other automobile manufacturers; true
patriots will drive Dodge Ram pickups and Jeeps. The company
cannot substantiate such a claim. Critics would argue, then, that
Chrysler's commercials are misleading, playing on
sentimentality and emotion that is not clearly connected to the
product. In that regard, the message is deceptive.
Marketing is big business. Some estimates are that about 10% of
the cost of a product lies in the marketing and advertising
budget. Companies do act wrongly, though, when they create
advertisements that are deceptive in any way. This can happen
through unsubstantiated claims, false testimony, or through
emotional appeals that inaccurately depict the product and its
contribution to society. Marketers can also easily offend
24. consumers through the use of crude humor, harming the brand
image through negative publicity.
9.4 The Issue: Customer Tracking and Profiling
Using technology, retailers can determine which displays attract
attention, how much time a person spends inside a store, what
items are most popular, and other shopping trends.
In the fall of 2012, Seattle-based clothing retailer Nordstrom
began using software called Euclid, which enabled the company
to track customer movements through the store using the Wi-Fi
signal on the customer's cell phone. The data collected by the
Euclid system told the store which items consumers looked at,
how much time they spent at each counter, and whether the
customer actually bought any of the items. (In May 2013,
Nordstrom stopped using the Euclid software; they had posted
signs in their stores notifying customers of their use of tracking
software, and received a number of complaints. It was, at least
in part, because of these complaints that the department store
chose to stop tracking the in-store customers [Clifford & Hardy,
2013]).
Other stores using similar technology are going even further,
coupling this tracking data with video surveillance, which can
relay additional information—gender, approximate age, and
even customer moods via facial-recognition software. With this
technology, the stores can target specific ads to customers at the
point of sale, based on their gender and mood.
This type of customer tracking and profiling is common online.
(Most people who have done an online search have noticed how
the pop-up advertisements on webpages they are visiting are for
the same type of item for which they were searching.) The
ability to profile customers and market directly to their interests
and needs generates more revenue. The Euclid service, for
example, seeks to help retailers generate sales by providing data
that helps determine which window displays are most effective
(drawing in more customers, as opposed to those who just walk
by), as well as by providing data on the time a customer spends
inside the store (because the longer a customer is in a store, the
25. greater the likelihood that they will make a purchase) (Cohan,
2013). But at what point has the customer's privacy been
violated through the data that is being collected, stored, and
analyzed?
The Seller Perspective
Online retailers have long used customer tracking on their
websites. This enables them to know what products customers
viewed, so they can watch customers shop. They have an
understanding of which items are popular—or which items will
lead customers to look at related items. The ability to track
customers provides valuable information for the store in
designing its website and the way it presents information to
customers.
Such tracking practices also enable a company to provide
beneficial information to the customer, based on what the
customer is doing. When someone views items on a store's
website, the site will sometimes offer "recommendations," or
links to items viewed by other customers who were looking at
the same product. This information provides valuable assistance
to consumers as they compare different products on the website.
Thus, it benefits both customers and retailers.
How Software Tracks Customers Online
When an online customer visits a company's website, the
Internet protocol address is registered in the site database;
often, the media access control address (which is unique to each
device) is also recorded. This information enables the database
to recognize when a customer returns to the online site, and it
will remember items that the customer was looking at on
previous visits.
Profiles based on Internet searches are well established. (After
all, how do companies like Google and Yahoo!, which offer a
free search engine, make money? The bulk of their revenue
comes through customer profiles, enabling companies to market
their products to specific types of individuals.) Most online
consumers accept the fact that their search history is being
recorded and analyzed, whether or not they think about it.
26. Without software like Nordstrom's Euclid, physical (or brick-
and-mortar) stores lack this ability. Understanding how
customers travel through the stores, which displays catch
customers' eyes, and the amount of time that customers spend in
stores represents valuable information to retail establishments.
As just one example, floor managers can adjust their displays to
attract more sales, and they can make sure that the store has
more staff available during peak shopping times.
This information is not merely helpful to the company; it
benefits the customer as well. For example, suppose a customer
visits a store and spends time looking at overcoats. Not finding
exactly what she wants within her price range, she leaves the
store without making a purchase. But the next day, she might
receive a coupon on her phone that offers a 20% discount on
overcoats at that store. The coupon targets the customer's need,
providing a direct benefit. If the practice results in positive
benefits for the customer, does that help to justify the tracking?
For some consumers, it might. Others may be suspicious,
wondering about the "coincidence" of receiving a coupon (by
text message) for the product they were considering the
previous day.
While some customers may feel as though they are being spied
upon by these tactics, companies are quick to point out that they
are shopping in a public place. They should expect that people
are able to see where they are, which products they are
considering, and what kinds of purchases they make. Stores
already analyze purchase receipts to see what items are often
bought together. (That is why grocers stock vanilla wafers next
to the bananas, because there is a clear correlation between
those two items, as sales have demonstrated.) The data gathered
by tracking customer movements in the store simply adds an
additional level of information, which is helpful to both
consumers and companies alike.
The Customer Perspective
More consumers are turning to search engines (such as
27. DuckDuckGo and Ixquick) that offer privacy. Independent
research has found that a majority of users continue to use
Google Search, but that an increasing number of online
customers (nearly three-fourths) do not like their searches being
recorded or having information targeted to them based on that
history. Others are concerned that information available to them
will be filtered according to their search history, meaning that
they no longer have access to all of the content available. Only
28% of those surveyed like the targeted advertisements that are
based on their searches (Burt, 2012).
What all of this indicates is that, while online search histories
are widely used, most consumers do not like them. In many
cases, they feel that recording searches is a violation of privacy,
especially since companies build complex profiles of individual
consumers based on the data. In other cases, they fear that the
information gathered might be used in unintended ways (for
example, being scrutinized by potential employers as a part of a
background check). In still other instances, customers are
dissatisfied with the information being presented to them based
on the profile that has been developed, and they wonder what
information has been filtered out.
Thus, online retailers might be thought to have an advantage in
their ability to profile customers and determine habits. But this
does not mean that the customers value the fact that data is
collected in this way. They certainly do not want to be tracked
in a physical store, where their movements are being recorded
(including how much time they may have spent in the restroom).
The complaints received by Nordstrom, mentioned earlier, are
an example of this; the customer backlash against the use of
tracking software was one of the reasons that led the department
store to discontinue the practice. (Much of the discomfort
consumers feel, however, may be based on expectations—they
don't expect their physical location to be tracked for marketing
purposes [Greenfield, 2013]. From the consumer perspective,
privacy issues may arise when stores are found to be doing
something unexpected.)
28. The heart of the issue, from a consumer perspective, is a
concern regarding how personal information is utilized. When a
company begins targeting customers based on gender, age, and
other personal data, the concern is that the company knows
more about the consumer than is needed; the only value is for
the company to target specific advertisements to that customer
in the hopes of selling products. When this kind of tracking
goes to the level of analyzing mood, the company is seeking to
know more about the consumer than many consumers feel that it
should. At the very least, this tactic is similar to sentimental
advertisements in that it wants to lure the customer into a
purchase based on something that is unrelated to the product
itself. At worst, this tracking represents a form of subliminal
messaging, where the company is targeting messages that will
appeal to customers—even if those customers are unaware of
the impact their mood is having on their purchasing decisions.
Thus, targeted marketing at this level borders on being
deceptive and manipulative, raising questions as to whether it is
ethical.
9.5 Applying the Theories
We have seen that there are a number of different areas in
which corporations arguably should deal with customers
responsibly. Most of these involve legal guidelines. All can be
viewed from the economic perspective of the business— whose
goal is to earn the greatest profit possible. But what would an
ethical analysis of these issues reveal? Let us begin by recalling
the first example explored in this chapter.
The Ford Pinto was introduced in 1968 and was produced for 10
years. During that time, the Ford Motor Company sold over 2.3
million vehicles of this model. The design, however, was
flawed, specifically in the rear of the car. The result was that
the fuel tank would sometimes rupture, possibly exploding,
when the car was hit from the rear. Since vehicles can be
expected to be involved in rear-end collisions, this seems to be
a significant design flaw, compromising the safety of the
passengers.
29. Ford ultimately recalled the cars, but only after pressure from
the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration
(NHTSA). It did not voluntarily recall the vehicle to make
repairs, even as some estimated that those repairs would cost
$11 or less per vehicle. Was Ford acting ethically in refusing to
recall the model?
Utilitarian
Utilitarians always base ethical decisions on the end results,
taking everyone affected into account. Thus, from this
perspective, the economic impact on the company should be
included in the deliberation. The cost of repairing all vehicles
using the flawed fuel tank design, estimated at $367 million, is
significant, especially considering the fact that only a handful
of those should be expected to actually malfunction and cause
harm to consumers.
If we were to stop here, the utilitarian argument might seem to
favor Ford's decision. The argument needs to be more complete,
however. It must take into account the psychological impact on
Ford Pinto owners when they learn that the car they are driving
might be defective—and won't be repaired. This could easily
spill over into consumer wariness toward Ford's other models,
as questions arise as to whether those cars share the same
defective design. All of these potential consequences need to be
considered in determining which actions will bring about the
greatest good for everyone involved.
When comparing outcomes, consider that no amount of
corporate profit can offset the loss of a human life, especially
when it could have been avoided. Utilitarianism is a hedonistic
theory, measured in terms of pleasure and pain. Even those who
stand to make profits by refusing the repairs cannot be pleased
when their refusal results in the death of a consumer. The best
outcome is not measured in dollars; this is not an economic
decision. Ethics has to look at how the decision will ultimately
affect individuals.
Based on this reasoning, utilitarians will argue that Ford should
have repaired the problem, despite the great financial cost to the
30. company, and that it should have done so voluntarily (instead of
waiting to be forced by the NHTSA). This would have meant
lower profits for a few individuals, while providing safety and
peace of mind to millions of consumers. The greater good, in
this instance, demanded action.
Deontological
Deontologists ignore consequences; the financial cost of a
decision certainly plays no part in determining whether the
decision is morally right. Instead, logic and reason need to be
applied, founded upon principles, to determine what should be
done.
Recall from Chapter 1 that deontologists will apply a "universal
rule test": Would it be morally acceptable for everyone, in
similar circumstances, to act in this way? Another way of
thinking about this principle would be to ask, "Would I want to
be treated this way, were the situation reversed?" This is
another way of assessing the respect for human dignity upon
which the deontological perspective is founded.
In this case, we can easily imagine that the owners and
executives of Ford Motor Company would not want to drive
vehicles made by another manufacturer, which had such a
defect. Since they would not want to be treated in such a
manner, they should not treat their own customers in that way.
To refuse to correct the error amounts to violating the universal
rule test. Instead of respecting the human dignity of their
consumers, they are placing those customers in danger in order
to enjoy more profits for themselves. Such a decision fails on
principle.
Conclusions
Different ethical perspectives use different criteria for
determining whether something is right or wrong. Utilitarians
look at consequences, whereas deontologists look at the
principles involved. These are very different ways of assessing
a situation, with very little overlap in thinking.
This does not mean, however, that utilitarians and deontologists
31. will always disagree about what should be done. There will
often be agreement—as in this case—but each perspective offers
its own reasons for the decision. The point is that knowing what
those utilizing a particular ethical perspective will say about a
situation tells us nothing about the conclusion that will be
drawn from a different viewpoint. Each viewpoint must reach a
decision based on the types of reasons on which that theory is
based.
It is difficult to justify Ford's reasoning from an ethical
perspective. Their decision seems to have been based on
financial considerations alone, and the ethical issues involved—
the lives and well-being of their customers—were overlooked.
With both the utilitarian and the deontological assessments (or
with those of other moral theories that might be employed), it is
important to note that these moral perspectives are not only
useful in assessing past events. The primary point of moral
reasoning is to help people understand which actions are right
or wrong so that the correct action can be chosen. Thus, instead
of simply assessing Ford's actions after the fact, those involved
in these decisions could have considered their decision from
these moral perspectives before a decision was reached—
allowing moral considerations to guide and shape their chosen
course of action.
Because it is impossible to see the future, seeking to apply
moral theories in this way can sometimes be tricky. This is
especially true, perhaps, with a utilitarian perspective, which is
based on the consequences: While we might predict what will
happen if a certain action is performed, it is impossible to know
for certain what results will be realized. If the goal is to act
ethically, though, this must be done as fully and accurately as
possible. Failing to consider the likely outcomes (in the case of
utilitarianism), or failing to think about the principles upon
which a decision is based (in the case of deontology or duty
ethics), means that the moral implications of a decision are
32. being ignored—and acting ethically, when it happened, would
be nothing more than a happy coincidence.