Pluralist argues that power is fragmented and fluid, shifting between different coalitions on different issues. No single power elite controls the system. Marxist/Elitist argues that an educated upper-class elite controls groups through resources and communication, and the political system favors middle- and upper-class interests. Social capital and civil society theorists argue that voluntary organizations build social networks and trust that encourage civic engagement and democratic skills, but some organizations may generate "bad" social capital. Criticisms note vague definitions of social capital and little evidence organizations strongly influence politics.

2. PLURALIST

3. Pluralist argues that: There is VETO-GROUPS
Groups with the power to prevent other
groups or the government implementing a
policy, although they do not necessarily have
the power to get their own policies
implemented.
POWERFUL
GOT WHAT THEY WANT
RESOURCES
FUNDS
Power is fragmented, fluid, or ‘mercurial’.
The main exponent of pluralist
theory,
Robert Dahl (1915)
pluralist democracy does not work
in a perfect ‘textbook’ manner, but
it works reasonably well, ‘warts
and all’.
There is no fixed power structure or power
elite, but different configurations of shifting
coalitions and power according to the issue
and the circumstances. Today’s winners
will be tomorrow’s losers, and vice versa

5. MARXIST/
ELITIST

6. Marxist/Elitist argues that: There is an ‘iron law of oligarchy’
groups are controlled by a few, unrepresentative
leaders, because they are the people with the
skill, knowledge and experience to run them, and
because leaders make sure they control group
resources and the means of communication.
Educated
UPPER-CLASS
PEOPLE IN HIGHER
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS
UPPER STRATA
Some social groups are weakly organised,
or largely unorganised
Some elite theorists argue that
there is a
Military–industrial
complex
The close and powerful alliance of
government, business and military
interests that is said by some to
run capitalist societies.
• Group resources are distributed with cumulative
inequality.
• Groups with structural power in the economy are
particularly powerful
• Groups fight within a political structure that is
systematically loaded in favour of middle- and
upper-class interests.

7. SOCIAL
CAPITAL AND
CIVIL SOCIETY

8. SOCIAL CAPITAL
The features of society such as trust, social
norms and social networks, that improve
social and governmental efficiency by
encouraging cooperation and collective
action

9. Alexis de Tocqueville’s
(1805–59)
Robert Putnam (1941–)
VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS
Social capital and Civil society
argues that:
ARE CRUCIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
DEMOCRATIC ATTITUDES & BEHAVIOR
civic engagement, voting
and membership of
parties.
trust, reciprocity and
satisfaction with
democracy

10. Alexis de Tocqueville’s
(1805–59)
Robert Putnam (1941–)
VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS
Social capital and Civil society
argues that:
TEACH THE POLITICAL SKILLS OF A DEMOCRACY
how to organize, how to run meetings, how to
compromise and how to work and
cooperate with others for collective goals

11. Alexis de Tocqueville’s
(1805–59)
Robert Putnam (1941–)
VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS
Social capital and Civil society
argues that:
!!! ALL SOCIAL ORGANISATIONS GENERATE ‘GOOD’
SOCIAL CAPITAL
Some are not beneficialto society as a whole. Ther are
some Voluntary Organizations who generates ‘bad’
social capital.

12. Alexis de Tocqueville’s
(1805–59)
Robert Putnam (1941–)
VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS
Social capital and Civil society
argues that:
ECONOMIC SUCCESS AND DEMOCRATIC STABILITY IS ROOTED IN
NETWORKS OF VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS.
Democratic malaise
(falling election turnout and party membership,
declining trust in politicians and government
institutions, cheating on taxes, political fear and
cynicism) is caused by a decline in the voluntary
organisations that generate social capital.

13. CRITICISM
Social capital and Civil society
The definition and treatment of the concept of social capital is
vague and all-inclusive.
Voluntary organizations have rather little effect on political
attitudes and behavior
television is not particularly responsible for
eroding social capital – on the contrary, television news and
current affairs programs can inform and mobilize people.
Social capital theory sometimes assumes a process in which
individuals who join organizations help to create a culture of civic Social capital. The
features of society such as trust, social norms and social networks, that improve
social and governmental efficiency by encouraging cooperation and collective action.
Pressure groups and social movements engagement and democratic participation. A
approach argues that governments help to create the conditions in
which both voluntary organizations and a climate of trust can flourish.

14. That arena of social life outside
the state, the commercial sector
and the family (i.e. mainly
voluntary organizations and civic
associations) that permits
individuals to associate freely
and independently of state
regulation

15. Free And Independent Citizen Associations Not Controlled By The
Governing Regime Is Emphasised As A Basis Of Democracy
Strong and vibrant private
organizations are essential both
for a satisfying social life, and as
a counter-balance to the power of
the state.

16. Transition to democracy depends on building
autonomous, private organisations
creating a culture and tradition to
sustain them, especially in
societies where such organizations
have been controlled or suppressed by
the state.

17. Tended to develop in
a different way from western pluralism,
organizations have formed
most readily around nationalist, ethnic
and religious interests that have
become a force for division and
conflict, rather than compromise and
integration.

18. Reference
• Newton, K., & Deth, J. W. (2005). Foundations
of comparative politics: Democracies of the
modern world. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.