This document provides an overview of the written sources on the discovery and settlement of Iceland, including the Íslendingabók and Landnámabók. While these primary sources were written over 200 years after the events they describe, they may contain some accurate oral traditions from the time. However, they are not fully reliable due to inaccuracies from forgetfulness over time, deliberate changes to suit political motives, and lack of corroboration from other evidence. The document analyzes the sources critically while also acknowledging the need to make some use of the information they contain when other records are scarce.
Genealogy research in Ireland can uncover family history dating back generations. Records exist but were not standardized until the 19th century, and many were destroyed. Resources for research include talking to family members, websites like rootsireland.ie and ancestry.com, and visiting locations and archives in Ireland. When visiting, researchers can check church records, explore graveyards, consult libraries and genealogists, and visit the National Library of Ireland or General Register Office to access records like census, property, and vital records. Uncovering Irish ancestry involves piecing together clues across records and locations to extend family trees as far back as possible.
Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC in Pellla, Macedonia. He was educated by Aristotle and attended the School of Royal Pages. As a teen, he enjoyed a healthy diet of red meat and organic foods and entertained himself by participating in Olympic sports like javelin throwing, as television and video games did not exist. He lived a privileged life as a prince with financial support from his father, King Philip II of Macedon.
Eliza Scarlett: Leamington widow and Jamaican slave ownerMark Ellis
The document provides details from research conducted on two tombs located in the churchyard of All Saints in Leamington, England. The tombs belonged to Elizabeth Virgo Scarlett and James Virgo Dunn, who both had connections to Jamaica as owners of sugar plantations. Through probate records and other documents, the researcher was able to learn more about Scarlett and Dunn's lives and roles in the slave trade in Jamaica. A significant archive related to the Scarlett family estates was discovered at the Hull History Centre, offering insights into running plantations, the slave system, and Scarlett's management of her properties from England after her husband's death.
St. Patrick was a 5th century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. According to his written works Confessio and Epistola ad Coroticum, he was born in Britain and captured by Irish pirates at age 16, enslaved for six years in Ireland. During this time he turned to prayer and God, and had visions calling him to return to Ireland and preach Christianity. He escaped, became a priest, and returned to Ireland to convert the Irish for 40 years, establishing the Catholic Church before dying on March 17, 461.
1) Bulgaria was founded in 681 AD as the First Bulgarian Kingdom and existed until 1018 when it was conquered by the Byzantine Empire.
2) The document discusses the history of ancient peoples who inhabited the Bulgarian lands, including the Thracians and Slavs, before the arrival of the Proto-Bulgarians led by Khan Asparukh.
3) Key figures in Bulgarian history discussed include Prince Boris who oversaw the conversion to Christianity, Tsar Simeon who expanded the kingdom, and Saint Ivan Rilski who founded the famous Rila Monastery.
The document discusses Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, including her early life, role as monarch, travels, and influence on style and fashion. It provides biographical details on her upbringing, education, marriage, and children. While some argue over her actual power, the document examines her role as a visible symbol of the country that brings traditions and represents the monarchy at important events. It also explores how she modernized the monarchy and became a popular public figure through walkabouts and worldwide travels. The queen has become a style icon, and fashion designers draw inspiration from her colorful outfits and signature hats.
The document discusses Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, including her early life, role as monarch, travels, and influence on style and fashion. It provides biographical details on her upbringing, education, marriage, and children. While some argue over her actual power, the document examines her role as a visible symbol of the country that brings traditions and represents the monarchy at important events. It also explores how she modernized the monarchy and became an icon of style through her bright colors, hats, and engagement with the public on walks and visits. Opinions from experts note she dresses appropriately for her age and lifestyle, supports British designers, and influences ordinary women through her recognizable image.
Genealogy research in Ireland can uncover family history dating back generations. Records exist but were not standardized until the 19th century, and many were destroyed. Resources for research include talking to family members, websites like rootsireland.ie and ancestry.com, and visiting locations and archives in Ireland. When visiting, researchers can check church records, explore graveyards, consult libraries and genealogists, and visit the National Library of Ireland or General Register Office to access records like census, property, and vital records. Uncovering Irish ancestry involves piecing together clues across records and locations to extend family trees as far back as possible.
Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC in Pellla, Macedonia. He was educated by Aristotle and attended the School of Royal Pages. As a teen, he enjoyed a healthy diet of red meat and organic foods and entertained himself by participating in Olympic sports like javelin throwing, as television and video games did not exist. He lived a privileged life as a prince with financial support from his father, King Philip II of Macedon.
Eliza Scarlett: Leamington widow and Jamaican slave ownerMark Ellis
The document provides details from research conducted on two tombs located in the churchyard of All Saints in Leamington, England. The tombs belonged to Elizabeth Virgo Scarlett and James Virgo Dunn, who both had connections to Jamaica as owners of sugar plantations. Through probate records and other documents, the researcher was able to learn more about Scarlett and Dunn's lives and roles in the slave trade in Jamaica. A significant archive related to the Scarlett family estates was discovered at the Hull History Centre, offering insights into running plantations, the slave system, and Scarlett's management of her properties from England after her husband's death.
St. Patrick was a 5th century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. According to his written works Confessio and Epistola ad Coroticum, he was born in Britain and captured by Irish pirates at age 16, enslaved for six years in Ireland. During this time he turned to prayer and God, and had visions calling him to return to Ireland and preach Christianity. He escaped, became a priest, and returned to Ireland to convert the Irish for 40 years, establishing the Catholic Church before dying on March 17, 461.
1) Bulgaria was founded in 681 AD as the First Bulgarian Kingdom and existed until 1018 when it was conquered by the Byzantine Empire.
2) The document discusses the history of ancient peoples who inhabited the Bulgarian lands, including the Thracians and Slavs, before the arrival of the Proto-Bulgarians led by Khan Asparukh.
3) Key figures in Bulgarian history discussed include Prince Boris who oversaw the conversion to Christianity, Tsar Simeon who expanded the kingdom, and Saint Ivan Rilski who founded the famous Rila Monastery.
The document discusses Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, including her early life, role as monarch, travels, and influence on style and fashion. It provides biographical details on her upbringing, education, marriage, and children. While some argue over her actual power, the document examines her role as a visible symbol of the country that brings traditions and represents the monarchy at important events. It also explores how she modernized the monarchy and became a popular public figure through walkabouts and worldwide travels. The queen has become a style icon, and fashion designers draw inspiration from her colorful outfits and signature hats.
The document discusses Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, including her early life, role as monarch, travels, and influence on style and fashion. It provides biographical details on her upbringing, education, marriage, and children. While some argue over her actual power, the document examines her role as a visible symbol of the country that brings traditions and represents the monarchy at important events. It also explores how she modernized the monarchy and became an icon of style through her bright colors, hats, and engagement with the public on walks and visits. Opinions from experts note she dresses appropriately for her age and lifestyle, supports British designers, and influences ordinary women through her recognizable image.
Christopher Rigel is a system engineer at Cabela's who is responsible for administering and creating data center solutions with a focus on datacenter virtualization and end user computing using technologies like VMware Horizon View. He has experience maintaining VDI environments and engineering new solutions to address challenges. Rigel is looking to gain more skills in security and networking to better thrive in his role and continue growing in the fast-paced technology industry.
This document defines marketing and discusses its importance. Marketing is defined as the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods and services. Marketing promotes product awareness and boosts product sales, helping to build a company's reputation. The document also discusses different types of marketing including online, offline, and word-of-mouth marketing. It defines the marketing mix as the set of tactics a company uses to promote its brand, including the four P's of marketing: product, price, place, and promotion. Advertising is discussed as a paid form of promotion and its benefits to both companies and consumers are outlined.
Jeremiah Mosse is a mechanical engineering student at Liberty University with a 3.9 GPA. He has experience using SolidWorks, AutoCAD, and MATLAB. For school projects, he designed an energy analysis of dormitories and a device to test abrasion on conveyor belts. He also designed and 3D printed a miniature quadcopter. After graduation, he aims to pursue a career in product design, fabrication, and materials engineering. He has internship experience evaluating energy conservation and held various jobs.
Ritepro Corporation produces Check Rite combination check valves that employ both spring and gravity forces to close. They provide reliability, rapid closing, and low pressure loss. Check Rite valves are easier to install horizontally or vertically compared to conventional check valves due to their compact design. They are also lighter, more compact, and open fully at lower velocities than swing or tilting check valves. This results in increased reliability and significant savings in weight, size, pressure drop, and energy costs compared to other check valve designs.
Цель:
Развивать фантазию и творческое воображение
Учить проявлять интерес к поделке
Закреплять умение аккуратно работать с клеем
Способствовать развитию мелкой моторики рук
Материалы и оборудование:
Цветная офисная бумага
цветная креповая бумага
мячик для пинг-понга
клей
черный и красный тонкие фломастеры
ножницы, степлер
This document is a report on the Mera Medicare website prepared in August 2015. It provides an overview of the Mera Medicare company, which sells healthcare products online in India. It describes the basic functionality of the Mera Medicare website, noting it is simple and efficient but could better capture visitors with more colors, images, and regularly updated health facts. The report concludes the website meets basic requirements but should be more visually pleasing and interactive. It provides recommendations to improve the website in these areas.
13 amazing Linkedin profile headlines (and how you can write your own)Tom Mallens 📈 💯
If you want sales and marketing results from Linkedin, writing a great profile is a good place to start. This summary gives 13 examples of great profile headlines so you can decide the headline that will help you stand out from your competitors, drive traffic to your profile and attract leads from ideal potential customers.
Jay Berkowitz, CEO of TenGoldenRules.com presents the 10 Success Strategies for Internet Marketers at Affiliate Summit West in Las Vegas on January 13, 2009.
Seven quick wins to lower costs and accelerate revenueGuy Barlow
Oil & Gas Industry
Seven quick wins to lower costs and accelerate revenue
The sharp decline in oil prices from 2014 to early 2015 left oil executives scrambling to control losses as prices fell over 50% in six months. As companies assess their project portfolios and decide which projects to accelerate or cancel, there are seven areas that can help lower costs and accelerate revenue: 1) Analyzing portfolios to prioritize the most profitable projects, 2) Assessing portfolio risk to avoid delays and shutdowns, and 3) Dynamic monitoring and reporting of project data for efficient decision making. After project selection, driving down costs involves 4) Improving collaboration and compliance, 5) Managing changes effectively, 6) Integrating efficient supply chains
Caesar Augustus ordered a census that required everyone to return to their hometown to register. Joseph, who was from Bethlehem, traveled there with his pregnant wife Mary. When they arrived, every inn was full so the innkeeper allowed them to stay in his stable. That night, Mary gave birth to Jesus and placed him in a manger. Nearby, shepherds tending their flocks saw an angel who told them the savior had been born in Bethlehem. The shepherds went and found Mary, Joseph, and the baby Jesus just as the angel had said.
- Iceland was first settled in 874 CE by Ingólfur Arnarsson and became the first permanent settler. In 930 CE, Iceland established the Althing, one of the world's first parliaments.
- From 930-1200 CE Iceland experienced a "golden age" but then entered a period of civil war between powerful clans. In 1262 CE, Iceland agreed to come under Norwegian rule to restore order.
- Iceland converted to Christianity in 1000 CE under pressure from the Norwegian king but retained elements of pagan worship. It became Protestant in 1550 CE after the decapitation of the last Catholic bishop, Jón Arason.
- Iceland endured a difficult period under Norwegian and
This document summarizes aspects of life in Gaelic Ireland between 1300-1600, focusing on Munster during the 16th century. It discusses Ireland as a clan society organized along lineages, with the poet holding a sacred position. Christianity penetrated religious life but not other spheres. The clan concept was adapted by Anglo-Normans and tensions arose from disputes over land and expansion. Society was stratified with landless clan followers above peasants. The document also outlines England's increasing control over the Irish church and governance.
This document provides an overview of a course on the Vikings between AD 700-1100. It discusses the sources used to study the Vikings, including historical accounts, sagas, runic inscriptions and place names. It also outlines advances in archaeological techniques that have improved understanding of Viking sites, settlements, trade and environment. Interpretive paradigms have shifted from seeing Vikings as pirates to appreciating their social structure and role in state formation, trade and assimilation into other cultures.
Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift in 1915, hypothesizing that around 200 million years ago, all the Earth's land masses were joined together in a single supercontinent called Pangaea. Pangaea began to break apart in the late Triassic period, separating into the supercontinents of Laurasia and Gondwanaland. By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents had separated into their modern positions.
During the 13th century, Finland gradually came under Swedish rule through a series of crusades and military campaigns. The area of Finland was divided among various Finnic tribes and was also subject to influence and raids from Novgorod. Sweden established control over western Finland in the mid-13th century and the northern border between Catholic and Orthodox areas was set at the eastern border of Finland with the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323. Finland was then integrated into the Kingdom of Sweden and the medieval European system, with the bishopric established in Turku becoming an influential religious and cultural center.
The document discusses the Scandinavian historical roots in the Middle English romance Havelok the Dane. It argues that while traditionally viewed as derived from French sources, Havelok draws from Scandinavian history as well. The author proposes that characters such as Havelok and his father Birkabeyn were modeled after figures from 12th century Norwegian history, specifically the Birkebeiner faction involved in civil wars. The document provides historical context on Norse settlement and influence in England, particularly the Danelaw region where Havelok was composed, to support the claim of Scandinavian influence on the work.
1. Ingólfr Arnarson, recognized as the first permanent Norse settler of Iceland, arrived in 874 and built his homestead in Reykjavik.
2. Whaling has a long history in Iceland, with the Basques being the first to engage in organized whaling in Icelandic waters in the 12th century. Norwegians established shore whaling stations in Iceland in the late 1800s.
3. Commercial whaling grew in the early 20th century but whale populations declined sharply, leading Iceland to enact the first whaling ban in 1915. Whaling continued under regulations until the international ban of 1986.
The document discusses the theory of continental drift proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915. It describes his hypothesis that all the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, which began breaking apart around 200 million years ago. As the continents drifted apart, they formed the landmasses that exist today. The document also provides background on the Bering Land Bridge that connected Asia and North America during the last ice age, allowing humans, plants and animals to migrate between the continents.
Christopher Rigel is a system engineer at Cabela's who is responsible for administering and creating data center solutions with a focus on datacenter virtualization and end user computing using technologies like VMware Horizon View. He has experience maintaining VDI environments and engineering new solutions to address challenges. Rigel is looking to gain more skills in security and networking to better thrive in his role and continue growing in the fast-paced technology industry.
This document defines marketing and discusses its importance. Marketing is defined as the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods and services. Marketing promotes product awareness and boosts product sales, helping to build a company's reputation. The document also discusses different types of marketing including online, offline, and word-of-mouth marketing. It defines the marketing mix as the set of tactics a company uses to promote its brand, including the four P's of marketing: product, price, place, and promotion. Advertising is discussed as a paid form of promotion and its benefits to both companies and consumers are outlined.
Jeremiah Mosse is a mechanical engineering student at Liberty University with a 3.9 GPA. He has experience using SolidWorks, AutoCAD, and MATLAB. For school projects, he designed an energy analysis of dormitories and a device to test abrasion on conveyor belts. He also designed and 3D printed a miniature quadcopter. After graduation, he aims to pursue a career in product design, fabrication, and materials engineering. He has internship experience evaluating energy conservation and held various jobs.
Ritepro Corporation produces Check Rite combination check valves that employ both spring and gravity forces to close. They provide reliability, rapid closing, and low pressure loss. Check Rite valves are easier to install horizontally or vertically compared to conventional check valves due to their compact design. They are also lighter, more compact, and open fully at lower velocities than swing or tilting check valves. This results in increased reliability and significant savings in weight, size, pressure drop, and energy costs compared to other check valve designs.
Цель:
Развивать фантазию и творческое воображение
Учить проявлять интерес к поделке
Закреплять умение аккуратно работать с клеем
Способствовать развитию мелкой моторики рук
Материалы и оборудование:
Цветная офисная бумага
цветная креповая бумага
мячик для пинг-понга
клей
черный и красный тонкие фломастеры
ножницы, степлер
This document is a report on the Mera Medicare website prepared in August 2015. It provides an overview of the Mera Medicare company, which sells healthcare products online in India. It describes the basic functionality of the Mera Medicare website, noting it is simple and efficient but could better capture visitors with more colors, images, and regularly updated health facts. The report concludes the website meets basic requirements but should be more visually pleasing and interactive. It provides recommendations to improve the website in these areas.
13 amazing Linkedin profile headlines (and how you can write your own)Tom Mallens 📈 💯
If you want sales and marketing results from Linkedin, writing a great profile is a good place to start. This summary gives 13 examples of great profile headlines so you can decide the headline that will help you stand out from your competitors, drive traffic to your profile and attract leads from ideal potential customers.
Jay Berkowitz, CEO of TenGoldenRules.com presents the 10 Success Strategies for Internet Marketers at Affiliate Summit West in Las Vegas on January 13, 2009.
Seven quick wins to lower costs and accelerate revenueGuy Barlow
Oil & Gas Industry
Seven quick wins to lower costs and accelerate revenue
The sharp decline in oil prices from 2014 to early 2015 left oil executives scrambling to control losses as prices fell over 50% in six months. As companies assess their project portfolios and decide which projects to accelerate or cancel, there are seven areas that can help lower costs and accelerate revenue: 1) Analyzing portfolios to prioritize the most profitable projects, 2) Assessing portfolio risk to avoid delays and shutdowns, and 3) Dynamic monitoring and reporting of project data for efficient decision making. After project selection, driving down costs involves 4) Improving collaboration and compliance, 5) Managing changes effectively, 6) Integrating efficient supply chains
Caesar Augustus ordered a census that required everyone to return to their hometown to register. Joseph, who was from Bethlehem, traveled there with his pregnant wife Mary. When they arrived, every inn was full so the innkeeper allowed them to stay in his stable. That night, Mary gave birth to Jesus and placed him in a manger. Nearby, shepherds tending their flocks saw an angel who told them the savior had been born in Bethlehem. The shepherds went and found Mary, Joseph, and the baby Jesus just as the angel had said.
- Iceland was first settled in 874 CE by Ingólfur Arnarsson and became the first permanent settler. In 930 CE, Iceland established the Althing, one of the world's first parliaments.
- From 930-1200 CE Iceland experienced a "golden age" but then entered a period of civil war between powerful clans. In 1262 CE, Iceland agreed to come under Norwegian rule to restore order.
- Iceland converted to Christianity in 1000 CE under pressure from the Norwegian king but retained elements of pagan worship. It became Protestant in 1550 CE after the decapitation of the last Catholic bishop, Jón Arason.
- Iceland endured a difficult period under Norwegian and
This document summarizes aspects of life in Gaelic Ireland between 1300-1600, focusing on Munster during the 16th century. It discusses Ireland as a clan society organized along lineages, with the poet holding a sacred position. Christianity penetrated religious life but not other spheres. The clan concept was adapted by Anglo-Normans and tensions arose from disputes over land and expansion. Society was stratified with landless clan followers above peasants. The document also outlines England's increasing control over the Irish church and governance.
This document provides an overview of a course on the Vikings between AD 700-1100. It discusses the sources used to study the Vikings, including historical accounts, sagas, runic inscriptions and place names. It also outlines advances in archaeological techniques that have improved understanding of Viking sites, settlements, trade and environment. Interpretive paradigms have shifted from seeing Vikings as pirates to appreciating their social structure and role in state formation, trade and assimilation into other cultures.
Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift in 1915, hypothesizing that around 200 million years ago, all the Earth's land masses were joined together in a single supercontinent called Pangaea. Pangaea began to break apart in the late Triassic period, separating into the supercontinents of Laurasia and Gondwanaland. By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents had separated into their modern positions.
During the 13th century, Finland gradually came under Swedish rule through a series of crusades and military campaigns. The area of Finland was divided among various Finnic tribes and was also subject to influence and raids from Novgorod. Sweden established control over western Finland in the mid-13th century and the northern border between Catholic and Orthodox areas was set at the eastern border of Finland with the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323. Finland was then integrated into the Kingdom of Sweden and the medieval European system, with the bishopric established in Turku becoming an influential religious and cultural center.
The document discusses the Scandinavian historical roots in the Middle English romance Havelok the Dane. It argues that while traditionally viewed as derived from French sources, Havelok draws from Scandinavian history as well. The author proposes that characters such as Havelok and his father Birkabeyn were modeled after figures from 12th century Norwegian history, specifically the Birkebeiner faction involved in civil wars. The document provides historical context on Norse settlement and influence in England, particularly the Danelaw region where Havelok was composed, to support the claim of Scandinavian influence on the work.
1. Ingólfr Arnarson, recognized as the first permanent Norse settler of Iceland, arrived in 874 and built his homestead in Reykjavik.
2. Whaling has a long history in Iceland, with the Basques being the first to engage in organized whaling in Icelandic waters in the 12th century. Norwegians established shore whaling stations in Iceland in the late 1800s.
3. Commercial whaling grew in the early 20th century but whale populations declined sharply, leading Iceland to enact the first whaling ban in 1915. Whaling continued under regulations until the international ban of 1986.
The document discusses the theory of continental drift proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915. It describes his hypothesis that all the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, which began breaking apart around 200 million years ago. As the continents drifted apart, they formed the landmasses that exist today. The document also provides background on the Bering Land Bridge that connected Asia and North America during the last ice age, allowing humans, plants and animals to migrate between the continents.
Scythia: The Amazing Origins of Ancient IrelandHervé Cariou
(extract) "In 1314, the Battle of Bannockburn led to Scotland’s independence. On 6 April 1320, the Scottish sovereign, Robert Bruce, and fifty signatories sent a declaration of independence to Pope John XXII. This is the Declaration of Arbroath, written in Latin. And it contains a surprising passage:"
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons from 60 BC to 1154 AD. It was initially created in the late 9th century in Wessex during the reign of King Alfred the Great. Multiple manuscripts were independently updated and distributed to monasteries across England. Nine manuscripts survive today providing different accounts, as the scribes added their own biases from the places they were written. It is considered an important primary source for understanding English history during the Anglo-Saxon period.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons from 60 BC to 1154 AD. It was initially created in the late 9th century in Wessex during the reign of King Alfred the Great. Multiple manuscripts were independently updated and distributed to monasteries across England. Nine manuscripts survive today providing different accounts, as the scribes added their own biases from the places they were written. It is considered an important primary source for understanding English history during the Anglo-Saxon period.
This document contains summaries of numerous books about immigration to New Zealand from various countries and time periods. It discusses books focused on the immigration of women, Māori, British, Scandinavians, Germans, Croatians, Irish, Scots, Chinese, Pacific Islanders, and others. It also includes books about the experiences of immigrants aboard ships traveling to New Zealand, as well as general histories of New Zealand immigration in the 19th century.
This thesis examines perceptions of the Irish in medieval English writing from 1200-1400 AD. Chapter 1 will analyze how Ireland was portrayed in the imagined geography of the Middle Ages, including in classical sources, maps, and as an "otherworld." Chapter 2 focuses on how English writers used origin myths, biblical references, and pseudohistory to assert England's right to rule Ireland. Chapter 3 evaluates how stereotypes of the Irish changed over time with growing English nationalism, ecclesiastical power struggles, warfare, and a royal visit to Ireland in 1399. The author argues perceptions of the Irish were important to shape English national identity and influence how the Irish were governed. Primary sources include chronicles, statutes, literature, and religious writings.
This document summarizes the literature reviewed for a dissertation examining the evolution of Clanbrassil Street in Dundalk, Ireland from a historical and geographical perspective. It discusses sources used such as street directories, books, websites, and journals. The literature focused on the history of Dundalk and provided context for periods examined (c. 1750, 1837, 1886, 1937, 1988, 2010) but did not discuss the street's evolution in great detail. Background on Dundalk and agents of change like local landlords and government was necessary. Street surveys from directories in 1837, 1886, and 1937 allowed analysis of land use changes over time. Economic conditions were examined through additional sources to provide context for each period.
Review: The Dublin Region in the Middle Ages: Settlement, Land-use and EconomyRobert M Chapple
This document provides a summary of a book titled "The Dublin Region in the Middle Ages: Settlement, Land-use and Economy". The book is a major publication that is the result of the Medieval Rural Settlement Project. It constructs a picture of the medieval landscape and settlement features of Dublin city and its surrounding 30km hinterland using archaeological and documentary sources. The book is divided into three parts that examine settlement and society, patterns of land ownership and defense, the church, rural settlements, and agriculture in the region during the Middle Ages. It provides a comprehensive analysis of medieval Dublin and its surrounding area based on an extensive collection of sources.
The document discusses the social structure and political institutions of Scandinavian communities during the Viking Age from 700-900 AD. It analyzes the social hierarchy and divisions based on sex, age, and status using archaeological evidence, textual sources, mythical tales, and literary accounts. Women generally had high social status and equal rights to men. The sources describe distinct social classes of slaves, freemen, and rulers. Archaeological evidence like the rich Oseberg ship burial shows some women held elite aristocratic roles. Overall, the document aims to understand Viking society by examining evidence from multiple genres of sources.
This document provides background information on King Cnut's (also known as Canute) reign over England from 1013-1033. It discusses Cnut's Danish lineage and how his father Sweyn Forkbeard conquered England in 1014 before his short rule. When Sweyn died, Cnut took control of the Danish armies in England and eventually defeated the Saxon king Edmund to unite England under his rule. The summary analyzes how Cnut impacted the clergy, aristocracy, and common people in medieval England through his consolidation of political power. He gained support of the influential church by confirming their land holdings and wealth, which helped legitimize his rule over the mixed Danish and English population.
Similar to The Settlement of Iceland + grade and marks scheme (18)
2. Alistair Pitts
The Discovery and Settlement of Iceland: When, who and why?
Due to Iceland’s remote position in the North Atlantic Ocean, this unique land of
volcanoes and glaciers did not become host to a permanent human population until
relatively recently, that is to say, within the last one and a half millennia. This novel
situation by comparison to the rest of Europe has made it of particular interest to
academics in a number of different fields, as Iceland provides a rare opportunity to
3. Alistair Pitts
trace and evaluate the development of a society from very soon after its inception.1
According to written sources, the Icelandic population for a considerable time was an
anomaly in European terms in that it was not ruled over by a king or military
aristocracy. Iceland would provide the launch pad for further excursions west; an
ultimately ill-fated Norse colonisation of Greenland, and also the first known landings
in what the Viking explorers named Vinland and is now called North America. The
aim of this exercise is to provide an overview and analysis of the various
interpretations of the evidence which provides clues as to when and how the human
race became aware of the existence of Iceland, when the colonisation took place, by
whom and what motivating factors prompted these pioneers to seek to undertake such
a venture at this particular time. Due to the conspicuous scarcity of written sources
with regard to the landnám (as the settlement, or more precisely, the land-taking
period is referred to in Icelandic) this will prove to be something of an inter-
disciplinary exercise, requiring attention to the work of archaeologists and genetic
scientists in addition to the historical material.
The Written Sources
It seems natural to commence with a description of what might be tentatively referred
to as the primary sources. Foremost amongst these are the Íslendingabók (the Book of
the Icelanders and the Landnámabók (the Book of Settlements).
The Íslendingabók was probably written between 1122 and 1132 by Ari inn froði (the
learned, or wise) Þorgilsson, a Christian priest and goði2
(a chieftain of sorts). It
1
Smith, K P ‘Landnàm: the settlement of Iceland in archaeological and historical perspective’ World
Archaeology Vol. 26, No.3, Routledge, London (1995) p.319
2
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ Hisarlik Press, Enfield Lock, Middlesex, (1993) p.15
4. Alistair Pitts
gives brief descriptions of significant events in the history of Iceland from the
founding of the first settlements until the time at which the sources themselves were
written. In the medieval period there were two versions of it in existence, an ‘Older’
and a ‘Younger’ though today only the latter survives.3
It enjoyed a high reputation
from its time of writing in the high middle ages until the twentieth century, when it
was subjected to much more stringent source-criticism.4
The Landnámabók originally
dates from the early 1100s and in comparison to the Íslendingabók it is much
lengthier, covering several hundred pages in a modern printed format.5
Its purported
purpose is to act as a record of the settlement and genealogy of the Icelanders.6
There
are a number of different versions still in existence and these are reckoned to have
been written between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries.7
As both of these describe
events that they claim to have occurred over two hundred years prior to the time of
authorship, this automatically raises considerable questions as to their accuracy. It has
been pointed out that this gap of years was to some extent bridged by the fact that Ari
Þorgilsson was raised by Hallr Þorarinsson, who was reported to have been able to
recall his baptism in 998 and to have been famed for his impressive capability of
memory. He is described as providing a link, albeit an oral one, with earlier settlers
and their traditions.8
It has been suggested rather anecdotally elsewhere that one
should not underestimate the human capacity for recalling detail.9
Whilst this is a
reasonably valid point, even if one assumes, for the sake of argument, that both Ari
3
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.15
4
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ C. Hurst & Co. Ltd, London (2000) p.11
5
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.16
6
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.17
7
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.17
8
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ Hutchinson & Co. Ltd, London, (1983) p.64
9
Rosenblad, E & Sigurðardóttir-Rosenblad, R ‘Iceland from Past to Present’ Màl og menning,
Reykjavík, (1993) p.5
5. Alistair Pitts
and Hallr both gave accurate renditions of what they were told, there is still a
considerable time distance between the life of Hallr and the earliest events described
in the Íslendingabók, and that distance gives plenty of scope for forgetfulness,
misunderstanding and deliberate reinvention. Bjock has “no doubt that Ari was a
careful historian”10
but goes on to qualify this by noting that he was not always
entirely objective, as he was keen to present his version of Icelandic history in a way
that would both stress the country’s Norwegian heritage and bolster the strength of the
Church. He is also regarded as having a bias towards his own region of Breiðafjörðr
in terms of the events he records. Also, he traces his own descent and includes
amongst his ancestry kings of Norway and Sweden as well the Norse gods Njörðr and
Freyr.11
This tempts one to suggest that Ari may have been inclined to fabricate
details when he did not know the real answers, and that if he did this with regard to
his own lineage, the odds that he did it elsewhere in his narrative seem rather
favorable. Karlsson praises Ari’s ‘keen sense of chronology’ and focus on natural,
rather than supernatural events.12
In order to establish Iceland in a European context,
Ari mentioned what was happening elsewhere simultaneously at the time of various
events in Icelandic history, with particular attention being given to the reign of King
Harald Fairhair in Norway. Whilst this superficially augments the convincingness of
Ari’s account, it does not in any way corroborate his story. It merely underlines that
he was keen to give Iceland a credible history that fitted in with the rest of Europe and
he had done his research in order to achieve the desired effect. Einarsson levels the
accusation that both were compiled with the aim of reinforcing the land claims of
10
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.16
11
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.16
12
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’p.11
6. Alistair Pitts
certain families.13
This suggestion presents something of a problem, as it is seemingly
impossible to convict or clear the authors of having such motivations for compiling
their accounts. Therefore the suspicion must remain and be taken into consideration in
the overall assessment. The reliability Landnámabók is perhaps even more subject to
question. As has already been mentioned, there are no known surviving copies of it in
its original form, and to complicate matters there is a lack of uniformity amongst the
later versions. It is believed that alterations were made during the copying process in
the following centuries to suit the tastes of medieval historians. It even appears that at
times, these some of these individuals substituted their own genealogies for the
originals.14
These later versions reflect political changes that were taking place at the
time of writing. For example, the earliest copies speak of the Norwegian ruler Harald
Fairhair as a tyrant, whereas later variants regard him as a law giver. It is no
coincidence that the latter versions were compiled during the thirteenth century at a
time when Iceland was being incorporated into the Norwegian monarchy.15
Thus the
rather frustrating reality of the situation is that it is difficult to know which surviving
version is most faithful to the original, which itself, due to its late composition in
relation to the events it describes, is by no means reliable. In light of the point made
about the effect of political changes, it is perhaps preferable to regard the earliest
copies as most resembling the original.
For some, the weight of this considerable collection of criticism of Íslendingabók and
Landnámabók crushes their combined credibility completely. Einarsson calls them
‘irrelevant for the initial stage of settlement until about 1000 AD.’16
It has also been
13
Einarsson, B F ‘The Settlement of Iceland; A Critical Approach’ Hið Íslenska Bókmenntafélag,
Reykjavík, (1995) p.19
14
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.18
15
Rafnsson, S in ‘The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings’ Oxford University Press, Oxford
(1997) p.112
16
Einarsson, B F ‘The Settlement of Iceland; A Critical Approach’ p.19
7. Alistair Pitts
noted that a romantic tendency amongst the present day Icelanders has meant that
there is an unwillingness to disregard them entirely.17
One notices, particularly
(though by no means exclusively) in non-historians, an eagerness to be rid of the
written sources.
Logan takes a more moderate position, believing that though it would not be wise to
take these sources as entirely historical or accurate, there is a good chance that they
resemble the earliest Icelandic traditions fairly closely.18
It has been shown somewhat comprehensively that the Íslendingabók and
Landnámabók cannot be expected to be fully reliable in terms of exact details for a
number of convincing reasons. Nevertheless, because of the scantiness of written
records on the subject of the Icelandic settlement it feels somewhat churlish not to
attempt to make some use of, or identify any element of truth in them. Therefore,
aspects of the sources shall be treated almost as hypotheses to be proved or otherwise
by the use of other methods. It is important however, to avoid the trap of the bad
scientist (though the same would also be the case in a bad historian), namely to begin
the experiment with a particular desired result in mind, and so distort and
misrepresent the evidence in order to produce the required conclusion.
The Discovery and Settlement
It is possible that Iceland had been discovered long before the Viking Age by Pytheas,
an Ancient Greek explorer. His version of events have not survived, therefore what
we know about his voyage is derived from later sources that are not always entirely
17
Hermanns-Auðardóttir, M ‘The Early Settlement of Iceland’ Norwegian Archaeological review,
Vol. 24, No. 1, Scandinavian University Press (1991) p.1
18
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’p.64
8. Alistair Pitts
consistent with each other.19
Polybius, Strabo, Pliny and Tacitus named the country
he found ‘Thule’ and described it as being a six days journey north of Britain.20
It is
described as a land where sunlight persisted at midnight during the middle of
summer,21
a phenomenon present in Iceland. However, some versions of Pytheas’ tale
say that ‘Thule’ was inhabited by ‘barbarians’. As there is no archæological record of
such an early inhabitation of Iceland, and therefore it is suspected that it is more
probable that the land Pytheas found was actually northern Norway.22
Pytheas’
voyage into the farthest reaches of the north, though seemingly not to Iceland is worth
mentioning because it seems that others writing later believed in the existence of
‘Thule’ and that this mysterious lost country lay somewhere in the North Atlantic
Ocean.
There is a faint possibility that the first discoverers of Iceland were Romans, as four
Roman coins have been discovered in Iceland.23
However, there is no additional
record either literary or archaeological of such a Roman presence in Iceland. Nor is
there any mention to be found of a Roman vessel returning out of the northern waters
bearing tidings of a strange uncharted island. Though of course, it is possible that such
an account once existed but no longer survives. Nevertheless, the absence of evidence
for a Roman discovery of Iceland besides these coins means that the prevailing view
is that they found their way to Iceland somewhat later, in hands of a non-Roman. He
(or she) could have ‘picked them up abroad, as part of a plundered hoard, as a
keepsake or curio, or for any of the thousand and one arbitrary reasons why a man has
19
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ (second edition) Oxford University Press, Oxford (1986) p.30
20
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.61
21
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.9
22
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.30
23
Nordahl, E ‘Reykjavík from the Archaeological Point of View, Aun 12’ The Department of
Archæology, Uppsala University (1988) p. 114
9. Alistair Pitts
such things in his possession’.24
Thus having very reasonable grounds for throwing out Roman claims to the discovery
of Iceland, the next candidates are the Irish, and they are by far the most probable.
The Venerable Bede, writing in the early eighth century claimed that Irish monks had
rediscovered ‘Thule’, however, it is possible that this was not Iceland, but one of the
other North Atlantic islands, or as was probably the case with Pytheas, the Norwegian
coast.25
The similarity of Bede’s account to the various tales of Pytheas has also been
noted,26
so it is possible that the Anglo-Saxon cleric was being over-enthusiastic in
the use of his imagination and the classical sources when recounting the travels of
Irish hermits. Therefore, one cannot proclaim with much assurance that Bede’s Thule
was what was to later become known as Iceland. The ‘sober testimony’27
of the Liber
de Mensura Orbis Terræ by the Irish Monk Dicuil, writing in AD 825, gives a similar
account of the seafaring of his fellows:
‘All round our island of Hibernia [says Dicuil] there are islands, some small, some
tiny. Off the coast of the island of Britain are many islands, some big, some small
some middling; some lie in the sea to the south of Britain, others to the west; but they
are most numerous in the northwestern sphere and the north. On some of these
islands I have lived, others set foot, of some had a sight, of others read….
It is now thirty years since priests [clerici] who lived on that island [i.e. Thule] from
the first day of February to the first day of August told me that not only at the summer
solstice, but in the days on either side of it, the setting sun hides itself at the evening
hour as if behind a little hill, so that no darkness occurs during that very brief period
24
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.31
25
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.9
26
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.34
27
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.34
10. Alistair Pitts
of time, but whatever task a man wishes to perform, even to picking the lice out of his
shirt, he can manage it precisely as in broad daylight. And had they been on a high
mountain, the sun would at no time have been hidden from them….
They deal in fallacies who have written that the sea around the island is frozen, and
that there is continuous day without night from the vernal to the autumnal equinox,
and vice versa, perpetual night from the autumnal equinox to the vernal; for those
sailing at an expected time of great cold have made their way thereto, and dwelling
on the island enjoyed always alternate night and day save at the time of the solstice.
But after one day’s sailing from there to the north they found the frozen sea. ’28
Dicuil’s version is more convincing than that of Bede, given the very clear, specific
and precise nature of the account taken down directly from these mariners
themselves,29
as displayed by this quotation. As their description fits Iceland so well, it
virtually excludes from all reasonable doubt the fact that Iceland was discovered by
Irish hermits as a result of their search of solitude on the northern ocean.
Ari Þorgilsson mentions that there were Christian men in Iceland when the first
Norsemen arrived, but that they left soon after this, not wanting to live amongst the
pagan Vikings. They (presumably in their haste to get away) left behind them books
that made it clear that they were Irishmen, as well as bells and croziers. The
Norsemen referred to these people as ‘papar’.30
Karlsson describes this extract
‘confirms’ Dicuil’s account. However, this is not the case for several reasons; firstly,
as was established earlier at some length, the Íslendingabók is not a source that can be
28
Dicuil, ‘Liber de Mensura Orbis Terræ’ quoted in Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.34-5
29
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.34
30
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.144
11. Alistair Pitts
firmly relied upon, but also because it does not necessarily follow that if Irish hermits
were present at the end of the eighth century their successors a number of decades
later would certainly follow in their footsteps (or, more in keeping with their mode of
transport, their wake). Nevertheless, Ari’s story is far from implausible, and its
believability is helped by the evidence of Icelandic place names such as ‘Papey’ and
‘Papos’ which probably reflect the areas in which the Norsemen had come across
these Irishmen.31
One might ask, “What does it matter, as far as the settlement is concerned, who
found Iceland and when this happened?” The significance of the Irish discovery of
Iceland is that it may possibly have indirectly led to the settlement by the Norse. The
fact that others knew such an island existed may have caused Vikings to look for it.
And it seems to me that one has a better chance of finding something, even if that
thing be an island, if one is looking for it, and has a reasonably good idea where to
look than by accident. Though it cannot be proved, it seems reasonable to suggest that
it is quite likely that Norwegian Vikings, who had much to do with Ireland in the
ninth century first heard of a country far out in the Atlantic ocean from the Irish that
they came into contact with.
The other possibility of course, is that the Vikings did discover Iceland by accident,
and this is the conclusion that is arrived at in several versions of the Landnámabók.
One of them claims that it was a Norwegian named Nadoddr, who found Iceland and
another attributes this to Garðar Svavarsson, both of whom made their discovery after
being thrown off course in a storm.32
As already established, it is unlikely that the
Landnámabók is a faithful representation of the precise details, but if the idea that a
31
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.62
32
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.157-9
12. Alistair Pitts
ship’s crew could lose its way like this was believable to readers in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, who may well have had experience of navigating the North
Atlantic, it suggests that possibility that this may be what actually happened several
centuries before should not be treated with derision. Karlsson makes the point that as
they had no compass, Viking seafarers’ methods of navigation were reliant on the
visibility of sun and the stars, so if weather conditions obscured these, then it was
very hard to know which direction one was travelling in.33
Logan describes the North
Atlantic islands as ‘stepping stones’34
once voyages were being made to the Faeroe
Islands on a regular basis, it was likely that sooner or later a crew would miscalculate
and overshoot, ending up in Iceland as a result.
It is unfortunate that there is a lack of convincing evidence for the date of the Norse
voyages of exploration of Iceland, as if these were known it would be an aid towards
establishing the time of the settlement itself. The settlement was a conscious decision
to emigrate, a deliberate undertaking to start afresh in a new country.35
It hardly
seems plausible to suggest that these would-be colonists packed their ships with all
the things they would need to start a new life in a distant land without really knowing
where it was, hoping on the off-chance that they would find somewhere inhabitable.
They would not have taken such a risk until they were confident that it was one worth
taking, and they probably would not have believed this to be the case until a relatively
substantial number of successful voyages had been to Iceland and back, bringing with
them favourable reports.
The Íslendingabók dates the founding of the first Norse settlements in Iceland to the
33
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.11
34
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.58
35
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.64
13. Alistair Pitts
870s.36
A variety of claims as to the accuracy or otherwise of this account, based on a
variety of different methods.
Iceland’s status as a volcanic country has enabled the use of tephrochronology in
attempts to place a date on the settlement. Tephra is essentially volcanic material, ash
and pumice that is usually deposited when a volcano erupts.37
Tephrochronology was
developed by matching layers of tephra to written records of volcanic eruptions, using
chemical analysis to verify that the material of which the layers were made up was
consistent with the volcanoes that the written sources attributed the eruptions to.38
Dating by tephrochronology works on the logical principle that anything below a
definite layer of tephra must be older than that layer.39
The first signs of human
inhabitation have been found just above a double layer of two different colours, and
traces of this layer have been found in the turf of which the oldest houses were
constructed, indicating that they were built within a few decades of the corresponding
volcanic eruption. This is thus referred to as the settlement layer.40
Pollen analyses of
samples taken from within, and in some cases just below the settlement layer indicate
an abrupt change in the Icelandic vegetation which strongly implies human
involvement. There is a decline in birch which indicates tree-felling, an increase in
grass that would correspond with the introduction of the grazing of livestock and the
beginnings of grain, presumably brought by the settlers from their homeland.41
Carbon-14 dating has been carried out on the settlement layer, indicating that it dates
36
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.15
37
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ Norwegian Archaeological review,
Vol. 23, Nos. 1-2, Scandinavian University Press (1990) p. 44
38
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ p. 44
39
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.13
40
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.13
41
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.13
14. Alistair Pitts
from between the seventh and ninth centuries.42
Such an imprecise figure is hardly
very helpful in establishing the age of the settlement. Tephrochronology has yielded
results have tended to confirm the traditional, that is, the source based interpretation
of when Iceland was colonised. Vilhjálmsson has concerns regarding the
methodology which was used in the development of tephrochronology. He states that
subsequent to its development, source criticism has become much more stringent.
Whereas tephrochronologists were not sufficiently selective in their use of written
“evidence”, often dating volcanic eruptions and their corresponding tephra layers
using annals written sometimes two or three hundred years after this activity was
reported to have taken place.43
He quite rightly adds that the early Icelandic sources
were not written with the sole expressed purpose of cataloguing the activity of the
countries’ active volcanoes. This goes some way to explaining, for example, why
seventeen layers of tephra derived from Mount Katla can be held to have been
deposited within historical times, (presumably through carbon dating, though
Vilhjálmsson is not specific) though there are only fourteen instances of eruptions of
Mount Katla on record.44
It seems that the reliability of tephrochronology has not
been called into question because of over-confidence in the written sources.
Ice core chronology, a method based on the tracing of yearly snowfall ‘like the annual
rings of a tree’ has been used in an attempt to verify the findings of
tephrochronology.45
According to Karlsson, traces of glass characteristic of the
settlement layer have been found in ice that is believed by scientists to have fallen as
snow within a couple of years of 871, thus dating the settlement year to this time. If
42
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.13
43
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ p. 47
44
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ p. 47
45
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.13
15. Alistair Pitts
this is correct, this suggests that Ari Þorgilsson’s date for the settlement is slightly too
late, as humans had already begun to have an impact on the Icelandic ecosystem by
the time he attributes to the beginning their first permanent settlement.46
Vilhjálmsson
contradicts the notion that traces of the tephra layer can be found in the icecap.47
He
also casts doubt upon the idea that peaks in the levels of acidity within the ice core
brought about by volcanic eruptions can be regarded as a reliable method with which
to prove or disprove the accuracy of tephrochronology. He argues that other volcanic
countries in the northern hemisphere do not have the same literary traditions and thus
acidity peaks tend to have been automatically regarded as having been caused by
Icelandic volcanoes when this is not necessarily the case.48
It is also noted that ‘the
greatest Icelandic explosive eruption of historical times, as far as tephra is concerned’
-Öræfajökull in 1362- does not seem to have produced a corresponding high acidity
level.49
Therefore it seems that the ice core method is an inexact science, full of
anomalies and to reiterate, it cannot be used to verify tephrochronology.
One of the most controversial statements concerning the dating of the landnám is
Margrét Hermanns-Auðardóttir’s claim that Iceland was settled in the Merovingian
period, close to 700 AD.50
Its controversy springs from the fact that the settlement has
generally been assumed to have taken place during the Viking Age, and argument has
concentrated on determining the precise point within that timeframe that it occurred.
Hermanns-Auðardóttir bases her assertion on idea that neither the written sources nor
tephrochronology can be trusted to produce accurate dates (which, as already shown,
46
Karlsson, G ‘Iceland’s 1100 years’ p.13
47
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ p. 50
48
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ p. 50
49
Vilhjálmsson, V Ö ‘Dating Problems in Icelandic Archaeology’ p. 50
50
Hermanns-Auðardóttir, M ‘The Early Settlement of Iceland’ p.2
16. Alistair Pitts
is a valid assumption) and that charcoal found in an archaeological site has been dated
using the carbon-14 method to the seventh century.51
Archaeological evidence such
as building type suggests that these settlers came from south-western Norway.52
She
states that the artefacts suggest that Icelandic settlement of the Merovingian and early
Viking Period was largely egalitarian with little in terms of organised defences, so it
was easy for those who arrived in late Viking times to take over, and therefore there is
no record of the earliest settlers.53
This whole theory seems to be maintained on one
rather thin piece of evidence, the radiocarbon dating of the charcoal. It is quite
possible that this can be accounted for, as it is quite possible that the wood burnt was
rather older than the settlement itself.54
It was been shown that Icelandic conditions
allow driftwood to survive for centuries on the beaches.55
Record of inhabitants or evidence of their presence is conspicuously absent in the
Dicuil’s account of the travels of the Irish monks, though of course it is entirely
possible that settlers were there, but their paths never crossed those of the Irish
travellers.
Besides the aforementioned coins, Iceland has not yielded any pre-Viking artefacts
nor have any discernibly pre-Viking graves been found56
, which is contrary to what
one would expect, had Iceland been populated before this time.
Boathouses dating from the Roman and Migration periods indicate that the peoples of
the west Norwegian coast had a long seafaring tradition,57
however, it is rather
51
Hermanns-Auðardóttir, M ‘The Early Settlement of Iceland’ p.2
52
Hermanns-Auðardóttir, M ‘The Early Settlement of Iceland’ p.6
53
Hermanns-Auðardóttir, M ‘The Early Settlement of Iceland’ p.9
54
Mahler, D & Malmros, C Norwegian Archaeological review, Vol. 24, No. 1, Scandinavian
University Press (1991) p.15
55
Eldjárn, K (1989) cited in Smith, K P ‘Landnàm: the settlement of Iceland in archæological and
historical perspective’ p.325
56
Nordahl, E ‘Reykjavík from the Archaeological Point of View, Aun 12’ p. 114
57
Hermanns-Auðardóttir, M ‘The Early Settlement of Iceland’ p.7
17. Alistair Pitts
doubtful that they had the necessary maritime technology in order to make such a
voyage prior to the Viking epoch.58
One must conclude that with the evidence available that it is not possible to fix a
precise date on either the discovery or settlement of Iceland. However, the artefacts
uncovered thus far indicate that it occurred during the Viking period. Until a more
convincing basis for the theory of a pre-Viking settlement of Iceland is produced, this
possibility should be dismissed as unlikely.
The Origins and Identity of the Settlers
The question of where the Icelanders originally came from is one of some importance
for the national identity of the country’s present day inhabitants. The Landnámabók
indicates that the majority of settlers were from Norway, but in addition came others,
from Celtic lands and a number of these are specifically referred to as Irish.59
Though
Norse culture and language was dominant in Iceland a number personal and place
names as well as a few words connected with labour indicate a Celtic element.60
The
proportion of the settlers of Celtic descent has been the subject of considerable
speculation and research. Logan claims that modern Icelandic historians have tended
to overstate the Celtic component in order to explain the differences between their
country and the rest of Scandinavia.61
He believes that seven per cent of the settlers
mentioned in the Landnámabók were from recognizably Celtic lands, foremost
58
Jones, G ‘The North Atlantic Saga’ p.5-6
59
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.66
60
Bjarnason , O et al. ‘The Blood Groups of the Icelanders’ Annals of Human Genetics 36, Cambridge
University Press, London (1973) p.428
61
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.66-7
18. Alistair Pitts
amongst these, Ireland and the Outer Hebrides.62
As discussed earlier, reliance on this
particular source, especially for as precise details as the names and place of origins of
individuals is not advisable. Besides this, the Landnámabók only accounts for about
one thousand people, four hundred of which are actually named.63
Given that a
census of Iceland taken by bishop Gizur Isleifsson indicated that the population of
Iceland was seventy thousand in 110664
, it is hard to believe that such a large
population increase from a starting population of one thousand could have occurred
within two or three hundred years. If the Landnámabók does not account for every
settler, how are we to be sure that it is a representative sample of the initial Icelandic
population as a whole?
One method used in an attempt to determine the origin of the Icelanders is the use of
genetic science to compare the modern population of Iceland with those of Ireland,
Scotland and Norway. Comparisons between the frequencies of the different
phenotypes within the ABO blood group system showed a much stronger similarity
between the Icelandic population and those of Ireland and Scotland than between the
Icelandic and Norwegian populations.65
Though this would imply that the majority of
the settlers came from the Celtic regions of the British Isles, the results are probably
misleading. It is presumptuous to suppose that allelic frequencies in all the countries
concerned have remained the same as they were over one thousand years ago. This
assumes that the present populations are the direct descendants of those of the Viking
Age,66
and that conditions within these countries have not had a selective effect for or
against particular alleles. Whilst subsequent immigrants to Iceland have been
62
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.66
63
Bjarnason , O et al. ‘The Blood Groups of the Icelanders’ p. 427
64
Bjarnason , O et al. ‘The Blood Groups of the Icelanders’ p. 428
65
Bjarnason , O et al. ‘The Blood Groups of the Icelanders’ p. 448
66
Bjarnason , O et al. ‘The Blood Groups of the Icelanders’ p. 451
19. Alistair Pitts
primarily Norwegian, (which would increase the similarity between the two groups,
rather than reduce it)67
Norway and Ireland have been subject to foreign rule for
much of the last millennium, and this may have resulted in a greater mixing of these
populations with ‘outsiders’ than might have otherwise been the case. Adelsteinsson
has shown that smallpox is likely to have had a distorting effect on the frequencies of
the different phenotypes within the ABO blood group system. Those with blood
groups A or AB had a reduced chance of survival.68
In Scandinavia smallpox was an
endemic disease, which tended to occur in childhood when mortality rates are lower
than in adulthood.69
Iceland and Ireland’s comparative isolation and low population
meant that endemic smallpox was not sustained and thus resistance levels were low.
Subsequently smallpox occurred in severe epidemics.70
It has been noted that there
is a greater level of similarity of allele frequencies at other chromosomal loci71
between Iceland and Norway than between Iceland and Ireland.72
Genetic science has not satisfactorily established the relative proportions of
Norwegian and Celtic settlers. The dominance of Norse culture suggests that either
the Norsemen were in the majority, or that they enjoyed a position of dominance over
the Celtic element. This would fit with the traditional source-based explanation for the
Celtic element. Vikings who had settled in Ireland had taken Irish wives, concubines
67
Thompson, E A ‘The Icelandic Admixture Problem’ Annals of Human Genetics 37, Cambridge
University Press (1973) p.
68
Adelsteinsson, S ‘Possible changes in the frequency of the human ABO blood groups in Iceland
due to smallpox epidemic selection’ Annals of Human Genetics 49, Cambridge University Press (1985)
p. 278
69
Adelsteinsson, S ‘Possible changes in the frequency of the human ABO blood groups in Iceland
due to smallpox epidemic selection’ p. 279
70
Adelsteinsson, S ‘Possible changes in the frequency of the human ABO blood groups in Iceland
due to smallpox epidemic selection’ p. 279
71
(not to be confused with Loki)
72
Adelsteinsson, S ‘Possible changes in the frequency of the human ABO blood groups in Iceland
due to smallpox epidemic selection’ p. 281
20. Alistair Pitts
and thralls which they brought with them to Iceland.73
The Causes of the Settlement of Iceland
Explaining why the exodus to Iceland from both Norway and parts of the British Isles
occurred is somewhat difficult without a precise date for when it occurred. The
traditional explanation attributes responsibility to Norwegian king Harald Fairhair.
Snorri Sturlason, author of ‘Heimskringla’ (a history of the Kings of Norway)
attributes to the unprecedented collection of taxes and a related encroachment onto
long-standing rights of landholding freeman to Harald.74
As Snorri was writing in the
thirteenth century about events of the late ninth century, one is inclined to be sceptical
as far as his reliability is concerned. Yet his explanation fits nicely with the
minimalist ‘Free State’ system of government that was established in Iceland, if it is
seen as being the manifestation of conscious desire to prevent a repeat of the type
royal tyranny that Harald had imposed from happening in Iceland. It is difficult to be
convinced that Harald was responsible for the exodus to Iceland. Some versions of the
Landnámabók claim that settlers appealed to Harald for arbitration in a dispute over
land,75
behaviour hardly consistent with people who wanted nothing to do with the
Norwegian King. In a case of clash between two sources which were written long
after the events they describe which neither provide evidence to substantiate, one does
not know which to believe, if any.
It has been suggested that Vikings went to Iceland because they found that resistance
to their activities in some parts of Europe was becoming more effective. This is
73
Logan, F D ‘The Vikings in History’ p.66
74
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.53-4
75
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.55
21. Alistair Pitts
certainly true of Alfred the Great’s kingdom of Wessex.76
However, the Vikings who
were attacking England were primarily of Danish, rather than Norwegian origin.
Sawyer believes that in contrast with the Danes, Norwegian Viking activity was
primarily motivated by the desire to find land to settle. In spite of profitable raids on
English monasteries early in the Viking period, subsequent Norwegian excursions
were primarily focused on poorer and more remote areas, implying that it was land to
settle rather than wealth that they were after.77
If this is the case, the settlement of the
uninhabited Iceland was simply a continuation of this tendency. This general trend
amongst the Norwegians for taking to the sea in search land to settle was possibly the
consequence of pressure on land resources in Norway. The large number of graves
found dating from the beginning of the Viking period in comparison to previous
centuries suggests that there was a rapid population increase that may have acted as an
incentive for many to emigrate.78
Conclusion
Unfortunately, the lack of contemporary sources and the inherent unreliability of
those composed at a later date make it very difficult to find satisfactory answers to
many of the questions relating to the Norse settlement of Iceland. What is clear is that
the settlement was indeed primarily Norse in character, though the initial population
contained a Celtic element, but its extent is impossible to determine with any
confidence at this stage. The inability to determine the dates of the discovery of
Iceland and commencement of the settlement process within a narrow timeframe in
76
Bjock, J L ‘Medieval Iceland’ p.53
77
Sawyer, P H ‘The Age of the Vikings’ The Camelot Press Ltd, London and Southampton (1962) p.
198-9
78
Sawyer, P H ‘The Age of the Vikings’ p. 200
22. Alistair Pitts
turn makes it difficult to be sure of what caused the settlement, if the reasons behind it
differ from the factors that were behind Norwegian Viking activity in general across
the whole period.
23. Alistair Pitts
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