This document summarizes a study examining the influence of school administrators on teacher retention decisions. The study uses survey data from first-year teachers in New York City along with administrative data to analyze the relationship between teachers' assessments of school contextual factors and actual teacher turnover. The key findings are:
1) Teachers' perceptions of school administration have the strongest influence on their retention decisions, more so than other factors like staff relations, facilities, or student behavior.
2) This effect of administration is consistent for both first-year teachers and all teachers in the sample, and is confirmed by surveys of teachers who recently left their positions.
3) School administration, particularly the support and leadership of administrators, appears to be a major factor
This document discusses using data to drive instruction in Title 1 schools. It emphasizes that data about teacher-student relationships, discipline, attendance, climate and resources can guide administrators and educators. An effective data plan considers factors impacting student learning, collects and analyzes different types of data, and uses the analysis to inform decisions. The document also stresses that schools need resources to properly collect and analyze data, especially behavioral data, and they must implement changes based on the data analysis for it to be effective.
This study assessed differences in academic performance and perceptions of contributing factors between school and university levels among 261 engineering students in Lahore, Pakistan.
The results found that students had lower average grades at the university level compared to school. Students also perceived teachers, family, and their own efforts had less impact on their performance at university versus school. Specifically, students saw family as contributing less and their own efforts as contributing more at university level.
The study concluded there were significant differences in both academic performance and perceptions of contributing factors between the school and university levels among these engineering students.
This document analyzes the impact of homework on student achievement. It utilizes both parametric and nonparametric techniques on data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988. The results indicate:
1) Homework has a larger and more significant impact on test scores than other standard school inputs like class size.
2) The effects of homework are not uniform - it is most effective for high- and low-achieving students.
3) Parametric models overstate the impact of school inputs like homework and class size compared to nonparametric estimates.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the effect of increased teacher pay on student performance in the Netherlands. The paper uses a difference-in-differences design to compare schools located inside and outside the Randstad region, where schools inside received higher teacher pay raises due to a new policy. The analysis found mixed results, with some cases showing higher pay increased performance and others showing it decreased performance. Interestingly, the effect was more often positive for higher education levels and more often negative for lower education levels.
The Role of School Environment in Teacher Dissatisfaction Among U.S. Public S...Alvera Kisil
This document summarizes a research article that examines the relationship between school environment factors and teacher dissatisfaction in the United States. The article uses data from the 2007-2008 School and Staffing Survey to analyze how factors like teacher autonomy, principal leadership, student problems, and community problems affect teacher dissatisfaction. The study finds that teacher autonomy and principal leadership are associated with decreased odds of teacher dissatisfaction, while student and community problems are associated with increased odds of teacher dissatisfaction. The school environment plays a statistically significant role in teacher dissatisfaction.
Dr. W.A. Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This study examined predictors of student achievement success related to principal leadership. It analyzed dispositional characteristics like a principal's experience, education level, and self-efficacy. It also considered environmental predictors like gender, school location, and student population. The results showed that a principal's self-efficacy has a moderate influence on student achievement. Gender and student population also demonstrated some predictive influence. The study aimed to determine which principal characteristics most influence student achievement success and to what degree a principal's self-efficacy impacts achievement.
Dr. Paul Watkins & Dr. Janet Moak - Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Dr. William Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, Houston, Texas - www.nationalforum.com
This document discusses using data to drive instruction in Title 1 schools. It emphasizes that data about teacher-student relationships, discipline, attendance, climate and resources can guide administrators and educators. An effective data plan considers factors impacting student learning, collects and analyzes different types of data, and uses the analysis to inform decisions. The document also stresses that schools need resources to properly collect and analyze data, especially behavioral data, and they must implement changes based on the data analysis for it to be effective.
This study assessed differences in academic performance and perceptions of contributing factors between school and university levels among 261 engineering students in Lahore, Pakistan.
The results found that students had lower average grades at the university level compared to school. Students also perceived teachers, family, and their own efforts had less impact on their performance at university versus school. Specifically, students saw family as contributing less and their own efforts as contributing more at university level.
The study concluded there were significant differences in both academic performance and perceptions of contributing factors between the school and university levels among these engineering students.
This document analyzes the impact of homework on student achievement. It utilizes both parametric and nonparametric techniques on data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988. The results indicate:
1) Homework has a larger and more significant impact on test scores than other standard school inputs like class size.
2) The effects of homework are not uniform - it is most effective for high- and low-achieving students.
3) Parametric models overstate the impact of school inputs like homework and class size compared to nonparametric estimates.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the effect of increased teacher pay on student performance in the Netherlands. The paper uses a difference-in-differences design to compare schools located inside and outside the Randstad region, where schools inside received higher teacher pay raises due to a new policy. The analysis found mixed results, with some cases showing higher pay increased performance and others showing it decreased performance. Interestingly, the effect was more often positive for higher education levels and more often negative for lower education levels.
The Role of School Environment in Teacher Dissatisfaction Among U.S. Public S...Alvera Kisil
This document summarizes a research article that examines the relationship between school environment factors and teacher dissatisfaction in the United States. The article uses data from the 2007-2008 School and Staffing Survey to analyze how factors like teacher autonomy, principal leadership, student problems, and community problems affect teacher dissatisfaction. The study finds that teacher autonomy and principal leadership are associated with decreased odds of teacher dissatisfaction, while student and community problems are associated with increased odds of teacher dissatisfaction. The school environment plays a statistically significant role in teacher dissatisfaction.
Dr. W.A. Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This study examined predictors of student achievement success related to principal leadership. It analyzed dispositional characteristics like a principal's experience, education level, and self-efficacy. It also considered environmental predictors like gender, school location, and student population. The results showed that a principal's self-efficacy has a moderate influence on student achievement. Gender and student population also demonstrated some predictive influence. The study aimed to determine which principal characteristics most influence student achievement success and to what degree a principal's self-efficacy impacts achievement.
Dr. Paul Watkins & Dr. Janet Moak - Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Dr. William Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, Houston, Texas - www.nationalforum.com
This article describes how a high school used discipline data to identify and address disproportional referral rates for freshmen and minority students. The school revised its referral form to collect more detailed data on referrals. It then began monthly meetings where staff analyzed referral data by factors like time, location, grade, and ethnicity. This allowed them to identify predictable problems and develop interventions. For freshmen and minorities, the data were further analyzed to guide more targeted interventions. Over time, this process led to steady decreases in referrals for freshmen and minority students. The approach shows how continuous analysis of discipline data can help schools address issues of disproportionality.
Dr. William Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This study compared elementary schools in Indiana based on the percentage of students passing the state achievement test versus a demographics adjusted performance measure. When looking only at pass rates, the top schools had high SES, white, high ability students. However, after controlling for student demographics, the highest performing schools were more diverse. The study found student income, race, and ability accounted for over half the variance in school pass rates. It suggests evaluations of school quality based only on pass rates can be biased and ignoring student factors does a disservice to schools serving disadvantaged students.
Effect of teaching method, choice of discipline and student lecturer relation...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined factors affecting student academic performance, including teaching method, choice of discipline, and student-lecturer relationship. The study analyzed data from 192 students in Nigeria on their course of study, effort level, and relationship with lecturers. The results showed that choice of discipline influenced by university authority rather than passion was negatively associated with student GPA. Additionally, student GPA increased as the rapport between students and lecturers improved. Some students who put in high effort performed worse than less studying students, possibly due to rushed lectures or lack of learning resources. The study concluded teaching methods should maintain good student-lecturer relationships while preventing moral hazard of passing without effort.
Perceptions of Tenured and Adjunct Faculty Regarding the Role of the Adjunct ...inventionjournals
This study purpose was to explore the perceptions of adjuncts and tenured faculty about the role of the adjunct in higher education. Through purposeful sampling, the lived experiences of nine adjuncts and nine tenured faculty members were considered from three historically black colleges and universities in the southeastern United States. The Critical Social Theory guided this qualitative phenomenological study as it relates to organizational culture. The Critical Social Theory framework illuminates the perceptions of the more powerful players in an organization and the impact of these perceptions on the workplace culture. Six themes that emerged from the analysis of the data: (a) Professional Development and Support, (b) Increased Collaboration, (c)Standard Recruiting and Retention Practices, (d) Shared Responsibilities, (e) Their Perceived Student Perceptions of Adjuncts and Tenured Faculty in the Classroom, and (f) The Relationship between Adjuncts and their University. These themes gave rise to a general description of the perceptions and the workplace culture. The findings from the study yielded several unexpected outcomes.
Demographic factors and students’ academic achievement in tertiary institutio...Alexander Decker
This study investigated the influence of demographic factors like age and sex on the academic performance of graduating students at Wa Polytechnic in Ghana. Simple regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship between class obtained, age and sex. Key findings were that both age and sex were positively related to class, though only the coefficient of sex was statistically significant. The study also found that an increase in age was likely to decrease academic performance more for male students than female students. This novel study examined the combined effect of age and sex on academic achievement.
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-201...William Kritsonis
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-2014 - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) - www.nationalforum.com
The Impact of School Academic Quality on Low Socioeconomic Status studentshanakunje
1) The document examines whether high-quality schools benefit low socioeconomic status (SES) students as much as high SES students in terms of completing Year 12.
2) It finds that high-quality schools benefit all students, but help low-achieving, low SES students the most - doubling their chances of completing Year 12 compared to low-quality schools.
3) For the most vulnerable students who are low-achieving and low SES, increasing school quality has an exceptionally large positive impact on Year 12 completion rates.
Okta mahendra (1608042030) the analysis of 6 journal articlesAndrew Garfield
1. This document summarizes 6 journal articles on the relationship between school facilities and student outcomes such as academic achievement. The articles used qualitative and quantitative methodologies such as surveys and statistical analyses. Overall, the research consistently found that school facility conditions like building quality, classroom size, noise levels, and overcrowding influence student and teacher performance. Students in better facility conditions tended to outperform those in substandard buildings.
Jones fayettevvile principals and counselors perceptions of freshmen academy ...William Kritsonis
This study explored the perceptions of North Carolina freshmen academy principals and counselors regarding social and educational issues impacting student academic success. The researchers conducted a survey of 103 principals and 103 counselors. Two key themes emerged from their responses: (1) the need for a student-centered environment within the academy and (2) beliefs that the academy model could lead to improved student outcomes. Respondents identified challenges such as high teacher turnover, a lack of respect from the regular high school staff, and insufficient parental involvement. Prior to implementing the academies, schools commonly faced issues like high absenteeism, discipline problems, and low student performance among ninth-graders. The study provided insights into freshmen transition programs from
A study of job satisfaction among female teachers at college levelAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on job satisfaction among female college teachers in Lahore, Pakistan. The study aims to understand factors contributing to teacher dissatisfaction, satisfaction with promotion criteria, working conditions, and pay structure. A questionnaire was administered to 93 female teachers from 4 colleges to understand their job satisfaction levels. Results showed that teachers were satisfied with many aspects of their work but dissatisfied with some factors as well. The study recommends measures to improve teacher motivation and incentives to increase overall job satisfaction.
This document discusses the need for teacher performance-based accountability systems to better evaluate and improve teacher quality. It reviews previous research that found proxies like teacher test scores, degrees, and experience were poor indicators of student achievement and effective teaching. The research showed teacher quality is the strongest school-related factor in student outcomes but past methods did not capture what defines quality teaching. The author argues performance-based accountability can focus on actual classroom teaching practices, provide a knowledge base to develop teachers, and ultimately help raise student achievement.
This document summarizes a qualitative study that examined how two community college mathematics instructors engage their students in learning mathematics. The study involved initial interviews with each instructor followed by two classroom observations. It was found that both instructors used techniques like real-world examples, humor, connecting to prior knowledge, individual attention, student participation at the board, and interaction between student, teacher and subject matter. These strategies seemed effective at engaging students. The document provides background on the researcher and reviews some prior literature on student engagement related to school size, dropout rates, and teacher practices. It describes the original methodology of seeking consent from a high school and community college teacher but challenges obtaining approval from "gatekeepers" at the institutions.
This article discusses the issues and challenges faced by English Language Learners (ELLs) in public schools, particularly in Texas. It analyzes how standardized testing required by the No Child Left Behind Act has both positive and negative consequences, or "washback effects", for ELLs. While high-stakes testing is meant to improve outcomes for at-risk students like ELLs, it can also increase dropout rates, disproportionately place ELLs in special education, and cause school rankings to focus more on demographics than academic growth. Both quantitative and qualitative data are needed to fully understand the impact of standardized testing on ELLs.
This document summarizes a presentation about research on the relationship between school libraries and student achievement. The research team conducted a study of over 2,000 New York schools controlling for various student and school factors. They found that schools with full-time librarians had statistically significant higher performance in English but not math. Further analysis of top and bottom performing schools found differences in some library resources and practices between the groups. The researchers aim to identify specific school library factors that most impact student achievement.
Presentación del estudio realizado por la profesora Susanna Loeb y otros autores (Universidad de Stanford) en la sede del Instituto Nacional de Evaluación Educativa (marzo 2013) sobre cómo medir la calidad de los directores a partir de las puntuaciones de los alumnos en test estandarizados.
Abstract: Numerous indicators of crucial role exist for improvements of the students' performance
during the learning process in classrooms, to include the level of teaching and learning, teachers’
performance, students’ motivation and teaching methods. However, the class size has its impact over
the successful performance of students, which is the main topic of this scientific research. Regarding
the impact of class size, or more precisely, the number of students in the classroom, in student
performance, has developed an empirical research which results are reflected in this paper. The survey
was conducted in several schools of higher education in some Kosovo municipalities. by the outcomes
introduced it is intended to prove a dilemma that has existed for a long time for classes with smaller
number of students which tend to be more successful compared to the classes with higher number of
students. Furthermore, the review of the literature, is an important part of the paper, where intertwine
various theories regarding this issue, bringing different experiences of OECD countries regarding the
impact of class size on student performance. Finally, the performance of the students was tested in
different class sizes at the end of the school year to see if there is a difference in their outcome.
The document discusses research on the impact and effectiveness of teachers. It summarizes several key studies:
1) Studies show that high-quality teachers can have long-term positive impacts on students' outcomes beyond test scores, such as earnings and college attendance. However, precisely evaluating a teacher's impact is difficult.
2) A Tennessee study found that students assigned to more experienced teachers had higher earnings, and those in smaller classes were more likely to attend college.
3) A larger study linking teacher value-added scores to student outcomes as adults found students assigned higher-VA teachers were more likely to attend college, earn more, live in better neighborhoods, and less likely to become pregnant as teens.
4
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
“We found that large district size is
detrimental to achievement in Washington 4th and 7th grades in that it strengthens
the negative relationship between school poverty and student achievement.”
Further, they state, “the negative relationship between school poverty and
achievement is stronger in larger districts,” and “small schools appear to have the
greatest equity effects.” In other words, when school poverty is high, children
ii
perform better in small districts, and the effect of school level poverty on
achievement is smallest when both the district and school are small.
This document provides information about the teacher training application process through UCAS Teacher Training. It discusses:
- The interview and decision making process, noting decisions must be made within 40 working days of receiving an application.
- The different decision types providers can make, including unconditional offers, conditional offers, rejects, withdrawals.
- How applicants respond to offers within 10 days and can only hold one offer at a time.
- The optional second application cycle "Apply 2" for applicants who did not receive an offer.
- The shared responsibilities of UCAS Teacher Training and partner providers to ensure an efficient application process.
This document discusses classroom management techniques for students who have issues with authority figures. It evaluates strategies that have been successful with these types of students and whether they are applicable across age groups. The literature review focuses on student identity and behavior, self-discipline, and managing the classroom. Recommendations include further research on reducing undesired behaviors, improving student motivation, and building social skills. The conclusions state that teachers must provide a safe, structured learning environment and allow student involvement in decisions to help students understand and engage with their behavior.
This article describes how a high school used discipline data to identify and address disproportional referral rates for freshmen and minority students. The school revised its referral form to collect more detailed data on referrals. It then began monthly meetings where staff analyzed referral data by factors like time, location, grade, and ethnicity. This allowed them to identify predictable problems and develop interventions. For freshmen and minorities, the data were further analyzed to guide more targeted interventions. Over time, this process led to steady decreases in referrals for freshmen and minority students. The approach shows how continuous analysis of discipline data can help schools address issues of disproportionality.
Dr. William Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This study compared elementary schools in Indiana based on the percentage of students passing the state achievement test versus a demographics adjusted performance measure. When looking only at pass rates, the top schools had high SES, white, high ability students. However, after controlling for student demographics, the highest performing schools were more diverse. The study found student income, race, and ability accounted for over half the variance in school pass rates. It suggests evaluations of school quality based only on pass rates can be biased and ignoring student factors does a disservice to schools serving disadvantaged students.
Effect of teaching method, choice of discipline and student lecturer relation...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined factors affecting student academic performance, including teaching method, choice of discipline, and student-lecturer relationship. The study analyzed data from 192 students in Nigeria on their course of study, effort level, and relationship with lecturers. The results showed that choice of discipline influenced by university authority rather than passion was negatively associated with student GPA. Additionally, student GPA increased as the rapport between students and lecturers improved. Some students who put in high effort performed worse than less studying students, possibly due to rushed lectures or lack of learning resources. The study concluded teaching methods should maintain good student-lecturer relationships while preventing moral hazard of passing without effort.
Perceptions of Tenured and Adjunct Faculty Regarding the Role of the Adjunct ...inventionjournals
This study purpose was to explore the perceptions of adjuncts and tenured faculty about the role of the adjunct in higher education. Through purposeful sampling, the lived experiences of nine adjuncts and nine tenured faculty members were considered from three historically black colleges and universities in the southeastern United States. The Critical Social Theory guided this qualitative phenomenological study as it relates to organizational culture. The Critical Social Theory framework illuminates the perceptions of the more powerful players in an organization and the impact of these perceptions on the workplace culture. Six themes that emerged from the analysis of the data: (a) Professional Development and Support, (b) Increased Collaboration, (c)Standard Recruiting and Retention Practices, (d) Shared Responsibilities, (e) Their Perceived Student Perceptions of Adjuncts and Tenured Faculty in the Classroom, and (f) The Relationship between Adjuncts and their University. These themes gave rise to a general description of the perceptions and the workplace culture. The findings from the study yielded several unexpected outcomes.
Demographic factors and students’ academic achievement in tertiary institutio...Alexander Decker
This study investigated the influence of demographic factors like age and sex on the academic performance of graduating students at Wa Polytechnic in Ghana. Simple regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship between class obtained, age and sex. Key findings were that both age and sex were positively related to class, though only the coefficient of sex was statistically significant. The study also found that an increase in age was likely to decrease academic performance more for male students than female students. This novel study examined the combined effect of age and sex on academic achievement.
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-201...William Kritsonis
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-2014 - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) - www.nationalforum.com
The Impact of School Academic Quality on Low Socioeconomic Status studentshanakunje
1) The document examines whether high-quality schools benefit low socioeconomic status (SES) students as much as high SES students in terms of completing Year 12.
2) It finds that high-quality schools benefit all students, but help low-achieving, low SES students the most - doubling their chances of completing Year 12 compared to low-quality schools.
3) For the most vulnerable students who are low-achieving and low SES, increasing school quality has an exceptionally large positive impact on Year 12 completion rates.
Okta mahendra (1608042030) the analysis of 6 journal articlesAndrew Garfield
1. This document summarizes 6 journal articles on the relationship between school facilities and student outcomes such as academic achievement. The articles used qualitative and quantitative methodologies such as surveys and statistical analyses. Overall, the research consistently found that school facility conditions like building quality, classroom size, noise levels, and overcrowding influence student and teacher performance. Students in better facility conditions tended to outperform those in substandard buildings.
Jones fayettevvile principals and counselors perceptions of freshmen academy ...William Kritsonis
This study explored the perceptions of North Carolina freshmen academy principals and counselors regarding social and educational issues impacting student academic success. The researchers conducted a survey of 103 principals and 103 counselors. Two key themes emerged from their responses: (1) the need for a student-centered environment within the academy and (2) beliefs that the academy model could lead to improved student outcomes. Respondents identified challenges such as high teacher turnover, a lack of respect from the regular high school staff, and insufficient parental involvement. Prior to implementing the academies, schools commonly faced issues like high absenteeism, discipline problems, and low student performance among ninth-graders. The study provided insights into freshmen transition programs from
A study of job satisfaction among female teachers at college levelAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on job satisfaction among female college teachers in Lahore, Pakistan. The study aims to understand factors contributing to teacher dissatisfaction, satisfaction with promotion criteria, working conditions, and pay structure. A questionnaire was administered to 93 female teachers from 4 colleges to understand their job satisfaction levels. Results showed that teachers were satisfied with many aspects of their work but dissatisfied with some factors as well. The study recommends measures to improve teacher motivation and incentives to increase overall job satisfaction.
This document discusses the need for teacher performance-based accountability systems to better evaluate and improve teacher quality. It reviews previous research that found proxies like teacher test scores, degrees, and experience were poor indicators of student achievement and effective teaching. The research showed teacher quality is the strongest school-related factor in student outcomes but past methods did not capture what defines quality teaching. The author argues performance-based accountability can focus on actual classroom teaching practices, provide a knowledge base to develop teachers, and ultimately help raise student achievement.
This document summarizes a qualitative study that examined how two community college mathematics instructors engage their students in learning mathematics. The study involved initial interviews with each instructor followed by two classroom observations. It was found that both instructors used techniques like real-world examples, humor, connecting to prior knowledge, individual attention, student participation at the board, and interaction between student, teacher and subject matter. These strategies seemed effective at engaging students. The document provides background on the researcher and reviews some prior literature on student engagement related to school size, dropout rates, and teacher practices. It describes the original methodology of seeking consent from a high school and community college teacher but challenges obtaining approval from "gatekeepers" at the institutions.
This article discusses the issues and challenges faced by English Language Learners (ELLs) in public schools, particularly in Texas. It analyzes how standardized testing required by the No Child Left Behind Act has both positive and negative consequences, or "washback effects", for ELLs. While high-stakes testing is meant to improve outcomes for at-risk students like ELLs, it can also increase dropout rates, disproportionately place ELLs in special education, and cause school rankings to focus more on demographics than academic growth. Both quantitative and qualitative data are needed to fully understand the impact of standardized testing on ELLs.
This document summarizes a presentation about research on the relationship between school libraries and student achievement. The research team conducted a study of over 2,000 New York schools controlling for various student and school factors. They found that schools with full-time librarians had statistically significant higher performance in English but not math. Further analysis of top and bottom performing schools found differences in some library resources and practices between the groups. The researchers aim to identify specific school library factors that most impact student achievement.
Presentación del estudio realizado por la profesora Susanna Loeb y otros autores (Universidad de Stanford) en la sede del Instituto Nacional de Evaluación Educativa (marzo 2013) sobre cómo medir la calidad de los directores a partir de las puntuaciones de los alumnos en test estandarizados.
Abstract: Numerous indicators of crucial role exist for improvements of the students' performance
during the learning process in classrooms, to include the level of teaching and learning, teachers’
performance, students’ motivation and teaching methods. However, the class size has its impact over
the successful performance of students, which is the main topic of this scientific research. Regarding
the impact of class size, or more precisely, the number of students in the classroom, in student
performance, has developed an empirical research which results are reflected in this paper. The survey
was conducted in several schools of higher education in some Kosovo municipalities. by the outcomes
introduced it is intended to prove a dilemma that has existed for a long time for classes with smaller
number of students which tend to be more successful compared to the classes with higher number of
students. Furthermore, the review of the literature, is an important part of the paper, where intertwine
various theories regarding this issue, bringing different experiences of OECD countries regarding the
impact of class size on student performance. Finally, the performance of the students was tested in
different class sizes at the end of the school year to see if there is a difference in their outcome.
The document discusses research on the impact and effectiveness of teachers. It summarizes several key studies:
1) Studies show that high-quality teachers can have long-term positive impacts on students' outcomes beyond test scores, such as earnings and college attendance. However, precisely evaluating a teacher's impact is difficult.
2) A Tennessee study found that students assigned to more experienced teachers had higher earnings, and those in smaller classes were more likely to attend college.
3) A larger study linking teacher value-added scores to student outcomes as adults found students assigned higher-VA teachers were more likely to attend college, earn more, live in better neighborhoods, and less likely to become pregnant as teens.
4
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
“We found that large district size is
detrimental to achievement in Washington 4th and 7th grades in that it strengthens
the negative relationship between school poverty and student achievement.”
Further, they state, “the negative relationship between school poverty and
achievement is stronger in larger districts,” and “small schools appear to have the
greatest equity effects.” In other words, when school poverty is high, children
ii
perform better in small districts, and the effect of school level poverty on
achievement is smallest when both the district and school are small.
This document provides information about the teacher training application process through UCAS Teacher Training. It discusses:
- The interview and decision making process, noting decisions must be made within 40 working days of receiving an application.
- The different decision types providers can make, including unconditional offers, conditional offers, rejects, withdrawals.
- How applicants respond to offers within 10 days and can only hold one offer at a time.
- The optional second application cycle "Apply 2" for applicants who did not receive an offer.
- The shared responsibilities of UCAS Teacher Training and partner providers to ensure an efficient application process.
This document discusses classroom management techniques for students who have issues with authority figures. It evaluates strategies that have been successful with these types of students and whether they are applicable across age groups. The literature review focuses on student identity and behavior, self-discipline, and managing the classroom. Recommendations include further research on reducing undesired behaviors, improving student motivation, and building social skills. The conclusions state that teachers must provide a safe, structured learning environment and allow student involvement in decisions to help students understand and engage with their behavior.
Teaching and Learning in the 21st CenturyAntonio Viva
This document discusses trends in 21st century teaching and learning. It notes that today's students are growing up in a world of constant connectivity, social media, and technology. As a result, modern education needs to focus on skills like creativity, collaboration, communication and problem solving. The document also presents examples of new classroom designs and teaching approaches that cultivate these skills through hands-on learning, project-based work, and authentic real-world roles for students.
Getting It All Done: The Teacher EditionTracy Brisson
Slides from a productivity workshop from the Woodrow Wilson National Teaching Fellowship Foundation's 2014 Convening Event.
This presentation focused on how to use horizontal planning, systems, goals, and decision-making skills to set your school year up for success and integrate your work and personal lives as an early or mid-career teacher.
The document discusses classroom management and interaction. It provides options for how teachers can respond in different classroom situations, such as a student not wanting to do an exercise or an activity taking longer than planned. It also discusses how to maximize student interaction, including using small groups, pairs, questions that require longer answers, and listening to students. The goal is for students to have more opportunities to speak with each other rather than just the teacher.
The document provides guidance for classroom teachers on effective classroom management strategies. It discusses managing student behavior, movement, interaction and time to maximize learning. Specific techniques are proposed for starting and ending lessons, giving instructions, using voice, seating arrangements, grouping students and using various materials to engage different learning styles. The roles and responsibilities of the teacher in establishing clear routines, creating a positive environment, using praise and addressing problematic behavior are also covered.
The document discusses mistaken behavior in children and an encouraging classroom approach. It describes three levels of mistaken behavior: experimentation, social influence, and strong needs. The guidance approach involves understanding the root causes of behaviors and encouraging children to resolve conflicts respectfully. An encouraging classroom uses guidance rather than punishment, builds trust, and involves parents through a partnership approach to promote appropriate child development.
This document discusses discipline techniques for preschoolers. It describes typical preschooler behavior such as seeking attention through new skills, enjoying peer interaction but also conflicts, and fluctuating emotions. It then outlines common discipline methods like establishing classroom rules and consequences, rewarding good behavior, and ignoring minor misbehavior. Specific strategies are modeling appropriate behavior, providing praise and structure, implementing logical consequences, and using time-outs. The document cautions against ineffective discipline like harsh words, long lectures, humiliation, or denying privileges.
Kounin's model of classroom discipline focuses on preventative techniques like withitness, overlapping, effective transitions, and reducing satiation to keep students engaged and minimize misbehavior. The model emphasizes a teacher's ability to simultaneously attend to multiple events, maintain momentum between activities, and use techniques like accountability and alerting to focus student attention on tasks. By actively engaging students and addressing misbehavior promptly, teachers can establish an orderly learning environment according to Kounin's principles of effective group management.
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Achievement level and school climate of primary schools teachersAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the relationship between teacher achievement levels and school climate in primary schools. The study found:
1) High academic achieving teachers had statistically higher school climate scores than low achieving teachers, indicating teacher achievement impacts school climate.
2) Female high achieving teachers had significantly higher school climate scores than low achieving female teachers.
3) High achieving teachers scored higher on some school climate dimensions like teacher-student relationships and instructional management, while low and high achieving teachers did not differ on other dimensions.
Overall, the study concluded that teacher achievement influences school climate, with higher achieving teachers tending to have a richer school climate.
Loretta A. Terry and William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Article: A National Issue...William Kritsonis
Loretta A. Terry and William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Article: A National Issue: Whether the Teacher Turnover Effects Students' Academic Performance? Published in the DOCTORAL FORUM: NATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PUBLISHING AND MENTORING DOCTORAL STUDENT RESEARCH, (5) 1, 2008.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis is Professor (Tenured) at PVAMU/Member of the Texas A&M University System.
This article examines the relationship between teacher turnover rates and student academic performance. It discusses how high teacher turnover has negative impacts, including inconsistent instruction from rotating substitute teachers and an unequal distribution of effective teachers. The article reviews studies that found correlations between higher turnover rates at schools and lower student test scores. While more research is still needed, the evidence suggests that addressing teacher turnover may be important for improving student achievement, especially in low-income schools that tend to experience higher turnover.
The study assessed factors hindering academic performance of grade 9 students at Wenceslao Trinidad National High School. A questionnaire was administered to 50 students to determine if student-related factors (intelligence, study habits, motivation) or teacher-related factors (personality, teaching skills) had a greater effect. The results showed student-related factors had a greater impact, with averages of 68.4% for intelligence, 57.2% for study habits, and 72% for motivation. Teacher-related factors received higher averages, but student factors were determined to hinder academic performance more.
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
This document summarizes research on how school leadership influences instructional quality. It reviews studies published since 2000 using various methodologies:
1) Quantitative studies using surveys found that principals perceive they have more influence over instruction and supervision when teachers are involved in decision-making, showing the benefits of shared leadership.
2) Qualitative case studies provided examples of conditions that support shared leadership patterns, such as principals fostering teacher engagement and innovation.
3) Network analysis examined how formal and informal interactions align, finding strong collaborative relationships oriented toward improvement are necessary for quality teaching.
Article 2 vivian gunn morris & curtis morris doneWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Hines, mack the interactive effects of race nfmij v7 n1 2010William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
Hines, mack the interactive effects of race nfmij v7 n1 2010William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
Vivian Gunn Morris and Curtis Morris, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Dr. William Al...William Kritsonis
This article discusses the responsibility of K-12 principals in improving the academic achievement of African American children through effective teacher induction and mentoring programs. The article reviews literature showing that both school-level factors like segregation and lack of resources, as well as ineffective teachers, contribute to the achievement gap between white and black students. The No Child Left Behind Act aimed to close this gap by providing high-quality teachers and induction support to all schools, but research shows these programs are often lacking or nonexistent in schools with mostly black and low-income students. The article then describes a study that analyzed survey responses from new teachers in a predominantly black school district to identify teaching conditions that could help or hinder academic achievement for black children.
Classroom Social Environment and School Performance in The Selected Secondary...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research investigated teachers' perceptions of the social environment in the classroom and
student performance in a sample of secondary schools in the Philippines' Municipality of Iba and Botolan,
Zambales, including Amungan National High School, San Agustin Integrated School, Jesus F. Magsaysay High
School, President Ramon Magsaysay State University-laboratory High School, Botolan National High School,
and Bancal Integrated School. One hundred fifty-five respondents were chosen at random, and the researcher
used the descriptive research design and questionnaire as the primary instruments to collect data. The school
received a "Very High" rating for promotion, retention, and cohort or survival rates but a "Very Low" rating for
failure and drop-out rates.There was a significant difference in the perception of the classroom social
environment as to classroom mastery goals, classroom performance goals, classroom social interaction,
classroom mutual respect, and classroom academic self-efficacy. There was a significant difference in the level
of school performance on student progress and development as to failure rate, drop-out rate, promotion rate,
retention rate, and cohort survival rate. There is a negligible relationship between the classroom social
environment and the school student progress and development level.Regarding classroom mastery goals,
classroom performance goals, classroom social interaction, classroom mutual respect, and classroom academic
self-efficacy, there was a significant difference in perception. Concerning the failure rate, drop-out rate,
promotion rate, retention rate, and cohort survival rate, there was a considerable variation in the level of school
performance. The social climate in the classroom has very little bearing on how well students are progressing
academically.
KEYWORDS: Social Environment, Failure Rate, Drop-Out Rate, Survival Rate, Classroom Mastery Goals,
Classroom Performance Goals, Classroom Social Interaction, Classroom Academic Self-Efficacy
School Organizational Climate of Public Elementary Schools In Bulan DistrictAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This study aims to determine the school organizational climate of public elementary schools in
Bulan District, SY. 2022-2023. The perceptions of parents, teachers and school heads and the level of openness
on school organizational climate in terms of Collegial Leadership, the school head-teacher relationship;
Professional Teacher Behavior, the relationship of teacher-teacher interactions; Achievement Press, the
relationship between the school and pupils; and Institutional Vulnerability, the school and community relations,
were identified. Furthermore, the study sought to identify if there is a significant difference among the
respondents‘ perceptions. More so, the study determined the experiences of the respondents on the school
organizational climate along the identified variables. The study used the mixed method of qualitative and
quantitative research design. Survey and unstructured interview were utilized in gathering the necessary data. 15
parents, 15 teachers and 15 school heads were involved in this study from 15 schools in Bulan III District. The
researcher adopted Hoy‘s OCI (Organizational Climate Index) questionnaire as the main instrument in gathering
the quantitative data. Weighted mean, standards scores and F-test or one way ANOVA were used as statistical
tools to analyze the data. Thematic analysis was utilized to analyze the qualitative data. The study revealed a
positive school organizational climate where indicators of Collegial Leadership, Professional Teacher Behavior,
and Achievement Press occur ―Very Frequently‖, and indicators of Institutional Vulnerability occur
―Sometimes‖. The computed overall level of openness of Bulan III District was 655.13 with the verbal
interpretation of ―Very High‖. Moreover, results showed a significant difference on the perceptions of parents,
teachers, and school heads in terms of Collegial Leadership. PROJECT SOURCE (School Organizations
Unlocking Relations and Climate Enhancement) was proposed to be implemented for the improvement of the
school organizational climate of the respondent-schools.
KEYWORDS :Achievement Press, Collegial Leadership, Institutional Vulnerability, openness, perceptions,
This article discusses the influence of principal-teacher relationships on student academic achievement. It examines how school climate and culture impact the development of relationships between principals and teachers. Positive relationships where principals support and reinforce teachers contributes to higher teacher performance and accountability for student learning. When teachers feel good about their work due to strong interactions with principals, they become more effective educators. Maintaining healthy relationships requires principals to build trust with teachers through communication and support. Strong principal-teacher relationships and positive school environments can improve student outcomes and overall school success.
This article discusses the influence of principal-teacher relationships on student academic achievement. It examines how school climate and culture impact the development of relationships between principals and teachers. Positive relationships where principals support and reinforce teachers contributes to higher teacher performance and accountability for student learning. When teachers feel good about their work due to strong interactions with principals, they become more effective educators. Maintaining healthy relationships requires principals to build trust with teachers through communication and support. Strong principal-teacher relationships and positive school environments can improve student outcomes and overall school success.
This article discusses the influence of principal-teacher relationships on student academic achievement. It examines how school climate and culture impact the development of relationships between principals and teachers. Positive relationships where principals support and reinforce teachers contributes to higher teacher performance and accountability for student learning. When teachers feel good about their work due to strong interactions with principals, they become more effective educators. Maintaining healthy relationships requires principals to build trust with teachers through communication and support. Strong principal-teacher relationships and positive school environments can improve student outcomes and overall school success.
Multiple Regression Review1) Please explain why the adjusted Rsimisterchristen
Multiple Regression Review
1) Please explain why the adjusted R Square is less than the Unadjusted R Square.
2) Why do coefficient values change when a new variable is added to a regression? Please explain.
3) Should you use raw coefficients or betas to determine which variable is most important? Please explain.
Look at Table 2 in the Bohte article (p.95)
1) What is the dependent variable for the regression?
2) How does the model fit? Please report the Adjusted R Square and interpret it.
3) Bohte uses a single p value level to determine statistical significance. What is the p value threshold he uses? (i.e. p<?)
4) Do you think it would've been better to include other p value thresholds as well? Please explain.
5) According to Table 2, which variable(s) ARE NOT statistically significant?
6) According to the table, which variable is MOST important? Please explain how you reached this conclusion.
92 Public Administration Review • January/February 2001, Vol. 61, No. 1
John Bohte
Oakland University
School Bureaucracy and Student Performance
at the Local Level
A major debate in American education centers on the role bureaucracy plays in shaping educa-
tional performance. Proponents of school choice argue that large educational bureaucracies have
contributed to dramatic performance shortfalls in America’s public schools. Other scholars view
educational bureaucracies as beneficial because they manage a wide range of problems and thus
make it easier for teachers to focus on the core task of teaching. This study examines these compet-
ing claims about the impact of bureaucracy on student performance using district level data from
Texas public schools. The findings from several regression models reveal negative relationships
between bureaucracy (measured both at the central and campus administration levels) and stu-
dent performance across several different grade levels.
Scholars, political officials, the media, and the public have
paid a great deal of attention to the topic of school choice in
recent years. Scholarly attention has focused primarily on
whether a market-based approach to education improves edu-
cational quality more than the traditional monopoly-based
system of public education in America. School-choice ad-
vocates (Chubb and Moe 1990; Fliegel and MacGuire 1993)
argue that school choice allows parents and students to flee
low-quality public schools and move to higher-quality pri-
vate schools. Thus, school choice forces public schools to
improve in order to remain competitive with private schools.
Critics of school choice (Henig 1994; Smith 1994; Smith
and Meier 1995; Witte 1991, 1992) point to a large body of
empirical evidence showing that few of the alleged benefits
of school choice are realized when such programs are imple-
mented and their effects are examined. In addition to look-
ing at the effectiveness of school-choice programs in im-
proving student performance, scholars have examined how
parents acquire ...
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The Influence of School Administrato rs on Teacher Retention Decisions
1. The Influence of
SchoolAdministrators
on Teacher Retention
Decisions
Donald J. Boyd,
Pamela L. Grossman,
Marsha Ing, Hamilton
Lankford, Susanna Loeb,
and James H. Wyckoff
w o r k i n g p a p e r 2 5 • m a y 2 0 0 9
2. The Influence of School Administrators on Teacher Retention Decisions
Donald Boyd
University at Albany
Pamela Grossman
Stanford University
Marsha Ing
Stanford University
Hamilton Lankford
University at Albany
Susanna Loeb∗
Stanford University
James Wyckoff
University of Virginia
The authors are grateful to the New York City Department of Education and the New York State
Education Department for the data employed in this paper and for financial support from the National
Science Foundation and the National Center for the Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education
Research (CALDER), supported by Grant R305A060018 to the Urban Institute from the Institute of
Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. The views expressed are solely those of the
authors and may not reflect those of the funders or institutions. Any errors are attributable to the
authors.
CALDER working papers have not gone through final formal review and should be cited as working
papers. They are intended to encourage discussion and suggestions for revision before final
publication.
∗
Corresponding author: sloeb@stanford.edu
3. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION 1
DATA AND METHODS 5
Survey of First Year Teachers 5
Follow-Up Surveys 6
Administrative Data on Teachers and Schools 6
Methods 8
RESULTS 9
Teachers’ Assessments of School Contextual Factors 9
School Contextual Factors and Teacher Retention 10
Teachers’ Stated Reasons for Leaving or Considering Leaving 12
DISCUSSION 14
REFERENCES 17
APPENDIX OF TABLES 20
CALDER, The Urban Institute
2100 M Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037
202-261-5739 • www.caldercenter.org
i
4. The Influence of School Administrators on Teacher Retention Decisions
Donald Boyd, Pamela Grossman, Marsha Ing, Hamilton Lankford, Susanna Loeb, and James
Wyckoff
CALDER Working Paper No. 25
May 2009
ABSTRACT
When given the opportunity, many teachers choose to leave schools serving poor, low-performing,
and nonwhite students. While a substantial research literature has documented this phenomenon,
far less research effort has gone into understanding what features of the working conditions in these
schools drive this relatively higher turnover rate. This paper explores the relationship between school
contextual factors and teacher retention decisions in New York City. The methodological approach
separates the effects of teacher characteristics from school characteristics by modeling the
relationship between the assessments of school contextual factors by one set of teachers and the
turnover decisions by other teachers within the same school. Teachers’ perceptions of the school
administration have by far the greatest influence on teacher-retention decisions. This effect of
administration is consistent for first-year teachers and the full sample of teachers and is confirmed
by a survey of teachers who have recently left teaching in New York City.
ii
5. INTRODUCTION
When given the opportunity, many teachers choose to leave schools serving poor, low-performing,
and nonwhite students (Boyd et al. 2005; Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin 2004; Scafidi, Sjoquist, and
Stinebrickner 2005). While a substantial research literature has documented this phenomenon, far
less research effort has gone into understanding what features of the working conditions in these
schools drive this relatively higher turnover rate (see Loeb, Darling-Hammond, and Luczak 2005 for
an exception to this). Excessive teacher turnover can be costly and detrimental to instructional
cohesion in schools (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future 2003). Consequently,
many policies, such as mentoring programs and retention bonuses, have aimed to stem teacher
attrition, particularly at schools that experience high teacher turnover. Yet, without a better
understanding of the reasons teachers leave, these approaches may not be as effective as they
could be.
This study contributes to our understanding of teacher attrition by modeling the relationship
between teacher turnover and school contextual factors, including teachers’ influence over school
policy, the effectiveness of the school administration, staff relations, student behavior, safety, and
facilities. Using a unique dataset that combines longitudinal survey data with district administrative
files, we find that school administration plays a particularly important role in teachers’ career
decisions. In what follows, we briefly review relevant prior research to motivate our study, describe
our data and methods, and then present the results. The final section discusses the implications of
these results, limitations of the study, and directions for future research.
BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION
Across the United States, approximately half a million teachers leave their schools each year. Only
16 percent of this teacher attrition at the school level can be attributed to retirement. The remaining
84 percent of teacher turnover results from teachers transferring between schools and teachers
leaving the profession entirely (Alliance for Excellent Education 2008). In New York City alone, over
1
6. 5,000 teachers left their schools in 2005, with 8 percent of teachers transferring to another school
and 10 percent leaving the New York City school system. Recent literature has begun to investigate
the complexities of teacher turnover, making important distinctions such as among exits from
teaching, transfers within districts, and transfers between districts as well as between teachers
leaving permanently and those leaving and later returning (DeAngelis and Presley 2007; Johnson,
Berg, and Donaldson 2005). In general, previous teacher retention research has focused either on
the relationship between turnover and teachers’ characteristics (i.e., what types of teachers are more
likely to leave) or between turnover and school characteristics (i.e., what types of schools experience
higher teacher turnover).
Teacher background characteristics and work experience consistently predict turnover. For
example, turnover is higher among young and old teachers versus middle-aged ones (Guarino,
Santibanez, and Daley 2006; Johnson et al. 2005); and among less experienced teachers versus
more experienced ones (Ingersoll 2001; Marvel et al. 2006). The research linking teacher gender,
race, or ethnicity to turnover is less consistent (Guarino et al. 2006; Johnson et al. 2005). Teachers’
preparation experiences and pathways into teaching are also related to attrition behavior. On
average, teachers from early-entry routes (such as Teach for America and the New York City
Teaching Fellows) are more likely to leave than teachers from more traditional routes (Boyd et al.
2006). Finally, teacher quality measures have been linked with attrition behavior but somewhat
inconsistently. Teachers with stronger qualifications, as measured by their test scores and the
competitiveness of the undergraduate institution from which they received degrees, are more likely
to leave teaching (Boyd et al. 2005). However, teachers who are more effective, as measured by the
test score gains of the students in their classrooms, are less likely to leave teaching (Boyd et al.
2007; Goldhaber, Gross, and Player 2007; Hanushek et al. 2005).
Research on the relationship between teacher retention and school characteristics has
focused primarily on measures of the school’s student composition. Schools with large
concentrations of low-income, nonwhite, and low-achieving students are the most likely to
experience high teacher turnover (Boyd et al. 2005; Carroll, Reichardt, and Guarino 2000; Hanushek
2
7. et al. 2004; Scafidi et al. 2005). For example, in New York City, there is a 27 percent attrition rate of
first-year teachers in the lowest performing schools compared with a 15 percent rate in the schools
with the highest student achievement.
Some studies have examined the relationship between teacher turnover and school or
district factors (Buckley, Schneider, and Shang 2005; Hirsh and Emerick 2006). Unlike the studies
predicting turnover by student composition that use large, longitudinal datasets, most of these
studies must rely upon surveys of teachers asking about their perceptions of working conditions and
likelihood of leaving. These survey data likely produce less accurate models of teacher turnover
because a teacher’s report of working conditions could be affected by whether she or he plans to
leave the school.
Some state databases are rich enough to model the relationship between teacher turnover
and certain school or district factors. For example, Imazeki (2005) uses data from Wisconsin and
finds that teacher retention is higher when salaries are higher. Loeb, Darling-Hammond, and Luczak
(2005) use data on California and find that although schools’ racial compositions and proportions of
low-income students predict teacher turnover, salaries and working conditions—including large class
sizes, facilities problems, multi-track schools, and lack of textbooks—are strong and significant
factors in predicting high rates of turnover.
The Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) and related Teacher Follow-Up Surveys (TFS)
from the National Center for Education Statistics also provide opportunities to model actual teacher
turnover using measures of school context that are richer than those typically found in state
administrative databases. Using this data, Ingersoll (2001) finds that teacher attrition is higher in
schools with low salaries, poor support from school administration, student discipline problems, and
limited faculty input into school decisionmaking, even after controlling for student composition,
school level, and school location. Grissom (2008) analyzes more recent SASS and TFS data and
finds evidence that principal leadership, an orderly schooling environment, greater classroom
autonomy, and increased professional development predict lower teacher turnover after controlling
for student and teacher demographics. The advantage of the SASS/TFS data is that they are
3
8. nationally representative. The disadvantage is the potential for common-source bias that arises from
the use of survey data gathered from the same teachers that are observed staying or leaving their
schools a year later.
This study extends prior research by using data on all schools and teachers in the New York
City public school district to uncover the relationship between school working conditions and teacher
attrition. A survey of first-year teachers in spring 2005, a follow-up survey of those same teachers a
year later, and matched district administrative data allow us to link teachers’ assessments of working
conditions to their own career trajectories as well as the retention behavior of all other teachers in
their schools. Less-satisfied teachers may report worse working conditions, even if other teachers in
the same context would not assess the conditions as poor. We are able to account for this potential
bias by examining the career paths of other teachers in the same school, instead of just the career
decisions of the teachers reporting on the working conditions. In addition, we are able to triangulate
these findings with surveys of teachers who recently left teaching in New York City, asking them
what factors were important in their decision to leave. In these analyses, we address the following
research questions:
1. What are first-year teachers’ perceptions of school contextual factors?
2. What is the relationship between school contextual factors and teacher attrition?
a. How are first-year teachers’ assessments of school contextual factors related
to their own retention decisions after accounting for other measured school
and teacher characteristics?
b. How do first-year teachers’ assessments of school contextual factors predict
the turnover decisions of other teachers in the same school?
3. What aspects of the school context do former teachers report as the most influential in
their decisions to leave teaching?
4
9. DATA AND METHODS
Survey of First-Year Teachers
In spring 2005, we administered a survey to all first-year teachers in New York City (Teacher Policy
Research 2005). The survey was completed by 4,360 teachers (just over 70% response rate) and
consisted of over 300 questions divided into four areas: preparation experiences, characteristics of
the schools in which they are teaching, teaching practices, and goals. Participation in the survey was
voluntary and took approximately 25 minutes to complete. Participants received $25 after completing
the survey.
We use these survey responses to create six school contextual factors: teacher influence,
administration, staff relations, students, facilities, and safety. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics
for the individual survey items and the Cronbach’s alpha for the factors. Each item, except those
measuring safety, comes from teachers’ responses on a five-point scale. The teacher influence
factor has an alpha of 0.78 and comprises six elements. On average, teachers responded that they
had the most influence in determining the amount of homework assigned and the least in selecting
textbooks and other instructional materials. The administration factor has an alpha of 0.89 and
includes seven elements, with administrators being rated highest on evaluating teachers’
performances fairly and lowest on consulting staff before making decisions that affect them. The
staff relations factor has an alpha of 0.77 and comprises five survey items. The respondents are
generally positive about all aspects of their relationships with other staff members, being the most
positive about getting good advice from other teachers in their school when they have a teaching
problem. The students factor also comprises five elements and has an alpha of 0.68. Of these, the
teachers on average are most likely to feel that they get to know personally many students who are
not in their class and the least likely to feel that their students receive a lot of support for learning
outside school. The facilities factor, including six survey items, has an alpha of 0.72. On average, the
teachers are the most positive about having textbooks in their classrooms that are up to date and in
good physical condition and the least positive about their school having quiet spaces for teachers to
5
10. work when they are not teaching. Since the safety factor includes only two dichotomous survey
items, a factor score was not calculated. Instead, the safety variable represents the sum of the
items. Thirty percent of the first-year teachers surveyed report that a student from their school has
threatened to injure them, and 16 percent state that a student has physically attacked them.
Follow-Up Surveys
In spring 2006, we administered two follow-up surveys to the sample of teachers who were in their
first year of teaching in 2004-05. The first was a survey for those teachers who completed the first-
year survey who remained in teaching for a second year (Teacher Policy Research 2007a). In this
follow-up survey, teachers were asked about their teaching experience, their views concerning those
experiences, and their future plans. In this study, we focus on items from the survey that asked
teachers who had at some point considered leaving their first New York City teaching position about
the factors that caused them to consider leaving and their dissatisfaction with different aspects of
teaching such as teaching assignments and school facilities. The survey had a 72 percent response
rate. We also administered a survey to the teachers who left teaching in New York City after their
first year (Teacher Policy Research 2007b). Respondents were asked about their reasons for
leaving teaching. The response rate on this survey was 61 percent. We describe responses on these
surveys to two sets of questions, one asking teachers about the factors influencing their decisions to
leave and another asking them the degree to which their dissatisfaction with different aspects of
teaching influenced their retention decisions.
Administrative Data on Teachers and Schools
We matched survey responses to administrative data provided by the New York City Department of
Education (NYCDOE) and the New York State Department of Education (NYSED) using unique
teacher identification numbers. The administrative data include information on the teachers and the
student demographics at their schools. The data on teachers include demographic (gender,
ethnicity, age), background (initial pathway into teaching and certification exam scores), and
retention data from NYCDOE and NYSED. We define teachers’ initial pathway into teaching using
6
11. five categories: college recommended, temporary license, New York City Teaching Fellows
(NYCTF), Teach for America (TFA), and other. NYCTF and TFA are early-entry or alternative routes
into teaching. A temporary license pathway indicates that the individual failed to complete one or
more requirements for a teaching certificate but was allowed to teach under the temporary license
provisions, whereby a school district can request NYSED to allow a specific individual to teach in a
specific school temporarily. The other category includes all other pathways to teaching such as
internship certificates, and those with certification through reciprocity agreements with other states.
As part of New York State certification requirements, teachers must pass the Liberal Arts and
Science Test (LAST), which consists of a multiple-choice component and written component,
intended to “measure knowledge and skills in the liberal arts and sciences, in teaching theory and
practice, and in the content area of the certificate title.”1
There are five subareas within the liberal
arts and sciences multiple-choice component: scientific, mathematical, and technological processes;
historical and social scientific awareness; artistic expression and humanities; communication and
research skills; and written analysis and expression. The written component requires test takers to
prepare a written response to an assigned topic that is judged on focus and unity, appropriateness,
reason and organization, support and development, and structure and conventions (Pearson
Education 2006). We use scores on the LAST exam and whether teachers passed the multiple-
choice and written component on their first attempt in the analyses.
Table 2 provides descriptive statistics for the analysis variables for schools and for first-year
teachers (descriptive statistics on all New York City teachers are available upon request). More than
75 percent of first-year teachers are female, 12 percent are black, 10 percent are Hispanic, and 70
percent are white. Their average age is 30, and 91 percent passed their general knowledge
certification exam on their first attempt. Approximately 40 percent entered through a traditional
education program while another approximately 40 percent entered teaching through one of the two
large early-entry programs, NYCTF and TFA. On average, just over 70 percent of students in the
1 New York State Education Department, “New York State Detailed Certification Requirement Description,”
http://eservices.nysed.gov/teach/certhelp/ReqDescription.do?metaValueId=281&catGrpId=null&crcId=19&WIN_T
YPE=null.
7
12. schools where these first-year teachers work are eligible for subsidized lunches, 36 percent are
black, and 41 percent are Hispanic.
Using data on job assignments, we are able to create measures of teacher attrition, our
dependent variable in the analyses below. As table 2 shows, 80 percent of first-year teachers who
responded to our survey remained in the same school the following year, while 10 percent changed
schools within New York City and 9 percent left teaching in New York City. Among the full sample of
New York City teachers (not shown in the table), 82 percent stayed in the same school, 8 percent
switched schools, and 10 percent left the district.
Methods
We use multinomial logistic regression to estimate the relationship between teacher and school
characteristics and teacher retention decisions. The dependent variable is a three-level measure
indicating whether, in the following school year, the teacher (1) stayed at the same school, (2)
transferred to another school within New York City, or (3) left New York City schools. The models
control for teacher background characteristics including initial pathway into teaching, gender,
ethnicity, age, whether they passed the LAST exam on their first attempt, and their score on the
LAST exam. The models also include controls for school characteristics that might affect teacher
retention—the proportion of students eligible for subsidized lunch, student ethnicity, grade level, and
enrollment. After controlling for these teacher and school characteristics, we explore whether the
school contextual factors are predictive of teacher retention decisions.
Our variables of interest are the six school contextual factors (teacher influence,
administration, staff relations, students, facilities, and safety) derived from the survey of first-year
teachers. We look at the contribution of each factor separately and then include all six factors in the
models. In the first analyses, we model the relationship between first-year teachers’ assessments of
these school factors and their own retention a year later. We then use first-year teacher survey
responses aggregated by school to model the retention of all teachers in New York City who did not
fill out the survey. In other words, we use the evaluations of school working conditions by one set of
8
13. teachers (first-year teachers) to predict the retention of other teachers at that school. As discussed
above, in this way we remove the part of reporting error by first-year teachers that reflects individual
satisfaction with teaching. Finally, we run a further check on the relationship between school context
and teacher attrition by examining teacher responses on the follow-up surveys. Using basic
descriptive statistics, we assess teachers’ responses to questions addressing why they left or why
they considered leaving the school where they were teaching in the spring of their first year of
teaching in New York City.
RESULTS
Teachers’ Assessments of School Contextual Factors
As described above and in table 1, we use first-year teachers’ survey responses to create six
measures of school contextual factors: teacher influence, administration, staff relations, students,
facilities, and safety. Each factor has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 and is the product of
a principal components factor analysis that analyzes the total variance for each factor and not the
common variance. Table 3 reports the correlations among the factors aggregated to the school level.
Not surprisingly, schools with more positive working conditions on one dimension also tend to have
more positive working conditions on the other dimensions. The administration factor is particularly
highly correlated with both the students and facilities factors.
Table 4 gives the correlation between these measures and school characteristics. Each
school characteristic is measured as a percentile within the distribution of all schools in the city that
serve the same or similar grade range (elementary, middle, or high school). Almost across the
board, schools with a lower proportion of students eligible for subsidized lunch demonstrate strong
teacher-reported working conditions. High schools are an exception to this pattern, but the
percentage of students eligible for subsidized lunch is a very inaccurate proxy for poverty in high
schools. Generally, a similar pattern holds for schools as measured by the share of black students
and Hispanic students; the greater the percentage of black or Hispanic students at a school, the
lower the average ratings of working conditions across the six factors. There are a few exceptions
9
14. where the relationship between student ethnicity and perceived working conditions are not
significant, such as the proportion of black students and teacher influence in middle schools, but the
prevalence of common trends is striking. Relationships between school context factors and
enrollment are less significant. Not surprisingly, larger elementary, middle, and high schools tend to
have less teacher influence. Elementary schools with more students tend to have poorer facilities,
according to the first-year teachers surveyed. Surprisingly, larger elementary schools appear to have
more positive safety ratings. Except for teacher influence, the school context measures do not have
a strong relationship with school size at the middle and high school levels.
School Contextual Factors and Teacher Retention
We use multinomial logistic regression to examine the relationship between the six school contextual
factors and teacher retention decisions. Table 5 presents the results for first-year teachers with and
without school contextual factors but including teacher characteristics and student demographics.
Table 6 includes the estimates with each factor entered separately and a full model with all factors
entered together. We present both results because of the relatively high correlation among the
measures of school context. Both tables report the results as relative risk ratios, the odds of
transferring or quitting relative to the odds of remaining in the same school.
The base model with only teacher characteristics and student demographics shows that,
consistent with prior research, teachers are more likely to leave schools with a higher proportion of
black and Hispanic students, both to transfer and to leave the district. New York City Teaching
Fellows are more likely to transfer across schools than teachers from other routes, and teachers who
passed the teacher certification exam on their first attempt are far more likely to leave teaching in
New York City. Older teachers are also more likely to transfer to other schools and to leave teaching.
The second set of columns in table 5 show that once we control for school context factors
(presented in table 6), the coefficients on the proportion of black students and on the proportion of
Hispanic students drop meaningfully. In addition, the point estimates are no longer statistically
distinguishable from 1 (no effect) for the Hispanic-student concentration and are only distinguishable
10
15. from 1 for the black-student concentration for leaving New York City schools, not for transferring
across schools.
Table 6 presents the results for specifications in which the six school context factors are
added to the model, first separately and then simultaneously. All the variables in table 5 are included
in the models reported in table 6, but the relative risk ratios associated with these variables are
omitted for brevity. When we add each school contextual factor separately to this model, we find that
all factors except safety significantly predict teachers’ retention decisions. More specifically, in these
estimates, the effect of the respondents’ perceptions of teachers’ influence is related the
respondents’ decisions to transfer but not to leave teaching in New York City; while their
perceptions of administration, staff relations, students, and facilities are related to both their
decisions to transfer and their decisions to leave teaching.
In the full model, including all six school contextual factors and the controls, the
administration factor is the only one that significantly predicts teacher retention decisions after
controlling for other school and teacher characteristics. Teachers who have less positive perceptions
of their school administrators are more likely to transfer to another school and to leave teaching in
New York City. A standard deviation increase in a teacher’s assessment of the administration
decreases his or her likelihood of transferring by approximately 44 percent relative to staying in the
same school, and it decreases his or her likelihood of leaving teaching in New York City by
approximately 28 percent relative to staying in the same school. If we use the coefficients in this
model to predict the probability of a teacher transferring under different working condition, we
estimate that if all the working conditions measures were average, a white female teacher from a
college-recommended route in a school with average student composition would have a 7.6 percent
probability of leaving and a 10.0 percent probability of transferring. If the working conditions
measures were one standard deviation above average, these probabilities would drop to 4.1 percent
and 6.7 percent; whereas if the working conditions measures were one standard deviation below
average, these probabilities would increase to 13.5 percent and 14.8 percent. Working conditions,
and especially administrative support, account for large differences in attrition rates.
11
16. To separate the effects of these school contextual factors from teacher characteristics, we
also predict the retention of all other teachers at the school using the perceptions of the first-year
teachers. More specifically, we use a school-level average for each factor based on the first-year
teachers’ survey responses to predict teacher retention decision for all teachers at the school
excluding the first-year teacher respondents. As shown in table 7, similar to our previous analyses,
when each school contextual factor is included separately, administration, staff relations, students,
and facilities factors significantly predict decisions to transfer and to leave teaching in New York City.
The more positive first-year teachers’ assessments of these factors, the more likely other teachers at
the school are to stay. Unlike the results for first-year teachers, perceptions of teacher influence
significantly relate to decisions to leave teaching but not to transfer within New York City, and
perceptions of safety relate to transferring but not leaving. In the model including all school context
factors and controls, teacher influence is somewhat surprisingly positively associated with teachers’
decision to transfer across schools. However, here again, administration emerges as the strongest
predictor of retention relative to both transferring and leaving.
Teachers’ Stated Reasons for Leaving or Considering Leaving
The longitudinal analyses presented above demonstrates that a teacher’s reporting of working
conditions predicts his or her own attrition in the following year as well as the attrition of other
teachers in the school. The support of administrators emerges as a particularly important factor in
retention decisions. While this type of longitudinal analysis reduces potential biases resulting from
self-reports of working conditions linked to concurrent self-reports of satisfaction or plans for the
future—data that many previous studies have used (see, for example, Ingersoll 2001 and Johnson
and Birkeland 2003)—it is worth comparing these results to teachers’ direct answers when asked
why they left or why they considered leaving.
In surveys during fall 2005, we asked former teachers (who had left teaching after their first
year, 2004-05) why they left, and we asked current teachers (now in their second year of teaching)
who indicated that they had considered leaving their school about factors that led them to consider
12
17. leaving. Each group of teachers was asked four questions. The first asked them to indicate how
important each of 12 factors was in their decision to leave their 2004-05 New York City teaching
position using a five-point scale ranging from not important to extremely important. (These factors
are listed in figure 1.) The second asked them to choose the one factor from this list that was their
most important consideration. The third question asked them to indicate how important their
dissatisfaction with each of 12 aspects of their job was in their decision to leave the New York City
school where they taught in 2004-05. (These aspects are listed in figure 2.) Again, they were asked
to rate each using a five-point scale ranging from not important to extremely important, and a follow-
up question asked them to choose the one aspect they considered the most important in their
decision to leave.
Dissatisfaction with job is the main factor that teachers cite for leaving or considering leaving.
Figure 1 shows that for both current and former teachers, dissatisfaction with their jobs is by far the
most important factor, with over 35 percent of both groups citing it as the most important reason for
leaving or considering leaving. A fair number of former teachers also report the most important factor
in their leaving was because they moved (living in a different place), because of other family or
personal reasons, and because of other attractive job opportunities. These factors were not as
important for teachers who were still teaching but had considered leaving. The next questions
provides further insights into this job dissatisfaction factor, unpacking which aspects of first-year
teachers’ jobs were particularly dissatisfying and influential in their decisions to leave.
Each set of teachers was asked what aspect of their job most influenced their decision to
leave or to consider leaving. As presented in figure 2, the dominance of dissatisfaction with
administrative support is striking. Hardly any teachers cited dissatisfaction with colleagues,
autonomy over the classroom, school facilities, respect from students and/or parents, ability to help
students, emphasis on student testing, school safety, teaching assignment, teaching philosophy, or
district policies as the primary reason for leaving or considering leaving. While over 15 percent of
both groups reported dissatisfaction with student behavior as the most important factor influencing
13
18. their decision to leave their school, well over 40 percent of both groups identified dissatisfaction with
the administration as the most important factor.
Other questions in the survey of former teachers also shed light on the importance of
administrative support. In one question (not presented in the figures), former teachers on average
indicated that they currently receive much more recognition and support from their administrators or
managers than they had as teachers. Another set of questions asked the former teachers about the
behaviors of their former principal. Less than 10 percent found their principal exceptional in
communicating respect or appreciation for teachers, encouraging teachers to change teaching
methods if students were not doing well, working with teaching staff to solve school or departmental
problems, encouraging staff to use student assessment results in planning curriculum and
instruction, or working to develop broad agreement among teaching staff about the school’s mission.
Additionally, almost 20 percent of former teachers reported that their principals never worked with
staff to meet curriculum standards, and 30 percent stated that their principals did not encourage
professional collaboration among teachers. Administration emerged as the main factor in teacher
attrition in these surveys, just as it did in the analysis of actual attrition behavior above.
DISCUSSION
Teacher attrition may not be substantially higher than attrition from other professions (Henke, Zahn,
and Carroll 2001). However, attrition at some schools is very high, high enough to disrupt
instructional cohesion and likely disadvantage students. Prior research has shown clearly that these
high-turnover schools are likely to serve large populations of low-performing, nonwhite, and low-
income students, just the students most in need of a consistent and supportive school experience
(Boyd et al. 2005; Carroll et al. 2000; Hanushek et al. 2004; Scafidi et al. 2005). While this previous
research has identified the problem, it has done less to clarify why there is higher turnover at these
schools and to identify fruitful avenues for reform.
There are indications that working conditions, aside from those directly resulting from student
composition, affect teachers’ career decisions. A relatively large literature has used cross-sectional
14
19. data to link teachers’ self-reports of school working conditions to measures of their own satisfaction
and plans for the future. This approach has the potential bias that less-satisfied teachers will
misrepresent school working conditions and the correlations between working conditions and
satisfaction will reflect only reporting bias and not true working conditions. Studies using the Schools
and Staffing Surveys have estimated the relationship between self-reported working conditions and
attrition (Grissom 2008; Ingersoll 2001) but even there, lack of controls for district differences and
inaccurate self-reporting may bias the findings.
This study uses first-year teachers’ reports of working conditions to assess the effect of
working conditions on the turnover behavior of other teachers in the school. Since the reporting
teachers and the teachers for whom we model turnover are not the same, we reduce the problem of
self-reporting bias that is correlated with career decisions. We also triangulate our findings with
teachers’ own reports of why they left or considered leaving in a follow-up survey. While we address
multiple measures of school context—including teachers’ influence over school policy, the
effectiveness of the school administration, staff relations, student behavior, facilities, and safety—the
results of both analyses point to the importance of working conditions and particularly of
administrative support in teacher retention.
In many ways, this is good news from a policy perspective for it is difficult to change the
student demographics of a school, as evidenced by school desegregation policies. In contrast,
school contextual factors such as administrative support are more policy-amenable. This study
suggests that policies aimed at improving school administration may be effective at reducing teacher
turnover. It is important to remember, however, that school administrators are subject to many of the
same labor market dynamics as teachers. Horng, Kalogrides, and Loeb (2009) find, for example,
that principals express preferences for schools with higher-performing students and lower
concentrations of students in poverty and that principals, like teachers, move toward these more
desirable schools when given the opportunity. Improving administrative support in high-turnover
schools may require both more effective leaders, overall, and incentives (not necessarily monetary)
so administrative positions in these schools become more appealing.
15
20. This study is clearly just a step in understanding the role of school context in teacher career
decisions. It is imperfect in many ways. In particular, while we provide evidence that the school
administration is an important factor in teacher retention decisions, our data do not provide enough
richness about the role of administration to determine how or why administrative support affects
teachers, nor do our data allow us to identify clear policy levers for reform. For example, one survey
item asked teachers to rate the statement: “The school administration’s behavior toward the staff is
supportive and encouraging.” Perhaps teachers consider “supportive and encouraging”
administrators ones who promptly respond to teachers’ requests for classroom supplies, or maybe
it’s ones who effectively handle student discipline issues. Additionally, what teachers consider
“supportive and encouraging” may vary; for one teacher it may be being generally left alone and
trusted with autonomy, while for another it may be administrators who frequently visit the classroom
and provide feedback on instruction. Follow-up studies are necessary to investigate why
administrative support is important to teachers and what particularly the administration does or does
not do that influences a teacher to stay or leave. There is also a need to investigate other school
contextual factors not included in this study that are likely to be important to teachers, such as
teachers’ opportunities for collaboration, staff development, teacher autonomy, and school
neighborhood characteristics.
16
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ormer%20NYC%20Teachers_060301.pdf.
19
24. APPENDIX OF TABLES
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics from the First-Year Teacher Survey
N Mean SD
Teacher Influencea
[αb
= 0.784 (0.775)]
Selecting textbooks and other instructional materials 4,264 2.642 1.320
Selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught 4,266 2.887 1.266
Selecting teaching techniques 4,259 3.269 1.235
Evaluating and grading students 4,260 3.856 1.019
Disciplining students 4,261 3.598 1.113
Determining the amount of homework to be assigned 4,258 4.034 1.013
Administrationc
[α = 0.887 (0.882)]
The school administration’s behavior toward the staff is supportive and encouraging 4,271 3.348 1.296
The school administration usually consults with staff members before making decisions
that affect us
4,262 2.621 1.228
The school administration has a well-planned and enforced school discipline policy 4,264 2.631 1.315
The school administration deals effectively with pressures from outside the school (for
example, from the district or from parents) that might interfere with my teaching
4,258 3.062 1.186
The school administration does a good job of getting resources for this school 4,251 3.429 1.188
The school administration evaluates teachers’ performance fairly 4,252 3.522 1.085
Data on student learning are regularly collected and reviewed with all members of the
school community (teachers, administrators, etc.)
4,253 2.890 1.172
Staff Relationsc
[α = 0.769 (0.759)]
There is a great deal of cooperative effort among the staff members 4,279 3.627 1.110
Most of my colleagues share my beliefs and values about what the central mission of the
school should be
4,274 3.581 1.000
I make a conscious effort to coordinate the content of my classes with that of other
teachers
4,269 3.567 1.028
I can get good advice from other teachers in this school when I have a teaching problem 4,274 4.076 0.872
In this school, I am encouraged to experiment with my teaching 4,269 3.174 1.224
Studentsc
[α = 0.683 (0.670)]
The level of student misbehavior in this school (such as noise, horseplay or fighting in the
halls, cafeteria) interferes with instructional activities
4,280 3.755 1.280
The attitudes and habits students bring to my class greatly reduce their chances for
academic success
4,272 3.770 1.191
Rules for student behavior are consistently enforced by teachers in this school, even for
students who are not in their classes
4,270 3.091 1.217
I get to know personally many students who are not in my classes 4,271 3.290 1.130
My students receive a lot of support for learning outside of school 4,261 2.423 1.128
Facilitiesc
[α = 0.715 (0.703)]
Necessary materials such as textbooks, supplies, and copy machines are available as
needed by staff
4,276 3.024 1.313
My classroom is often uncomfortably warm or cold 4,275 3.093 1.256
I regularly see evidence of cockroaches, rats, or mice in this school 4,276 2.941 1.358
The textbooks that I use in class are up to date and in good physical condition 4,238 3.389 1.172
My school has quiet spaces for teachers to work when they are not teaching 4,272 2.916 1.307
The facilities at my school are conducive to effective teaching and learning 4,271 3.215 1.120
Safetyd
Has a student from this school threatened to injure you 4,198 0.299
Has a student from this school physically attacked you 4,198 0.159
a
Responses were 1 (no influence), 2 (minimal influence), 3 (moderate influence), 4 (significant influence),
5 (a great deal of influence).
20
25. b
One-sided confidence interval in parentheses which indicates that there is a 95% chance that the
Cronbach’s alpha will be higher than this value (Bleda and Tobias 2000).
c
Responses were 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neither agree or disagree), 4 (agree), 5 (strongly
agree).
d
There were only two safety items, so a factor score was not calculated. Instead, the variable created for
the safety variables is the sum of the dichotomous items.
21
26. Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for First-Year Teachers and Schools
N M SD
Teachers
Age 3,810 29.517 8.163
Female 3,811 0.757 0.429
African American 3,709 0.121 0.326
Hispanic 3,709 0.099 0.299
White 3,709 0.698 0.459
Other nonwhite race or ethnicity 3,709 0.082 0.274
LAST passed on first attempt 3,735 0.912 0.283
LAST score 3,752 258.830 26.077
Pathway: college recommended 3,769 0.412 0.492
Pathway: New York City Teaching Fellows 3,769 0.357 0.479
Pathway: Teach for America 3,769 0.061 0.240
Pathway: temporary license 3,769 0.009 0.095
Pathway: individual evaluation 3,769 0.067 0.250
Pathway: other 3,769 0.093 0.291
Retention: same school within New York City 3,044 0.806
Retention: different school within New York City 392 0.104
Retention: left New York City 341 0.090
Schools
Students qualify for free lunch program 1,037 70.357 21.773
African American students 1,032 36.069 27.911
Hispanic students 1,032 41.414 25.235
Enrollment 1,032 799.521 633.834
Elementary school 993 0.571
Middle school 993 0.188
High school 993 0.241
School context measures
Teacher influence 1,101 0.969 0.782
Administration 1,094 0.099 0.081
Staff relations 1,097 0.060 0.728
Students 1,095 0.094 0.857
Facilities 1,097 0.085 0.770
Safety 1,093 2.534 0.558
22
27. Table 3
Correlations between School Context Measures (n = 1,350)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Teacher influence ---
2. Administration 0.365 ---
3. Staff relations 0.237 0.525 ---
4. Students 0.315 0.612 0.429 ---
5. Facilities 0.144 0.651 0.447 0.549 ---
6. Safety 0.144 0.353 0.202 0.423 0.314 ---
Note. All correlations are significant at p < .001.
23
29. Table 5
Multinomial Logistic Regression Models for First-Year Teachers
Without School Contextual
Variables
With School Contextual Variables
Transferred Left Transferred Left
School: free lunch 0.993
(0.005)
0.998
(0.004)
0.992
(0.005)
0.997
(0.004)
School: African American 1.010*
(0.004)
1.015**
(0.004)
1.004
(0.005)
1.009*
(0.004)
School: Hispanic 1.011*
(0.005)
1.012*
(0.005)
1.005
(0.006)
1.006
(0.005)
School: total enrollment 1.000
(0.000)
1.000
(0.000)
1.000
(0.000)
1.000
(0.000)
School: middle 2.202**
(0.382)
1.804**
(0.293)
2.088**
(0.372)
1.658**
(0.294)
School: high 0.985
(0.185)
0.998
(0.184)
1.069
(0.219)
0.982
(0.198)
Pathway: independent 1.215
(0.294)
1.017
(0.270)
1.175
(0.290)
0.991
(0.264)
Pathway: Teaching Fellows 1.600**
(0.248)
0.723
(0.127)
1.524**
(0.242)
0.691*
(0.122)
Pathway: Teach for America 1.033
(0.300)
0.464*
(0.157)
0.940
(0.272)
0.401**
(0.137)
Pathway: temporary license 1.827
(1.056)
0.572
(0.602)
1.878
(1.090)
0.612
(0.642)
Pathway: other 1.265
(0.269)
1.341
(0.291)
1.229
(0.265)
1.295
(0.287)
Teacher: female 0.892
(0.121)
0.953
(0.138)
0.876
(0.120)
0.948
(0.140)
Teacher: African American 0.827
(0.156)
0.720
(0.157)
0.810
(0.158)
0.707
(0.155)
Teacher: Hispanic 0.691+
(0.152)
0.999
(0.231)
0.679
(0.152)
0.987
(0.229)
Teacher: other ethnicity 0.966
(0.208)
0.740
(0.199)
0.982
(0.216)
0.737
(0.201)
Teacher: Age 1.022**
(0.007)
1.020*
(0.008)
1.023**
(0.007)
1.020*
(0.008)
Teacher: Passed LAST 1st try 1.379
(0.405)
2.246*
(0.827)
1.449
(0.432)
2.351*
(0.880)
Teacher: LAST exam score 0.994
(0.003)
1.004
(0.004)
0.993*
(0.004)
1.002
(0.004)
Number of observations 3,298 3,298
Chi2
147.999 226.264
Pseudo R2
0.037 0.054
Note. Relative risk ratios (standard errors in parentheses) where comparison group is “stay in same
school.”
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
25
30. Table 6
Summary of Multinomial Logistic Regression Models for First-Year Teachers
Model with School Factors
Entered Separately Full Model
Transferred
Left New York
City Transferred
Left New
York City
Teacher influence 0.792** 0.961 1.085 1.249**
(0.078) (0.100) (0.117) (0.141)
Administration 0.541*** 0.652*** 0.552*** 0.692**
(0.060) (0.059) (0.083) (0.096)
Staff relations 0.653*** 0.717** 0.874 0.884
(0.065) (0.078) (0.108) (0.119)
Students 0.677*** 0.739** 1.103 1.041
(0.084) (0.090) (0.168) (0.169)
Facilities 0.640*** 0.671*** 0.956 0.840
(0.070) (0.072) (0.125) (0.123)
Safety 0.710 0.782 0.925 0.940
(0.098) (0.115) (0.144) (0.157)
Notes: Relative risk ratios (standard errors in parentheses) where comparison group is “stay in same
school.” These models include controls for student demographics, school grade level, school enrollment,
teacher demographics, and teacher preparation experiences. Relative risk ratios for control variables are
not shown here for brevity.
*p < .01 **p < .05 ***p < .001
26
31. Table 7
Summary of Multinomial Logistic Regression Models for All Teachers Excluding Survey
Respondents
Model with School Factors
Entered Separately
Full Model
Transferred Left New York
City
Transferred Left New
York City
Teacher influence 1.018 0.905* 1.201** 0.987
(0.060) (0.037) (0.076) (0.044)
Administration 0.719*** 0.822*** 0.679*** 0.859*
(0.041) (0.031) (0.053) (0.051)
Staff relations 0.790** 0.888** 0.878 0.986
(0.052) (0.036) (0.064) (0.049)
Students 0.829** 0.872** 1.054 0.990
(0.051) (0.040) (0.078) (0.060)
Facilities 0.857** 0.860*** 1.094 0.964
(0.049) (0.037) (0.087) (0.054)
Safety 0.837* 0.889 0.916 0.969
(0.071) (0.049) (0.082) (0.058)
Note. Relative risk ratios (standard errors in parentheses) where comparison group is “stay in same
school. These models include controls for student demographics, school grade level, school enrollment,
teacher demographics, and teacher preparation experiences. Relative risk ratios for control variables are
not shown here for brevity.
*p < .01 **p < .05 ***p < .001
27
32. Figure 1. Most Important Factor in Decisions to Leave Teaching for Former (n = 386) and
Current Teachers (n = 1,587)
28
33. Figure 2. Most Important Aspect of Job Influencing Decisions to Leave Teaching for Former
(n = 386) and Current Teachers (n = 1,587)
29
34. INTRODUCTION
When given the opportunity, many teachers choose to leave schools serving poor, low-performing,
and nonwhite students (Boyd et al. 2005; Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin 2004; Scafidi, Sjoquist, and
Stinebrickner 2005). While a substantial research literature has documented this phenomenon, far
less research effort has gone into understanding what features of the working conditions in these
schools drive this relatively higher turnover rate (see Loeb, Darling-Hammond, and Luczak 2005 for
an exception to this). Excessive teacher turnover can be costly and detrimental to instructional
cohesion in schools (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future 2003). Consequently,
many policies, such as mentoring programs and retention bonuses, have aimed to stem teacher
attrition, particularly at schools that experience high teacher turnover. Yet, without a better
understanding of the reasons teachers leave, these approaches may not be as effective as they
could be.
This study contributes to our understanding of teacher attrition by modeling the relationship
between teacher turnover and school contextual factors, including teachers’ influence over school
policy, the effectiveness of the school administration, staff relations, student behavior, safety, and
facilities. Using a unique dataset that combines longitudinal survey data with district administrative
files, we find that school administration plays a particularly important role in teachers’ career
decisions. In what follows, we briefly review relevant prior research to motivate our study, describe
our data and methods, and then present the results. The final section discusses the implications of
these results, limitations of the study, and directions for future research.
BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION
Across the United States, approximately half a million teachers leave their schools each year. Only
16 percent of this teacher attrition at the school level can be attributed to retirement. The remaining
84 percent of teacher turnover results from teachers transferring between schools and teachers
leaving the profession entirely (Alliance for Excellent Education 2008). In New York City alone, over
1
35. 5,000 teachers left their schools in 2005, with 8 percent of teachers transferring to another school
and 10 percent leaving the New York City school system. Recent literature has begun to investigate
the complexities of teacher turnover, making important distinctions such as among exits from
teaching, transfers within districts, and transfers between districts as well as between teachers
leaving permanently and those leaving and later returning (DeAngelis and Presley 2007; Johnson,
Berg, and Donaldson 2005). In general, previous teacher retention research has focused either on
the relationship between turnover and teachers’ characteristics (i.e., what types of teachers are more
likely to leave) or between turnover and school characteristics (i.e., what types of schools experience
higher teacher turnover).
Teacher background characteristics and work experience consistently predict turnover. For
example, turnover is higher among young and old teachers versus middle-aged ones (Guarino,
Santibanez, and Daley 2006; Johnson et al. 2005); and among less experienced teachers versus
more experienced ones (Ingersoll 2001; Marvel et al. 2006). The research linking teacher gender,
race, or ethnicity to turnover is less consistent (Guarino et al. 2006; Johnson et al. 2005). Teachers’
preparation experiences and pathways into teaching are also related to attrition behavior. On
average, teachers from early-entry routes (such as Teach for America and the New York City
Teaching Fellows) are more likely to leave than teachers from more traditional routes (Boyd et al.
2006). Finally, teacher quality measures have been linked with attrition behavior but somewhat
inconsistently. Teachers with stronger qualifications, as measured by their test scores and the
competitiveness of the undergraduate institution from which they received degrees, are more likely
to leave teaching (Boyd et al. 2005). However, teachers who are more effective, as measured by the
test score gains of the students in their classrooms, are less likely to leave teaching (Boyd et al.
2007; Goldhaber, Gross, and Player 2007; Hanushek et al. 2005).
Research on the relationship between teacher retention and school characteristics has
focused primarily on measures of the school’s student composition. Schools with large
concentrations of low-income, nonwhite, and low-achieving students are the most likely to
experience high teacher turnover (Boyd et al. 2005; Carroll, Reichardt, and Guarino 2000; Hanushek
2
36. et al. 2004; Scafidi et al. 2005). For example, in New York City, there is a 27 percent attrition rate of
first-year teachers in the lowest performing schools compared with a 15 percent rate in the schools
with the highest student achievement.
Some studies have examined the relationship between teacher turnover and school or
district factors (Buckley, Schneider, and Shang 2005; Hirsh and Emerick 2006). Unlike the studies
predicting turnover by student composition that use large, longitudinal datasets, most of these
studies must rely upon surveys of teachers asking about their perceptions of working conditions and
likelihood of leaving. These survey data likely produce less accurate models of teacher turnover
because a teacher’s report of working conditions could be affected by whether she or he plans to
leave the school.
Some state databases are rich enough to model the relationship between teacher turnover
and certain school or district factors. For example, Imazeki (2005) uses data from Wisconsin and
finds that teacher retention is higher when salaries are higher. Loeb, Darling-Hammond, and Luczak
(2005) use data on California and find that although schools’ racial compositions and proportions of
low-income students predict teacher turnover, salaries and working conditions—including large class
sizes, facilities problems, multi-track schools, and lack of textbooks—are strong and significant
factors in predicting high rates of turnover.
The Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) and related Teacher Follow-Up Surveys (TFS)
from the National Center for Education Statistics also provide opportunities to model actual teacher
turnover using measures of school context that are richer than those typically found in state
administrative databases. Using this data, Ingersoll (2001) finds that teacher attrition is higher in
schools with low salaries, poor support from school administration, student discipline problems, and
limited faculty input into school decisionmaking, even after controlling for student composition,
school level, and school location. Grissom (2008) analyzes more recent SASS and TFS data and
finds evidence that principal leadership, an orderly schooling environment, greater classroom
autonomy, and increased professional development predict lower teacher turnover after controlling
for student and teacher demographics. The advantage of the SASS/TFS data is that they are
3
37. nationally representative. The disadvantage is the potential for common-source bias that arises from
the use of survey data gathered from the same teachers that are observed staying or leaving their
schools a year later.
This study extends prior research by using data on all schools and teachers in the New York
City public school district to uncover the relationship between school working conditions and teacher
attrition. A survey of first-year teachers in spring 2005, a follow-up survey of those same teachers a
year later, and matched district administrative data allow us to link teachers’ assessments of working
conditions to their own career trajectories as well as the retention behavior of all other teachers in
their schools. Less-satisfied teachers may report worse working conditions, even if other teachers in
the same context would not assess the conditions as poor. We are able to account for this potential
bias by examining the career paths of other teachers in the same school, instead of just the career
decisions of the teachers reporting on the working conditions. In addition, we are able to triangulate
these findings with surveys of teachers who recently left teaching in New York City, asking them
what factors were important in their decision to leave. In these analyses, we address the following
research questions:
1. What are first-year teachers’ perceptions of school contextual factors?
2. What is the relationship between school contextual factors and teacher attrition?
a. How are first-year teachers’ assessments of school contextual factors related
to their own retention decisions after accounting for other measured school
and teacher characteristics?
b. How do first-year teachers’ assessments of school contextual factors predict
the turnover decisions of other teachers in the same school?
3. What aspects of the school context do former teachers report as the most influential in
their decisions to leave teaching?
4
38. DATA AND METHODS
Survey of First-Year Teachers
In spring 2005, we administered a survey to all first-year teachers in New York City (Teacher Policy
Research 2005). The survey was completed by 4,360 teachers (just over 70% response rate) and
consisted of over 300 questions divided into four areas: preparation experiences, characteristics of
the schools in which they are teaching, teaching practices, and goals. Participation in the survey was
voluntary and took approximately 25 minutes to complete. Participants received $25 after completing
the survey.
We use these survey responses to create six school contextual factors: teacher influence,
administration, staff relations, students, facilities, and safety. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics
for the individual survey items and the Cronbach’s alpha for the factors. Each item, except those
measuring safety, comes from teachers’ responses on a five-point scale. The teacher influence
factor has an alpha of 0.78 and comprises six elements. On average, teachers responded that they
had the most influence in determining the amount of homework assigned and the least in selecting
textbooks and other instructional materials. The administration factor has an alpha of 0.89 and
includes seven elements, with administrators being rated highest on evaluating teachers’
performances fairly and lowest on consulting staff before making decisions that affect them. The
staff relations factor has an alpha of 0.77 and comprises five survey items. The respondents are
generally positive about all aspects of their relationships with other staff members, being the most
positive about getting good advice from other teachers in their school when they have a teaching
problem. The students factor also comprises five elements and has an alpha of 0.68. Of these, the
teachers on average are most likely to feel that they get to know personally many students who are
not in their class and the least likely to feel that their students receive a lot of support for learning
outside school. The facilities factor, including six survey items, has an alpha of 0.72. On average, the
teachers are the most positive about having textbooks in their classrooms that are up to date and in
good physical condition and the least positive about their school having quiet spaces for teachers to
5
39. work when they are not teaching. Since the safety factor includes only two dichotomous survey
items, a factor score was not calculated. Instead, the safety variable represents the sum of the
items. Thirty percent of the first-year teachers surveyed report that a student from their school has
threatened to injure them, and 16 percent state that a student has physically attacked them.
Follow-Up Surveys
In spring 2006, we administered two follow-up surveys to the sample of teachers who were in their
first year of teaching in 2004-05. The first was a survey for those teachers who completed the first-
year survey who remained in teaching for a second year (Teacher Policy Research 2007a). In this
follow-up survey, teachers were asked about their teaching experience, their views concerning those
experiences, and their future plans. In this study, we focus on items from the survey that asked
teachers who had at some point considered leaving their first New York City teaching position about
the factors that caused them to consider leaving and their dissatisfaction with different aspects of
teaching such as teaching assignments and school facilities. The survey had a 72 percent response
rate. We also administered a survey to the teachers who left teaching in New York City after their
first year (Teacher Policy Research 2007b). Respondents were asked about their reasons for
leaving teaching. The response rate on this survey was 61 percent. We describe responses on these
surveys to two sets of questions, one asking teachers about the factors influencing their decisions to
leave and another asking them the degree to which their dissatisfaction with different aspects of
teaching influenced their retention decisions.
Administrative Data on Teachers and Schools
We matched survey responses to administrative data provided by the New York City Department of
Education (NYCDOE) and the New York State Department of Education (NYSED) using unique
teacher identification numbers. The administrative data include information on the teachers and the
student demographics at their schools. The data on teachers include demographic (gender,
ethnicity, age), background (initial pathway into teaching and certification exam scores), and
retention data from NYCDOE and NYSED. We define teachers’ initial pathway into teaching using
6
40. five categories: college recommended, temporary license, New York City Teaching Fellows
(NYCTF), Teach for America (TFA), and other. NYCTF and TFA are early-entry or alternative routes
into teaching. A temporary license pathway indicates that the individual failed to complete one or
more requirements for a teaching certificate but was allowed to teach under the temporary license
provisions, whereby a school district can request NYSED to allow a specific individual to teach in a
specific school temporarily. The other category includes all other pathways to teaching such as
internship certificates, and those with certification through reciprocity agreements with other states.
As part of New York State certification requirements, teachers must pass the Liberal Arts and
Science Test (LAST), which consists of a multiple-choice component and written component,
intended to “measure knowledge and skills in the liberal arts and sciences, in teaching theory and
practice, and in the content area of the certificate title.”1
There are five subareas within the liberal
arts and sciences multiple-choice component: scientific, mathematical, and technological processes;
historical and social scientific awareness; artistic expression and humanities; communication and
research skills; and written analysis and expression. The written component requires test takers to
prepare a written response to an assigned topic that is judged on focus and unity, appropriateness,
reason and organization, support and development, and structure and conventions (Pearson
Education 2006). We use scores on the LAST exam and whether teachers passed the multiple-
choice and written component on their first attempt in the analyses.
Table 2 provides descriptive statistics for the analysis variables for schools and for first-year
teachers (descriptive statistics on all New York City teachers are available upon request). More than
75 percent of first-year teachers are female, 12 percent are black, 10 percent are Hispanic, and 70
percent are white. Their average age is 30, and 91 percent passed their general knowledge
certification exam on their first attempt. Approximately 40 percent entered through a traditional
education program while another approximately 40 percent entered teaching through one of the two
large early-entry programs, NYCTF and TFA. On average, just over 70 percent of students in the
1 New York State Education Department, “New York State Detailed Certification Requirement Description,”
http://eservices.nysed.gov/teach/certhelp/ReqDescription.do?metaValueId=281&catGrpId=null&crcId=19&WIN_T
YPE=null.
7
41. schools where these first-year teachers work are eligible for subsidized lunches, 36 percent are
black, and 41 percent are Hispanic.
Using data on job assignments, we are able to create measures of teacher attrition, our
dependent variable in the analyses below. As table 2 shows, 80 percent of first-year teachers who
responded to our survey remained in the same school the following year, while 10 percent changed
schools within New York City and 9 percent left teaching in New York City. Among the full sample of
New York City teachers (not shown in the table), 82 percent stayed in the same school, 8 percent
switched schools, and 10 percent left the district.
Methods
We use multinomial logistic regression to estimate the relationship between teacher and school
characteristics and teacher retention decisions. The dependent variable is a three-level measure
indicating whether, in the following school year, the teacher (1) stayed at the same school, (2)
transferred to another school within New York City, or (3) left New York City schools. The models
control for teacher background characteristics including initial pathway into teaching, gender,
ethnicity, age, whether they passed the LAST exam on their first attempt, and their score on the
LAST exam. The models also include controls for school characteristics that might affect teacher
retention—the proportion of students eligible for subsidized lunch, student ethnicity, grade level, and
enrollment. After controlling for these teacher and school characteristics, we explore whether the
school contextual factors are predictive of teacher retention decisions.
Our variables of interest are the six school contextual factors (teacher influence,
administration, staff relations, students, facilities, and safety) derived from the survey of first-year
teachers. We look at the contribution of each factor separately and then include all six factors in the
models. In the first analyses, we model the relationship between first-year teachers’ assessments of
these school factors and their own retention a year later. We then use first-year teacher survey
responses aggregated by school to model the retention of all teachers in New York City who did not
fill out the survey. In other words, we use the evaluations of school working conditions by one set of
8
42. teachers (first-year teachers) to predict the retention of other teachers at that school. As discussed
above, in this way we remove the part of reporting error by first-year teachers that reflects individual
satisfaction with teaching. Finally, we run a further check on the relationship between school context
and teacher attrition by examining teacher responses on the follow-up surveys. Using basic
descriptive statistics, we assess teachers’ responses to questions addressing why they left or why
they considered leaving the school where they were teaching in the spring of their first year of
teaching in New York City.
RESULTS
Teachers’ Assessments of School Contextual Factors
As described above and in table 1, we use first-year teachers’ survey responses to create six
measures of school contextual factors: teacher influence, administration, staff relations, students,
facilities, and safety. Each factor has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 and is the product of
a principal components factor analysis that analyzes the total variance for each factor and not the
common variance. Table 3 reports the correlations among the factors aggregated to the school level.
Not surprisingly, schools with more positive working conditions on one dimension also tend to have
more positive working conditions on the other dimensions. The administration factor is particularly
highly correlated with both the students and facilities factors.
Table 4 gives the correlation between these measures and school characteristics. Each
school characteristic is measured as a percentile within the distribution of all schools in the city that
serve the same or similar grade range (elementary, middle, or high school). Almost across the
board, schools with a lower proportion of students eligible for subsidized lunch demonstrate strong
teacher-reported working conditions. High schools are an exception to this pattern, but the
percentage of students eligible for subsidized lunch is a very inaccurate proxy for poverty in high
schools. Generally, a similar pattern holds for schools as measured by the share of black students
and Hispanic students; the greater the percentage of black or Hispanic students at a school, the
lower the average ratings of working conditions across the six factors. There are a few exceptions
9
43. where the relationship between student ethnicity and perceived working conditions are not
significant, such as the proportion of black students and teacher influence in middle schools, but the
prevalence of common trends is striking. Relationships between school context factors and
enrollment are less significant. Not surprisingly, larger elementary, middle, and high schools tend to
have less teacher influence. Elementary schools with more students tend to have poorer facilities,
according to the first-year teachers surveyed. Surprisingly, larger elementary schools appear to have
more positive safety ratings. Except for teacher influence, the school context measures do not have
a strong relationship with school size at the middle and high school levels.
School Contextual Factors and Teacher Retention
We use multinomial logistic regression to examine the relationship between the six school contextual
factors and teacher retention decisions. Table 5 presents the results for first-year teachers with and
without school contextual factors but including teacher characteristics and student demographics.
Table 6 includes the estimates with each factor entered separately and a full model with all factors
entered together. We present both results because of the relatively high correlation among the
measures of school context. Both tables report the results as relative risk ratios, the odds of
transferring or quitting relative to the odds of remaining in the same school.
The base model with only teacher characteristics and student demographics shows that,
consistent with prior research, teachers are more likely to leave schools with a higher proportion of
black and Hispanic students, both to transfer and to leave the district. New York City Teaching
Fellows are more likely to transfer across schools than teachers from other routes, and teachers who
passed the teacher certification exam on their first attempt are far more likely to leave teaching in
New York City. Older teachers are also more likely to transfer to other schools and to leave teaching.
The second set of columns in table 5 show that once we control for school context factors
(presented in table 6), the coefficients on the proportion of black students and on the proportion of
Hispanic students drop meaningfully. In addition, the point estimates are no longer statistically
distinguishable from 1 (no effect) for the Hispanic-student concentration and are only distinguishable
10
44. from 1 for the black-student concentration for leaving New York City schools, not for transferring
across schools.
Table 6 presents the results for specifications in which the six school context factors are
added to the model, first separately and then simultaneously. All the variables in table 5 are included
in the models reported in table 6, but the relative risk ratios associated with these variables are
omitted for brevity. When we add each school contextual factor separately to this model, we find that
all factors except safety significantly predict teachers’ retention decisions. More specifically, in these
estimates, the effect of the respondents’ perceptions of teachers’ influence is related the
respondents’ decisions to transfer but not to leave teaching in New York City; while their
perceptions of administration, staff relations, students, and facilities are related to both their
decisions to transfer and their decisions to leave teaching.
In the full model, including all six school contextual factors and the controls, the
administration factor is the only one that significantly predicts teacher retention decisions after
controlling for other school and teacher characteristics. Teachers who have less positive perceptions
of their school administrators are more likely to transfer to another school and to leave teaching in
New York City. A standard deviation increase in a teacher’s assessment of the administration
decreases his or her likelihood of transferring by approximately 44 percent relative to staying in the
same school, and it decreases his or her likelihood of leaving teaching in New York City by
approximately 28 percent relative to staying in the same school. If we use the coefficients in this
model to predict the probability of a teacher transferring under different working condition, we
estimate that if all the working conditions measures were average, a white female teacher from a
college-recommended route in a school with average student composition would have a 7.6 percent
probability of leaving and a 10.0 percent probability of transferring. If the working conditions
measures were one standard deviation above average, these probabilities would drop to 4.1 percent
and 6.7 percent; whereas if the working conditions measures were one standard deviation below
average, these probabilities would increase to 13.5 percent and 14.8 percent. Working conditions,
and especially administrative support, account for large differences in attrition rates.
11
45. To separate the effects of these school contextual factors from teacher characteristics, we
also predict the retention of all other teachers at the school using the perceptions of the first-year
teachers. More specifically, we use a school-level average for each factor based on the first-year
teachers’ survey responses to predict teacher retention decision for all teachers at the school
excluding the first-year teacher respondents. As shown in table 7, similar to our previous analyses,
when each school contextual factor is included separately, administration, staff relations, students,
and facilities factors significantly predict decisions to transfer and to leave teaching in New York City.
The more positive first-year teachers’ assessments of these factors, the more likely other teachers at
the school are to stay. Unlike the results for first-year teachers, perceptions of teacher influence
significantly relate to decisions to leave teaching but not to transfer within New York City, and
perceptions of safety relate to transferring but not leaving. In the model including all school context
factors and controls, teacher influence is somewhat surprisingly positively associated with teachers’
decision to transfer across schools. However, here again, administration emerges as the strongest
predictor of retention relative to both transferring and leaving.
Teachers’ Stated Reasons for Leaving or Considering Leaving
The longitudinal analyses presented above demonstrates that a teacher’s reporting of working
conditions predicts his or her own attrition in the following year as well as the attrition of other
teachers in the school. The support of administrators emerges as a particularly important factor in
retention decisions. While this type of longitudinal analysis reduces potential biases resulting from
self-reports of working conditions linked to concurrent self-reports of satisfaction or plans for the
future—data that many previous studies have used (see, for example, Ingersoll 2001 and Johnson
and Birkeland 2003)—it is worth comparing these results to teachers’ direct answers when asked
why they left or why they considered leaving.
In surveys during fall 2005, we asked former teachers (who had left teaching after their first
year, 2004-05) why they left, and we asked current teachers (now in their second year of teaching)
who indicated that they had considered leaving their school about factors that led them to consider
12
46. leaving. Each group of teachers was asked four questions. The first asked them to indicate how
important each of 12 factors was in their decision to leave their 2004-05 New York City teaching
position using a five-point scale ranging from not important to extremely important. (These factors
are listed in figure 1.) The second asked them to choose the one factor from this list that was their
most important consideration. The third question asked them to indicate how important their
dissatisfaction with each of 12 aspects of their job was in their decision to leave the New York City
school where they taught in 2004-05. (These aspects are listed in figure 2.) Again, they were asked
to rate each using a five-point scale ranging from not important to extremely important, and a follow-
up question asked them to choose the one aspect they considered the most important in their
decision to leave.
Dissatisfaction with job is the main factor that teachers cite for leaving or considering leaving.
Figure 1 shows that for both current and former teachers, dissatisfaction with their jobs is by far the
most important factor, with over 35 percent of both groups citing it as the most important reason for
leaving or considering leaving. A fair number of former teachers also report the most important factor
in their leaving was because they moved (living in a different place), because of other family or
personal reasons, and because of other attractive job opportunities. These factors were not as
important for teachers who were still teaching but had considered leaving. The next questions
provides further insights into this job dissatisfaction factor, unpacking which aspects of first-year
teachers’ jobs were particularly dissatisfying and influential in their decisions to leave.
Each set of teachers was asked what aspect of their job most influenced their decision to
leave or to consider leaving. As presented in figure 2, the dominance of dissatisfaction with
administrative support is striking. Hardly any teachers cited dissatisfaction with colleagues,
autonomy over the classroom, school facilities, respect from students and/or parents, ability to help
students, emphasis on student testing, school safety, teaching assignment, teaching philosophy, or
district policies as the primary reason for leaving or considering leaving. While over 15 percent of
both groups reported dissatisfaction with student behavior as the most important factor influencing
13
47. their decision to leave their school, well over 40 percent of both groups identified dissatisfaction with
the administration as the most important factor.
Other questions in the survey of former teachers also shed light on the importance of
administrative support. In one question (not presented in the figures), former teachers on average
indicated that they currently receive much more recognition and support from their administrators or
managers than they had as teachers. Another set of questions asked the former teachers about the
behaviors of their former principal. Less than 10 percent found their principal exceptional in
communicating respect or appreciation for teachers, encouraging teachers to change teaching
methods if students were not doing well, working with teaching staff to solve school or departmental
problems, encouraging staff to use student assessment results in planning curriculum and
instruction, or working to develop broad agreement among teaching staff about the school’s mission.
Additionally, almost 20 percent of former teachers reported that their principals never worked with
staff to meet curriculum standards, and 30 percent stated that their principals did not encourage
professional collaboration among teachers. Administration emerged as the main factor in teacher
attrition in these surveys, just as it did in the analysis of actual attrition behavior above.
DISCUSSION
Teacher attrition may not be substantially higher than attrition from other professions (Henke, Zahn,
and Carroll 2001). However, attrition at some schools is very high, high enough to disrupt
instructional cohesion and likely disadvantage students. Prior research has shown clearly that these
high-turnover schools are likely to serve large populations of low-performing, nonwhite, and low-
income students, just the students most in need of a consistent and supportive school experience
(Boyd et al. 2005; Carroll et al. 2000; Hanushek et al. 2004; Scafidi et al. 2005). While this previous
research has identified the problem, it has done less to clarify why there is higher turnover at these
schools and to identify fruitful avenues for reform.
There are indications that working conditions, aside from those directly resulting from student
composition, affect teachers’ career decisions. A relatively large literature has used cross-sectional
14
48. data to link teachers’ self-reports of school working conditions to measures of their own satisfaction
and plans for the future. This approach has the potential bias that less-satisfied teachers will
misrepresent school working conditions and the correlations between working conditions and
satisfaction will reflect only reporting bias and not true working conditions. Studies using the Schools
and Staffing Surveys have estimated the relationship between self-reported working conditions and
attrition (Grissom 2008; Ingersoll 2001) but even there, lack of controls for district differences and
inaccurate self-reporting may bias the findings.
This study uses first-year teachers’ reports of working conditions to assess the effect of
working conditions on the turnover behavior of other teachers in the school. Since the reporting
teachers and the teachers for whom we model turnover are not the same, we reduce the problem of
self-reporting bias that is correlated with career decisions. We also triangulate our findings with
teachers’ own reports of why they left or considered leaving in a follow-up survey. While we address
multiple measures of school context—including teachers’ influence over school policy, the
effectiveness of the school administration, staff relations, student behavior, facilities, and safety—the
results of both analyses point to the importance of working conditions and particularly of
administrative support in teacher retention.
In many ways, this is good news from a policy perspective for it is difficult to change the
student demographics of a school, as evidenced by school desegregation policies. In contrast,
school contextual factors such as administrative support are more policy-amenable. This study
suggests that policies aimed at improving school administration may be effective at reducing teacher
turnover. It is important to remember, however, that school administrators are subject to many of the
same labor market dynamics as teachers. Horng, Kalogrides, and Loeb (2009) find, for example,
that principals express preferences for schools with higher-performing students and lower
concentrations of students in poverty and that principals, like teachers, move toward these more
desirable schools when given the opportunity. Improving administrative support in high-turnover
schools may require both more effective leaders, overall, and incentives (not necessarily monetary)
so administrative positions in these schools become more appealing.
15
49. This study is clearly just a step in understanding the role of school context in teacher career
decisions. It is imperfect in many ways. In particular, while we provide evidence that the school
administration is an important factor in teacher retention decisions, our data do not provide enough
richness about the role of administration to determine how or why administrative support affects
teachers, nor do our data allow us to identify clear policy levers for reform. For example, one survey
item asked teachers to rate the statement: “The school administration’s behavior toward the staff is
supportive and encouraging.” Perhaps teachers consider “supportive and encouraging”
administrators ones who promptly respond to teachers’ requests for classroom supplies, or maybe
it’s ones who effectively handle student discipline issues. Additionally, what teachers consider
“supportive and encouraging” may vary; for one teacher it may be being generally left alone and
trusted with autonomy, while for another it may be administrators who frequently visit the classroom
and provide feedback on instruction. Follow-up studies are necessary to investigate why
administrative support is important to teachers and what particularly the administration does or does
not do that influences a teacher to stay or leave. There is also a need to investigate other school
contextual factors not included in this study that are likely to be important to teachers, such as
teachers’ opportunities for collaboration, staff development, teacher autonomy, and school
neighborhood characteristics.
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