There is no doubt regarding the notion that crime is deteriorating the socio-economic
structure of society. Crime poses a serious threat to human values and existence. Therefore this
menace should be stopped as early as possible otherwise it would lead to unavoidable
circumstances. Whenever policies are formed there are some certain factors that are always taken
into consideration to stop the crime. These measures were effective but with the passage of time
there seems to be a constant situation and crime seems to be at its peak. This situation has forced us
to think that there may be other factors that are leading to criminal behaviour in humans. These
factors may be uncertain, unknown or indeterminate. Though previous researches in this regard
have taken into consideration all the known factors, the present work takes into account both known
and unknown factors together with the relationship among them. Taking into account all the factors
which nourish crime either directly or indirectly, here we try to model the situation mathematically
using Neutrosophic Cognitive Map since it provides us with a methodology of representing known
and unknown factors together. The work is carried out using graphical methods and concepts
together with linear algebra. The present work takes into account the crimes which are occurring in
South Africa and models this situation taking into considerations all the certain and uncertain
factors. The study reveals that relative poverty & inadequate housing, limited social and cognitive
abilities, exclusion from school, family violence, culture conflict, colonialism, unemployment,
income inequality, violent expressions of masculinity and use of violence to ‘resolve’ are directly
related to crime in the country. The other factors such as Adherence to social norms, the multi-racial
character of the society, Racial discrimination, apartheid policy, political transition, restructuring of
the criminal justice system, gathering of people, intimate partner violence & femicide and use of
‘tik’ (crystal meth/ methamphetamine) which were not supposed to have a direct influence on crime
in the country by previous researches are also having a significant effect on crime. The present work
contributes effectively in identifying the factors leading to criminal behaviour among people. This
would in turn help policymakers to take necessary steps at ground level to curb the crime in the
country. The work also shows the modelling of the situation using Fuzzy Cognitive Maps just to
represent the effectiveness of Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps over them.
Dilemma of Electorates when Corruption and Threat became a Cultureinventionjournals
Most of the politicians usually adopted various techniques and strategies to get their ends beyond electoral integrity. One or either form of corrupt practices appears widely in India’s northeast too which greatly demeans democracy. In the backdrop of various demands of different ethnic-based insurgencies, elections are also conducting in regular interval in this India’s Northeast. The state of democracy in India’s northeast is clear example of flawed democracy where elections are in servitude. This study is based on quantitative and empirical methods through SPSS interpretation. Sources of data were mainly from structured questionnaire collected on the basis of random sampling method from electorates of India’s northeast. In contemporary, many insurgent groups have been interfering in the elections since they entered peace dialogue with government of India. This paper attempts to analyse corrupt practices and modus operandi of electioneering practices. Majority of electorates were also on the whims of perpetrators.
An Intelligence Analysis of Crime Data for Law Enforcement Using Data MiningWaqas Tariq
The concern about national security has increased significantly since the 26/11 attacks at Mumbai, India. However, information and technology overload hinders the effective analysis of criminal and terrorist activities. Data mining applied in the context of law enforcement and intelligence analysis holds the promise of alleviating such problem. In this paper we use a clustering/classify based model to anticipate crime trends. The data mining techniques are used to analyze the city crime data from Tamil Nadu Police Department. The results of this data mining could potentially be used to lessen and even prevent crime for the forth coming years
Dilemma of Electorates when Corruption and Threat became a Cultureinventionjournals
Most of the politicians usually adopted various techniques and strategies to get their ends beyond electoral integrity. One or either form of corrupt practices appears widely in India’s northeast too which greatly demeans democracy. In the backdrop of various demands of different ethnic-based insurgencies, elections are also conducting in regular interval in this India’s Northeast. The state of democracy in India’s northeast is clear example of flawed democracy where elections are in servitude. This study is based on quantitative and empirical methods through SPSS interpretation. Sources of data were mainly from structured questionnaire collected on the basis of random sampling method from electorates of India’s northeast. In contemporary, many insurgent groups have been interfering in the elections since they entered peace dialogue with government of India. This paper attempts to analyse corrupt practices and modus operandi of electioneering practices. Majority of electorates were also on the whims of perpetrators.
An Intelligence Analysis of Crime Data for Law Enforcement Using Data MiningWaqas Tariq
The concern about national security has increased significantly since the 26/11 attacks at Mumbai, India. However, information and technology overload hinders the effective analysis of criminal and terrorist activities. Data mining applied in the context of law enforcement and intelligence analysis holds the promise of alleviating such problem. In this paper we use a clustering/classify based model to anticipate crime trends. The data mining techniques are used to analyze the city crime data from Tamil Nadu Police Department. The results of this data mining could potentially be used to lessen and even prevent crime for the forth coming years
Corruption and Election in Conflict Northeast Indiainventionjournals
Democracy largely depends on the modus operandi of electioneering practices. Most of the politicians usually adopted various techniques and strategies to get their ends beyond electoral integrity. One or either form of corrupt practices appears widely in India’s northeast too which greatly demeans democracy. In the backdrop of various demands of different ethnic-based insurgencies, elections are also conducting in regular interval in this India’s Northeast. This study is based on quantitative and empirical methods through SPSS interpretation. Sources of data were mainly from structured questionnaire collected on the basis of random sampling method from electorates of India’s northeast. In contemporary, many insurgent groups have been interfering in the elections since they entered peace dialogue with government of India. This paper attempts to analyse corrupt practices and modus operandi of electioneering practices. Majority of electorates were also on the whims of perpetrators. The state of democracy in India’s northeast is clear example of flawed democracy where elections are in servitude.
Here is a look at crime trends and households’ perceptions about safety and law enforcement./
For a closer look at the report visit http://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=9553
This slideshow considers the privacy and ethical implication when dealing with criminal justice data. The dataset provided by the Bureau of Justice Statistics includes survey data from victims as well as compiles criminal stats. Issues with privacy are highlighted in this slideshare.
Nepal has committed itself to the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), 2000. Since then, Nepal has gone through many transformations: an armed conflict has ended; a monarchy has been abolished; the creation of a democracy has begun; a constituent assembly elected, dissolved and second constituent assembly elected; abortion has been legalized. However, while there has been a move towards equality and democracy, the status of women still remains a concern.
While Nepal has been commended for its National Action Plan on UNSCR 1325 and 1820, women’s inclusion in peace-building and transitional justice is still not deemed a priority. As a consequence of this, victims of sexual violence in conflict were excluded from the interim relief plan for conflict victims, and women continue to be excluded in political and decision-making positions at all levels. Impunity, political protection, and a patriarchal state and society continue denying access to justice for women facing gender-based violence. The legal system continues to discriminate against women with, among other provisions:
a. Unequal rights to citizenship,
b. A narrow definition of rape,
c. A 35-day statute of limitation on reporting cases of rape,
d. A ban on women under 30 years migrating to the Gulf for informal work such as domestic work, thus curtailing women’s freedom to mobility.
A research report on root causes, risk factors and preventive strategies. Research by Midrift Hurinet and the Danish Institute Against Torture (DIGNITY).
Written by Manuel Bagues & Pamela Campa
Abstract
We provide a comprehensive analysis of the short- and medium-term effects of gender quotas in candidate lists using evidence from local elections in Spain. In the context of a closed list system with proportional representation, quotas were introduced in 2007 in municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants, and were extended in 2011 to municipalities with more than 3,000 inhabitants. Using a Regression Discontinuity Design, we find that quotas increased the share of women in candidate lists by around 8 p.p. and among council members by 4 p.p. However, within three rounds of elections, we do not observe any significant variation in voting behaviour, the quality of politicians, the probability that women reach powerful positions such as party leader or mayor, or the size and composition of public finances. Overall, our analysis suggests that quotas in candidate lists fail to remove the barriers that prevent women from playing an influential role in politics.
Report on decriminalisation of sex work in South Africa SABC News
Report by the Human Rights Watch (HRW) and the Sex Workers Education & Advocacy Taskforce (SWEAT) on why sex work should be decriminalised in South Africa.
Democracy International - Afghanistan Public Opinion Poll December 2013DemocracyInternational
Democracy International's first public opinion poll in Afghanistan is one of three nationwide surveys in advance of presidential and provincial council elections planned for April 2014. These surveys seek to learn about voter preferences on key election issues, voter participation trends, and candidates.
Global Terrorism Index by Institute of Economics and Peace
The number of terrorist attacks around the world has increased dramatically; over 80% of all terrorism occurs in only 5 countries. Get the facts on terrorism.
Terrorism has become a global phenomenon with a 61% increase in the number of people killed in terrorist attacks over the last year. The 2014 Global Terrorism Index provides a fact-based understanding of terrorism and its impact.
The Kenyan Economy: Perceptions and Realities Ipsos
In this release, we present several findings related to the economy.
Underpinning the specific findings is the general reality that three-quarters of all Kenyan households (75%) report a total family income of Shs. 25,000 or less, with more than half of these households (44%) earning between nothing and only Shs. 10,000 (a figure which increases to 46% if those who declined/were unable to answer this question are excluded). In addition, as is seen in several of the specific findings show below, such extensive poverty takes a clear regional dimension. For example, the proportion of those in the Shs. 10,000 and below category is 56% at the Coast compared to 56% in Nairobi, more than twice.
At the same time, these income-group findings over all three Ipsos surveys since May, 2014 show no statistical change, reflecting both the static nature of income-distribution in Kenya, and the reliability of Ipsos’ survey methodology.
Lack of Communication, Resources, Trust As Well As Political Interference And...AJHSSR Journal
Crime continues to be a serious problem in South Africa, as the country ranks 3rd on the global
crime index as at 2016. The damaging impact of crime on the safety and security of communities, peace and
stability in the country as well as its effect on the country’s reputation among potential international tourists and
investors, and how all these affect the general quality of life of ordinary citizens need no emphasis. Crime
solutions that work and are cost effective remain elusive. However, due to its success in reducing crime rates in
different parts of the world since its introduction in the United States of America during the 1970s, community
policing is now a standard ideological and policy model guiding mission statements, goals, and reform programs
of most policing agencies across the world. Regardless of its enviable status in the practicing of policing, more
than twenty (20) years after the attainment of democracy, the question beckons whether the inception of
community policing and particularly community policing forums is an effective strategy within the South
African communities to combat and prevent crime. This paper draws from the work of a PhD thesis, submitted
at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The primary objective of this paper is to explore the challenges of CPFs in
combating crime in two dissimilar residential locations in Durban.A qualitative research approach was adopted,
the findings collected through focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews with a total number of
fifty-five (55) participants comprising of South African Police Service (SAPS) and CPFs representatives,
political leaders and ordinary members of the two communities suggest limited knowledge of and affinity to
CPFs by community members. This owes partly to lack of communication, resources, trust, as well as political
interference and SAPS organisational culture, which affect the functioning of these CPFs. Together, these
findings suggest that more effort is needed from both the community and the police for an effective functioning
of the CPFs.
2Crime Occurrence Evaluation PaperProfessor M. Callaha.docxlorainedeserre
2
Crime Occurrence Evaluation Paper
Professor M. Callahan
AJS/514
Grace Acevedo
October 28, 2019
Crime Occurrence Evaluation
Criminal Justice involves a set of interdisciplinary knowledge and integrated systematic actions to reach the awareness of a truth related to the criminal phenomenon, which includes the management of strategies that scrutinizes the role of the victim, the offender, and the crime as such, and the study of techniques aimed at countering, controlling and preventing criminal activity. This paper intends to interpret the occurrence of crime.
Current Trends in the Crime Rate
Based on FBI data, crime rates decreased by 3.9% during the past year and have continued to decrease. These include murder, robbery, burglary, vehicle thefts, larceny, and non-negligent manslaughter. With rape, the rate showed to have increased, subsequent in the last six years (https://www.themarshallproject.org/2019/09/30/new-fbi-data-violent-crime-still-falling)
Social and Environmental Factors Influencing Crime Rate
Economic circumstances as poverty and lack of employment are issues that affect low income communities. Communities where abnormal behavior is ignored and/or stimulated result in criminal activities. The population holding firearms has exploded. Between 6% to 10% of teenagers in high school have access to guns carry guns to school, this escalating to committing violent crimes (https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781337514910/). The recruiting of children and teenagers in gangs is rising, drugs and substance abuse are major causes for violent crimes. Exposing children to violent video games is an issue affecting today’s generation by teaching violence and undermining law enforcement (https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781337514910/).
Factors that contribute to Criminal Behavior and Crime Rate
Family relationships lead to criminal behavior. The lack of attention from parents to children, a household composed of one parent, child abuse, exposure to drugs and alcohol, and prostitution are some situations that push children and teenagers to seek support from other sources where bad influences can trigger delinquency.
Antisocial behavior leads to engage in delinquent acts. Risk-taking is another factor in committing delinquent activities and is most seen between the ages of 11 to 21. During this period, behaviors such as careless driving, substance use, unprotected sex, eating disorders, homicidal and suicidal behaviors, and dangerous sports are characteristics of risk-taking that lead to criminal behavior.
Investigating Crime Occurrence through Research and Theory Development
Social structure theories state that criminality is a product of social forces which include traditions, responsibilities, laws, morality, and religious beliefs (Calderon, M.). These theories are social disorganization, social change, conflict, and lack of social consensus as root causes of crime. The “broken window” theory focuses on ...
Corruption and Election in Conflict Northeast Indiainventionjournals
Democracy largely depends on the modus operandi of electioneering practices. Most of the politicians usually adopted various techniques and strategies to get their ends beyond electoral integrity. One or either form of corrupt practices appears widely in India’s northeast too which greatly demeans democracy. In the backdrop of various demands of different ethnic-based insurgencies, elections are also conducting in regular interval in this India’s Northeast. This study is based on quantitative and empirical methods through SPSS interpretation. Sources of data were mainly from structured questionnaire collected on the basis of random sampling method from electorates of India’s northeast. In contemporary, many insurgent groups have been interfering in the elections since they entered peace dialogue with government of India. This paper attempts to analyse corrupt practices and modus operandi of electioneering practices. Majority of electorates were also on the whims of perpetrators. The state of democracy in India’s northeast is clear example of flawed democracy where elections are in servitude.
Here is a look at crime trends and households’ perceptions about safety and law enforcement./
For a closer look at the report visit http://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=9553
This slideshow considers the privacy and ethical implication when dealing with criminal justice data. The dataset provided by the Bureau of Justice Statistics includes survey data from victims as well as compiles criminal stats. Issues with privacy are highlighted in this slideshare.
Nepal has committed itself to the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), 2000. Since then, Nepal has gone through many transformations: an armed conflict has ended; a monarchy has been abolished; the creation of a democracy has begun; a constituent assembly elected, dissolved and second constituent assembly elected; abortion has been legalized. However, while there has been a move towards equality and democracy, the status of women still remains a concern.
While Nepal has been commended for its National Action Plan on UNSCR 1325 and 1820, women’s inclusion in peace-building and transitional justice is still not deemed a priority. As a consequence of this, victims of sexual violence in conflict were excluded from the interim relief plan for conflict victims, and women continue to be excluded in political and decision-making positions at all levels. Impunity, political protection, and a patriarchal state and society continue denying access to justice for women facing gender-based violence. The legal system continues to discriminate against women with, among other provisions:
a. Unequal rights to citizenship,
b. A narrow definition of rape,
c. A 35-day statute of limitation on reporting cases of rape,
d. A ban on women under 30 years migrating to the Gulf for informal work such as domestic work, thus curtailing women’s freedom to mobility.
A research report on root causes, risk factors and preventive strategies. Research by Midrift Hurinet and the Danish Institute Against Torture (DIGNITY).
Written by Manuel Bagues & Pamela Campa
Abstract
We provide a comprehensive analysis of the short- and medium-term effects of gender quotas in candidate lists using evidence from local elections in Spain. In the context of a closed list system with proportional representation, quotas were introduced in 2007 in municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants, and were extended in 2011 to municipalities with more than 3,000 inhabitants. Using a Regression Discontinuity Design, we find that quotas increased the share of women in candidate lists by around 8 p.p. and among council members by 4 p.p. However, within three rounds of elections, we do not observe any significant variation in voting behaviour, the quality of politicians, the probability that women reach powerful positions such as party leader or mayor, or the size and composition of public finances. Overall, our analysis suggests that quotas in candidate lists fail to remove the barriers that prevent women from playing an influential role in politics.
Report on decriminalisation of sex work in South Africa SABC News
Report by the Human Rights Watch (HRW) and the Sex Workers Education & Advocacy Taskforce (SWEAT) on why sex work should be decriminalised in South Africa.
Democracy International - Afghanistan Public Opinion Poll December 2013DemocracyInternational
Democracy International's first public opinion poll in Afghanistan is one of three nationwide surveys in advance of presidential and provincial council elections planned for April 2014. These surveys seek to learn about voter preferences on key election issues, voter participation trends, and candidates.
Global Terrorism Index by Institute of Economics and Peace
The number of terrorist attacks around the world has increased dramatically; over 80% of all terrorism occurs in only 5 countries. Get the facts on terrorism.
Terrorism has become a global phenomenon with a 61% increase in the number of people killed in terrorist attacks over the last year. The 2014 Global Terrorism Index provides a fact-based understanding of terrorism and its impact.
The Kenyan Economy: Perceptions and Realities Ipsos
In this release, we present several findings related to the economy.
Underpinning the specific findings is the general reality that three-quarters of all Kenyan households (75%) report a total family income of Shs. 25,000 or less, with more than half of these households (44%) earning between nothing and only Shs. 10,000 (a figure which increases to 46% if those who declined/were unable to answer this question are excluded). In addition, as is seen in several of the specific findings show below, such extensive poverty takes a clear regional dimension. For example, the proportion of those in the Shs. 10,000 and below category is 56% at the Coast compared to 56% in Nairobi, more than twice.
At the same time, these income-group findings over all three Ipsos surveys since May, 2014 show no statistical change, reflecting both the static nature of income-distribution in Kenya, and the reliability of Ipsos’ survey methodology.
Lack of Communication, Resources, Trust As Well As Political Interference And...AJHSSR Journal
Crime continues to be a serious problem in South Africa, as the country ranks 3rd on the global
crime index as at 2016. The damaging impact of crime on the safety and security of communities, peace and
stability in the country as well as its effect on the country’s reputation among potential international tourists and
investors, and how all these affect the general quality of life of ordinary citizens need no emphasis. Crime
solutions that work and are cost effective remain elusive. However, due to its success in reducing crime rates in
different parts of the world since its introduction in the United States of America during the 1970s, community
policing is now a standard ideological and policy model guiding mission statements, goals, and reform programs
of most policing agencies across the world. Regardless of its enviable status in the practicing of policing, more
than twenty (20) years after the attainment of democracy, the question beckons whether the inception of
community policing and particularly community policing forums is an effective strategy within the South
African communities to combat and prevent crime. This paper draws from the work of a PhD thesis, submitted
at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The primary objective of this paper is to explore the challenges of CPFs in
combating crime in two dissimilar residential locations in Durban.A qualitative research approach was adopted,
the findings collected through focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews with a total number of
fifty-five (55) participants comprising of South African Police Service (SAPS) and CPFs representatives,
political leaders and ordinary members of the two communities suggest limited knowledge of and affinity to
CPFs by community members. This owes partly to lack of communication, resources, trust, as well as political
interference and SAPS organisational culture, which affect the functioning of these CPFs. Together, these
findings suggest that more effort is needed from both the community and the police for an effective functioning
of the CPFs.
2Crime Occurrence Evaluation PaperProfessor M. Callaha.docxlorainedeserre
2
Crime Occurrence Evaluation Paper
Professor M. Callahan
AJS/514
Grace Acevedo
October 28, 2019
Crime Occurrence Evaluation
Criminal Justice involves a set of interdisciplinary knowledge and integrated systematic actions to reach the awareness of a truth related to the criminal phenomenon, which includes the management of strategies that scrutinizes the role of the victim, the offender, and the crime as such, and the study of techniques aimed at countering, controlling and preventing criminal activity. This paper intends to interpret the occurrence of crime.
Current Trends in the Crime Rate
Based on FBI data, crime rates decreased by 3.9% during the past year and have continued to decrease. These include murder, robbery, burglary, vehicle thefts, larceny, and non-negligent manslaughter. With rape, the rate showed to have increased, subsequent in the last six years (https://www.themarshallproject.org/2019/09/30/new-fbi-data-violent-crime-still-falling)
Social and Environmental Factors Influencing Crime Rate
Economic circumstances as poverty and lack of employment are issues that affect low income communities. Communities where abnormal behavior is ignored and/or stimulated result in criminal activities. The population holding firearms has exploded. Between 6% to 10% of teenagers in high school have access to guns carry guns to school, this escalating to committing violent crimes (https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781337514910/). The recruiting of children and teenagers in gangs is rising, drugs and substance abuse are major causes for violent crimes. Exposing children to violent video games is an issue affecting today’s generation by teaching violence and undermining law enforcement (https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781337514910/).
Factors that contribute to Criminal Behavior and Crime Rate
Family relationships lead to criminal behavior. The lack of attention from parents to children, a household composed of one parent, child abuse, exposure to drugs and alcohol, and prostitution are some situations that push children and teenagers to seek support from other sources where bad influences can trigger delinquency.
Antisocial behavior leads to engage in delinquent acts. Risk-taking is another factor in committing delinquent activities and is most seen between the ages of 11 to 21. During this period, behaviors such as careless driving, substance use, unprotected sex, eating disorders, homicidal and suicidal behaviors, and dangerous sports are characteristics of risk-taking that lead to criminal behavior.
Investigating Crime Occurrence through Research and Theory Development
Social structure theories state that criminality is a product of social forces which include traditions, responsibilities, laws, morality, and religious beliefs (Calderon, M.). These theories are social disorganization, social change, conflict, and lack of social consensus as root causes of crime. The “broken window” theory focuses on ...
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE MODELS FOR CRIME PREDICTION IN URBAN SPACESmlaij
This work presents research based on evidence with neural networks for the development of predictive
crime models, finding the data sets used are focused on historical crime data, crime classification, types of
theft at different scales of space and time, counting crime and conflict points in urban areas. Among some
results, 81% precision is observed in the prediction of the Neural Network algorithm and ranges in the
prediction of crime occurrence at a space-time point between 75% and 90% using LSTM (Long-ShortSpace-Time). It is also observed in this review, that in the field of justice, systems based on intelligent
technologies have been incorporated, to carry out activities such as legal advice, prediction and decisionmaking, national and international cooperation in the fight against crime, police and intelligence services,
control systems with facial recognition, search and processing of legal information, predictive
surveillance, the definition of criminal models under the criteria of criminal records, history of incidents in
different regions of the city, location of the police force, established businesses, etc., that is, they make
predictions in the urban context of public security and justice. Finally, the ethical considerations and
principles related to predictive developments based on artificial intelligence are presented, which seek to
guarantee aspects such as privacy, privacy and the impartiality of the algorithms, as well as avoid the
processing of data under biases or distinctions. Therefore, it is concluded that the scenario for the
development, research, and operation of predictive crime solutions with neural networks and artificial
intelligence in urban contexts, is viable and necessary in Mexico, representing an innovative and effective
alternative that contributes to the attention of insecurity, since according to the indices of intentional
homicides, the crime rates of organized crime and violence with firearms, according to statistics from
INEGI, the Global Peace Index and the Government of Mexico, remain in increase.
Artificial Intelligence Models for Crime Prediction in Urban Spacesmlaij
This work presents research based on evidence with neural networks for the development of predictive crime models, finding the data sets used are focused on historical crime data, crime classification, types of theft at different scales of space and time, counting crime and conflict points in urban areas. Among some results, 81% precision is observed in the prediction of the Neural Network algorithm and ranges in the prediction of crime occurrence at a space-time point between 75% and 90% using LSTM (Long-ShortSpace-Time). It is also observed in this review, that in the field of justice, systems based on intelligent technologies have been incorporated, to carry out activities such as legal advice, prediction and decisionmaking, national and international cooperation in the fight against crime, police and intelligence services, control systems with facial recognition, search and processing of legal information, predictive surveillance, the definition of criminal models under the criteria of criminal records, history of incidents in different regions of the city, location of the police force, established businesses, etc., that is, they make predictions in the urban context of public security and justice. Finally, the ethical considerations and principles related to predictive developments based on artificial intelligence are presented, which seek to guarantee aspects such as privacy, privacy and the impartiality of the algorithms, as well as avoid the processing of data under biases or distinctions. Therefore, it is concluded that the scenario for the development, research, and operation of predictive crime solutions with neural networks and artificial intelligence in urban contexts, is viable and necessary in Mexico, representing an innovative and effective alternative that contributes to the attention of insecurity, since according to the indices of intentional homicides, the crime rates of organized crime and violence with firearms, according to statistics from INEGI, the Global Peace Index and the Government of Mexico, remain in increase.
Dr.sc.Mensut Ademi The role of police reducing the fear of crimePresentation....AdeaAdemi1
Summary: 1. Introduction. – 2. The Social-Psychological Model of Fear of Criminality. – 3. Law Enforcement Agencies. – 4. Results and Discussions. – 5. Confronting The Fear of Crime. – 6. Role of Politics and Media and Fear of Crime. – 7. Conclusions.
Keywords: Fear of Crime, Police, Community Policing, Neighbourhood, Situation.
Abstract
The feeling of fear of crime is a condition created in the hearts of many citizens, both in urban and rural areas, in war or peace, and the goal of many international researchers in the field of criminology is to evaluate it. This article is broken into three parts. The first part introduces the factors that explain the fear of crime, a including socio-demographic and social-psychological model by A. van der Wurff, L. van Staalduinen, and P. Stringer. The second part provides an overview of paradoxes and inconsistencies in the literature regarding fear of crime and the police’s role in reducing the fear of crime. Discussing public, political, and media perceptions of the role of police, and these perceptions’ implications for possible ways the police can increase feelings of security. Finally, it covers measures that can reduce fear of crime.
The police presence in dangerous areas with criminal influence is an important factor to reduce the fear of crime. Citizens continue to make more demands of the police to fight crime, and this task is directed mainly at community policing.
Alleviation of the fear of crime comes with the preventive actions of the police. They believe their presence in a neighbourhood calms the situation. For citizens, on the other hand, police presence can be seen as an indicator of an unsafe, tense, or disorderly situation.
Eliminating Violence Against Women. Forms, Strategies and ToolsDaniel Dufourt
Workshop
Eliminating Violence Against Women: Forms, Strategies and Tools
On the occasion of the Seventeenth Session of the United Nations Commission On Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice
Vienna, 14 April 2008, 104 pages
An Exploration of the Programmes and Services Available To Victims of Trio-Cr...AJHSSR Journal
As a recently constitutional democracy, South Africa faces major challenges with the
enforcement of the rule of law and with guaranteeing the protection of the citizen‟s fundamental human rights.
Post-Apartheid South Africa is founded on democratic values and the Constitution enshrines a range of
fundamental human rights, including the right to freedom and security. In light of these provisions, strengthened
by international human rights jurisprudence, the South African government is accountable for the management
of crime, and requires policies, strategies and programmes to carry out this responsibility. This qualitative study
explores the nature and effects of the programmes and services available to victims of trio-crimes in the Durban
Metropolitan Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.Study findings suggest that there are programmes and
services available to assist and empower victims of trio-crimes in the Durban Metropolitan Area; and that such
programmes and services are provided by different organisations within the city. It also indicated that these
programmes and services are beneficial and effective, and they impact on a victims` life in a constructive and
positive manner. However, the study also highlight that these victim support systems are deeply reliant upon
volunteers for their execution
Urbanization is a widespread occurrence across the nation. Urbanism has been affecting the rise in urban crime as a result of societal perception. According to empirical data, crime has risen in metropolitan areas. The study issue is dependent on the specific types of crime that occur in urban settings. | Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
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Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
The Importance of Indeterminate and Unknown Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of South Africa Using Neutrosophy
1. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021
University of New Mexico
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
The Importance of Indeterminate and Unknown Factors in
Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of South Africa Using
Neutrosophy
Mohd. Saif Wajid1, Mohd Anas Wajid2
1 School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico, 64849; a00831364@itesm.mx
2 Department of Computer Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002; anaswajid.bbk@gmail.com
Abstract: There is no doubt regarding the notion that crime is deteriorating the socio-economic
structure of society. Crime poses a serious threat to human values and existence. Therefore this
menace should be stopped as early as possible otherwise it would lead to unavoidable
circumstances. Whenever policies are formed there are some certain factors that are always taken
into consideration to stop the crime. These measures were effective but with the passage of time
there seems to be a constant situation and crime seems to be at its peak. This situation has forced us
to think that there may be other factors that are leading to criminal behaviour in humans. These
factors may be uncertain, unknown or indeterminate. Though previous researches in this regard
have taken into consideration all the known factors, the present work takes into account both known
and unknown factors together with the relationship among them. Taking into account all the factors
which nourish crime either directly or indirectly, here we try to model the situation mathematically
using Neutrosophic Cognitive Map since it provides us with a methodology of representing known
and unknown factors together. The work is carried out using graphical methods and concepts
together with linear algebra. The present work takes into account the crimes which are occurring in
South Africa and models this situation taking into considerations all the certain and uncertain
factors. The study reveals that relative poverty & inadequate housing, limited social and cognitive
abilities, exclusion from school, family violence, culture conflict, colonialism, unemployment,
income inequality, violent expressions of masculinity and use of violence to ‘resolve’ are directly
related to crime in the country. The other factors such as Adherence to social norms, the multi-racial
character of the society, Racial discrimination, apartheid policy, political transition, restructuring of
the criminal justice system, gathering of people, intimate partner violence & femicide and use of
‘tik’ (crystal meth/ methamphetamine) which were not supposed to have a direct influence on crime
in the country by previous researches are also having a significant effect on crime. The present work
contributes effectively in identifying the factors leading to criminal behaviour among people. This
would in turn help policymakers to take necessary steps at ground level to curb the crime in the
country. The work also shows the modelling of the situation using Fuzzy Cognitive Maps just to
represent the effectiveness of Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps over them.
Keywords: Crime Analysis, Unsupervised Data, Fuzzy Logic, Fuzzy Cognitive Maps, Neutrosophy,
Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
1. Introduction
Crime has remained a serious challenge in the history of South Africa. The recent statistics by
the police department have shown an increase in the number of crimes [18]. There are several
instances where it has been noticed that criminal behaviour in humans is motivated by certain factors.
The need to identify these factors more accurately, the present work is carried out using recent data
2. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 16
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
from South Africa. Various crime instances have been noticed in the recent past in the country. This
has motivated researchers to study criminal behaviour among people. Though most of the studies
are concerned with only known factors none has focused on indeterminate and unknown factors.
This study takes into account both the factors and shows how indeterminate factors play important
roles in determining criminal behaviour among people. The crime in South Africa has started
increasing from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s [19]. The studies at that time foretold that the crime
was expected to reduce in between 1995-1996 which happened as expected but later in 1996 it again
started at a large scale. Recently released report by Mid-Year Population Estimates (MYPE) 2019
shows that the population of South Africa is 56.78 million [26]. The population is not only comprised
of native citizens but there exists a lot of multi-racial population. The Union contains four principal
groups: Europeans, almost equally divided between British and Afrikaaner (2,643,187, according to
the 1951 census); Africans or Bantus or "natives" (8,535,341); Colored, like those of mixed racial
descent are known, (1,102,323); Asians, most of whom are Indians, (365,524). The multi-racial nature
of society has led to various problems in the country. The crime in the country is at its peak at each
and every corner. Below we show the crime statistics from the South African Police department which
show how many numbers of crimes are committed annually with respect to the nature of the crime.
Type of Crimes 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18
Motor Vehicle Theft 57 415 67 104 57 783 47 586 56 526
Housebreaking/Burglary 940 954 874 606 844 982 776 933 832 122
Home Robbery 268 639 208 401 187 830 151 279 156 089
Theft of livestock, poultry and other animals 253 373 164 710 148 785 161 063 159 421
Theft of crops planted by the household 47 977 16 843 39 155 15 003 11 493
Trends in murder 26 529 18 012 14 930 16 201 16 809
Theft out of motor vehicle 208 978 196 236 192 736 139 432 130 350
Deliberate damage, burning or destruction
of dwellings
58 452 60 624 40 892 46 915 50 426
Motor vehicle vandalism 54 633 74 824 67 715 31 907 40 155
Theft of bicycle 54 119 60 375 37 227 21 051 29 264
Theft of personal property 1 012 537 921 773 842 478 708 357 693 219
Robbery 373 148 348 349 283 544 294 874 280 526
Sexual Offences 62 074 44 464 29 473 73 842 28 596
Assault 431 043 431 914 331 913 318 077 355 739
Consumer Fraud 86 012 90 249 160 076 85 848 137 274
3. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 17
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
Table 1 Crime statistics of South Africa
Source: South African Police Services http://www.statssa.gov.za
The above table shows how crime is increasing in the country annually. The crime includes not only
heinous crimes like murder, sexual assault but also includes the crime at a small level. These criminal
behaviours among the people of South Africa are motivated due to several factors. However, while
going through the previous researches in this regard the diversity in a population is regarded as one
of the key reason for crime as explained by the experts [2]. Not only diversity but there are certainly
other factors that are put forward by various researchers. These factors are regarded as certain factors
throughout this study. These factors which are leading to most of the crimes in South Africa are
Relative Poverty & inadequate housing [1], Limited social and cognitive abilities[1], Exclusion from
school[1], Family violence [1], culture conflict [2], colonialism [9], unemployment [1], income
inequality [10-12], violent expressions of masculinity [13-16], use of violence to ‘resolve’ conflict [10]
and access to firearms [10] [17]. There exists a lot of literature that almost deals with all these factors.
These certain or determinate factors have always been taken into consideration for making policies
to tackle the situation of crime in South Africa. But despite considering all these factors and
formulating strategies to curb crime in this country; crime appears to be the major problem at present.
This situation has motivated us to inquire about the situation of this country to know what the other
causes are leading to crime in this country. Through the reports by various agencies together with
the opinion of the experts we came to know that there are uncertain and indeterminate factors that
are increasing crime in this country more than certain factors. These factors are lack of adherence to
social norms [27-28], the multi-racial character of the society [2], Racial discrimination [2], apartheid
policy [2], political transition [3], restructuring of the criminal justice system [3], gathering of people
at various occasions [3], perpetrating intimate partner violence (IPV) & femicide [4-6] and most
importantly the use of ‘tik’ (crystal meth/ methamphetamine) [7-8] by people in South Africa. The
data which is collected for analyzing any situation is always unsupervised [28-29] and this
unsupervised data is in no way free from uncertainty and indeterminacy. The present work attempts
to prove mathematically how these indeterminate and uncertain factors are related to crime in South
Africa. Since the mathematical field of neutrosophy [21] [23] deals with the uncertainty among
concepts; we try to model the situation of crime in South Africa using neutrosophy. Though various
factors are taken into consideration in earlier researches to identify the criminal behaviour among the
masses, as per knowledge none has taken into consideration the unknown and indeterminate factors.
The present work in this regard seems to be more effective in knowing the behaviours by considering
all known and unknown factors. There is recent research work by researchers in the field of crime in
South Africa. The authors in [38] have explored whether the crime rate has been affected due to the
weather conditions in the country or not. Authors in [39] have performed a multi-level model analysis
to check whether criminal behaviour among the masses of South Africa is the result of internal
migration or immigration. Authors in [40] have come up totally with different viewpoints. Their
4. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 18
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
study seeks to argue that the extent of corruption in South African public service as being equal to a
crime against human rights and dignity. Authors in [41] have studied the impact of social media on
crimes in the country. The increasing xenophobic hate crime in South Africa is on its verge. The
authors in [42] have studied the reasons for such crime in South Africa. The study related to property
crime in South Africa is conducted in [43].
The rest of the paper is divided as follows; section 2 gives the concepts and preliminaries required to
carry out this work, section 3 presents the methodology, section 4 models the situation of crime in
South Africa using Neutrosophy, section 5 shows calculation and interprets the results obtained and
section 6 concludes the paper.
2. Concepts and Preliminaries
The situation of crime could also be modelled using fuzzy logic and fuzzy cognitive maps [24]
but it has several limitations [22] [34]. The fuzzy logic is based on membership functions and crisp
sets. It addresses the causal relationship between the concepts. The existence of membership and non-
existence of membership among various concepts is measured by Fuzzy theory but it says nothing
about the indeterminate concepts. As it is a well-known fact that when we deal with unsupervised
data indeterminacy and uncertainty is always present; hence it needs to be addressed while dealing
with unsupervised data. Since fuzzy logic is limited to the certainty of concepts here in this study we
have employed neutrosophic sets and theories for dealing with unsupervised data.
Neutrosophy [21] [23] is a field of study that is not limited to certainties but it's an emerging field
that incorporates all the indeterminacy and uncertainties. A number of problems are solved using
this theory all around the globe with surprising results. The recent developments in this novel field
could be seen in [35] where authors have proposed a multi-criteria decision-making model for
evaluating sustainable hydrogen production. In [36] authors again proposed a multi-criteria decision-
making model for evaluation of the medical care system by taking various case studies to prove the
feasibility of the proposed model. To describe the real cognitive information authors in [37] have
proposed type-2 Neutrosophic Number TOPSIS. They have demonstrated the effectiveness of the
proposed technique by taking into account several case studies. This has led us to apply this theory
in analyzing the crime situation in South Africa. To apply this theory we need to understand some of
the concepts and preliminaries as follows:
Definition 1. Let N = {(T, I, F): T, I, F ∈ (0,1)} be a neutrosophic set. Let m: P → N is a mapping of a
group of propositional formulas into N, i.e., each sentence p ∈ Pis associated to a value in N, as it is
exposed in the Equation 1, meaning that p is T% true, I% indeterminate and F% false.
m(p) = (T, I, F) (1)
Hence, it can be concluded that fuzzy logic when generalized based on some concepts of
neutrosophy; it becomes neutrosophic logic according to [21]
5. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 19
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
Definition 2. A Neutrosophic matrix is a matrix M = [aij]
ij
where i = 1,2,3, … … . . , m and j =
1,2,3, … … . . , nsuch that each aij ∈ K (I) where K (I) is a neutrosophic ring. Now let us understand
this neutrosophic matrix by an example. Suppose each element of matrix is represented by a + bI
where a and b are real numbers and I is a factor of indeterminacy.
For Example:
(
−1 I 5I
I 4 7
) (
I 9I 6
0 I 0
−4 7 5
) = (
−21I 27I −6 + 25I
−28 + I 49 + 13I 35 + 6I
)
Definition 3. A neutrosophic graph is a graph in which there exists an indeterminate node or an
indeterminate edge. Now taking reference from the Definition 2 above we can conclude that when
aij = 0 it means there is no connection between nodes i and j, aij = 1 means there is a connection
between nodes i and j and aij = I means that connection is indeterminate (unknown).
Definition 4. Cognitive maps are cause-effect networks, with nodes representing concepts articulated
by individuals, and directional linkages capturing causal dependencies [25].
Definition 5. A directed graph whose nodes are represented as concepts and edges among concepts
represents relationship which can be determinate &indeterminate edges; this graph is referred to as
Neutrosophic Cognitive Map [20]
3. Methodology
The proposed methodology tries to introduce indeterminacy in Fuzzy Cognitive Maps (FCMs)
[24]. This mapping would be referred as Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps (NCMs). This concept is well
illustrated by W. B. Vasantha Kandasamy [20]. This concept of NCMs would be applied in modeling
the situation in South Africa to study the influence of different determinate and indeterminate factors
that have worsen the situation crime. To do this now let us understands NCMs. NCM is a
neutrosophic graph. This is a directed graph in which dotted edge represents indeterminacy. The
node of the graph is referred to various concepts. When K1, K2,……,Kn are n nodes of neutrosophic
graph. These nodes of graph are connected using edges having weight ‘0’ or ‘1’ or ‘I’ where ‘I’ shows
indeterminacy, ‘1’ indicates that the node is at ON state and when it has value ‘0’ it indicates the
OFF state of the node. These NCMs are most of the time referred to as simple NCMs. The matrix
corresponding to neutrosophic graph is called Neutrosophic adjacency matrix. Later this matrix is
evaluated using laws of mathematics and the results obtained by this will be interpreted which would
show the importance of the present work. To show the effectiveness of Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
over Fuzzy Cognitive Maps in analyzing the situation of crime in South Africa let us model the
situation using FCM.
6. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 20
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
Figure 1 Fuzzy Cognitive Map based on determinate factors affecting crime in South Africa
The above graph is called is called Fuzzy cognitive map for studying the situation of crime in South
Africa. The edges having weight ‘1’ denotes determinate edges which show how determinate factors
are nourishing crime in South Africa. Since Fuzzy does not take into consideration the indeterminate
relationship therefore the indeterminate factors are not connected to the node representing crimes in
South Africa. We also show how these indeterminate concepts are related to each other which are
represented using dotted line with symbol ‘I’ denotes indeterminate edges. Now we formulate the
adjacency matrix based on above graph.
SA D1 I1 D2 I2 D3 I3 D4 I4 D5 I5 D6 I6 D7 I7 D8 I8 D9 I9 D10
SA 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
D1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
I1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
I2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
I4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D7 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 21
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
Table 2 Fuzzy Adjacency Matrix based on neutrosophic cognitive map in figure 1
The fuzzy adjacency matrix is now evaluated to know the effect of factors on the crime is South Africa.
Now for this we take vector SA as on state i.e.
The state vector SA1 = (1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0) is given as input effect of SA1on the
combined system is SA1F(E). The symbol denotes that the resultant vector is updated and
threshold. The following calculation is carried out till we obtain a constant state vector or it is also
referred as limit cycle.
𝑆𝐴1𝐹(𝐸) = (0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1)
(1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1) = 𝑆𝐴2
𝑆𝐴2𝐹(𝐸) = (9 4 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 2)
(1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1) = 𝑆𝐴3
We notice that SA2 = SA3 so further iterations are not required. SA8 is a fixed point or limit cycle.
The significance of this limit cycle is the most since it shows a hidden pattern which is used in
drawing inferences. The current results obtained above shows that when crime in South Africa is in
on state all the factors such as relative poverty & inadequate housing, limited social and cognitive
abilities, exclusion from school, family violence, culture conflict, colonialism, unemployment, income
inequality, violent expressions of masculinity and use of violence to ‘resolve’ conflict are in on state.
This signifies that all these factors have direct influence on crime in the country. But the factors which
are put forward by the experts are other studies like Adherence to social norms, multi-racial character
of the society, Racial discrimination, apartheid policy, political transition, restructuring of the
criminal justice system, gathering of people, intimate partner violence (IPV) & femicide and use of
‘tik’ (crystal meth/ methamphetamine) are absent in this regard. So it could be clearly inferred that
the FCMs take no importance of uncertain factors which could have direct influence on the concepts.
Now further we try to model the situation using Neutrosophy [31-33].
D8 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
I8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
I9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 22
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
4. Application of Neutrosophy in modeling situation of Crime in South Africa
To model the current situation of crime in South Africa we have considered some certain factor
from previous researches and some of the factors are considered using expert’s opinion. We have also
utilized reports from various official departments to ascertain the current scenario in this country.
These factors not only include certain factors but also capture some of the uncertain and
indeterminate factors. Lists of the factors which are considered whether known or indeterminate are
as follows:
Figure 2 Summary of factors leading to crime in South Africa based on previous researches and experts
opinion
Factors leading to criminal behaviour in
South Africa
Determinate or Certain factors
•Relative Poverty & inadequate housing (D1)
•Limited social and cognitive abilities (D2)
•Exclusion from school (D3)
•Family violence (D4)
•culture conflict (D5)
•colonialism (D6)
•unemployment (D7)
•income inequality (D8)
•violent expressions of masculinity (D9)
•use of violence to ‘resolve’ conflict (D10)
Indetermiante or Uncertain factors
•Adherence to social norms (I1)
•multi-racial character of the society (I2)
•Racial discrimination (I3)
•apartheid policy (I4)
•political transition (I5)
•restructuring of the criminal justice system (I6)
•gathering of people (I7)
•intimate partner violence (IPV) and femicide (I8)
•use of ‘tik’ (crystal meth/ methamphetamine) (I9)
9. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 23
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
Now we model the situation with the help of neutrosophic cognitive maps since it represents better
models while analyzing the situation [30]. We try to show how these indeterminate and uncertain
factors do influence the determinate and certain factors. The previous researches in this regard show
that determinate factor such as Relative Poverty & inadequate housing and Exclusion from school
led to the difficulty in Adherence to social norms and gathering of people at several places which are
indeterminate factors [1] [3] [27-28]. Culture conflict among the people of society directly influences
Adherence to social norms and racial discrimination [2] [27-28]. Unemployment is thought to be the
main factors that led to crime in South Africa [1] and this unemployment results in some
indeterminate factors which are also increasing crimes in the country. These factors are Adherence to
social norms and gathering of people [27-28] [3]. The expression of masculinity is referred to as one
of the key cause of crime in the country in many studies [13-16]. This violent expression of masculinity
results in intimate partner violence (IPV) and femicide which itself is a crime [4-6]. Use of violence to
‘resolve’ conflict is also related to intimate partner violence (IPV) and femicide and use of ‘tik’ (crystal
meth/ methamphetamine) [7-8] [10]. Many historical studies suggest that factors such as colonialism
and apartheid have left a legacy of violence [2] [9]. This directly relates to political transition and
restructuring of criminal justice system [3]. This shows how factors which always taken in
considerations in various studies are linked which indeterminate and uncertain factors which most
of the time are neglected. There some indeterminate factors which are interlinked like multi-racial
character of the society and racial discrimination have association with apartheid policy of the
country [2]. Taking all these factors and relationship among them we now model the situation of
crime in South Africa using neutrosophic cognitive maps which is prominent concept of neutrosophy.
Figure 3 Neutrosophic Cognitive Map based on determinate and indeterminate factors affecting crime in South
Africa
The above graph is called is called neutrosophic cognitive map for studying the situation of crime in
South Africa. The edges having weight ‘1’ denotes determinate edges and those edges which are
shown with symbol ‘I’ denotes indeterminate edges.
10. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 24
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
5. Results
Now with the help of above cognitive map we form the neutrosophic adjacency matrix. This
matrix is formulated taking in account the factors which are represented as nodes in cognitive maps
and the relationship among the factors.
SA D1 I1 D2 I2 D3 I3 D4 I4 D5 I5 D6 I6 D7 I7 D8 I8 D9 I9 D10
SA 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
D1 1 0 I 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 I 0 0 0 0 0
I1 0 I 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 I 0 I
D2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
I2 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D3 1 1 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0
I3 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
I4 0 0 0 0 I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D5 1 0 I 0 I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D7 1 1 I 1 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0
I7 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0
D8 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
I8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I
D9 1 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I 0 0 0
I9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I
D10 1 0 I 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I 0
Figure 4 Neutrosophic Adjacency Matrix based on neutrosophic cognitive map in figure 3
The neutrosophic adjacency matrix is now evaluated to know the effect of factors on the crime is
South Africa. Now for this we take vector SA as on state i.e.
The state vector SA1 = (1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0) is given as input effect of SA1on the
combined system is SA1N(E). The symbol denotes that the resultant vector is updated and
threshold. The following calculation is carried out till we obtain a constant state vector or it is also
referred as limit cycle.
11. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 25
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
𝑆𝐴1𝑁(𝐸) = (0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1) → (1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1)
= 𝑆𝐴2
𝑆𝐴2𝑁(𝐸) = (10 3 6𝐼 2 𝐼 𝐼 + 1 𝐼 2 0 0 𝐼 0 0 2 3𝐼 2 2𝐼 1 𝐼 1)( 1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 0 0 𝐼 0 0 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1)
= 𝑆𝐴3
𝑆𝐴3𝑁(𝐸) = (8 2𝐼2 + 4 5𝐼 3 𝐼2 𝐼2 + 𝐼 + 2 𝐼2 3 2𝐼2 3𝐼2 + 1 0 𝐼2 + 1 𝐼2 2𝐼2 + 3 3𝐼 3 2𝐼 2𝐼2 + 2 𝐼 2𝐼 2𝐼2
+ 2)
( 1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 0 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1) = 𝑆𝐴4
𝑆𝐴4𝑁(𝐸) = (10 2𝐼2 + 4 6𝐼 3 2𝐼2 + 𝐼 𝐼2 + 𝐼 + 2 2𝐼2 + 𝐼 3 2𝐼2 3𝐼2 + 1 𝐼2 + 𝐼 1 0 2𝐼2 + 3 3𝐼 3 2𝐼 2𝐼2
+ 2 𝐼 3𝐼2
+ 2) ( 1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 0 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1) = 𝑆𝐴5
𝑆𝐴5𝑁(𝐸) = (10 2𝐼2
+ 4 6𝐼 3 2𝐼2
+ 𝐼 𝐼2
+ 𝐼 + 2 2𝐼2
+ 𝐼 3 2𝐼2
3𝐼2
+ 1 𝐼 𝐼2
+ 1 𝐼2
2𝐼2
+ 3 3𝐼 3 2𝐼 2𝐼2
+ 2 𝐼 3𝐼2 + 2) (1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1) = 𝑆𝐴6
𝑆𝐴6𝑁(𝐸) = (10 2𝐼2
+ 4 6𝐼 3 𝐼2
+ 2𝐼 𝐼2
+ 𝐼 + 2 2𝐼2
+ 𝐼 3 𝐼2
+ 𝐼 2𝐼2
+ 𝐼 + 1 𝐼2
+ 𝐼 𝐼2
+ 1 𝐼2
2𝐼2
+ 3 3𝐼 3 2𝐼 2𝐼2 + 2 𝐼 3𝐼2 + 2)(1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1) = 𝑆𝐴7
𝑆𝐴7𝑁(𝐸) = (10 2𝐼2 + 4 6𝐼 3 2𝐼2 + 𝐼 𝐼2 + 𝐼 + 2 2𝐼2 + 𝐼 3 2𝐼2 3𝐼2 + 1 𝐼2 + 𝐼 𝐼2 + 1 𝐼2 2𝐼2 + 3 3𝐼 3 2𝐼 2𝐼2
+ 2 𝐼 3𝐼2
+ 2) (1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1) = 𝑆𝐴8
We notice that SA7 = SA8 so further iterations are not required. SA8 is a fixed point or limit cycle.
The significance of this limit cycle is the most since it shows a hidden pattern which is used in
drawing inferences. These inferences show the joint effect of interacting knowledge. The current
results obtained using NCMs is (1 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1 𝐼 1) which shows that when
crime in South Africa is in on state all the factors such as relative poverty & inadequate housing,
limited social and cognitive abilities, exclusion from school, family violence, culture conflict,
colonialism, unemployment, income inequality, violent expressions of masculinity and use of
violence to ‘resolve’ conflict are in on state. This signifies that all these factors have direct influence
on crime in the country. The factors such as Adherence to social norms, multi-racial character of the
society, Racial discrimination, apartheid policy, political transition, restructuring of the criminal
justice system, gathering of people, intimate partner violence (IPV) & femicide and use of ‘tik’ (crystal
meth/ methamphetamine) which were not supposed to have direct influence on crime in the country
by previous researches are also having significant effect on crime as we have not obtained ‘0’ in the
limit cycle at their position but we have obtained ‘I’ which shows these are having relationship with
crime in the country. The previous result obtained using FCM is
(1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1) that clearly shows that all indeterminate and
uncertain factors are absent which signifies that the study conducted using FCM is unable to
represent any real life situation. This proves that NCMs are better to model real life situation than
FCMs also representing the importance of indeterminate and uncertain events in analyzing any real
life situation.
12. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 26
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
6. Conclusion
The present work is aimed at mathematically analyzing the situation of crime in South
Africa. The paper contributes in a sense that it takes into account all causes (factors) whether
certain (known) or uncertain (indeterminate and unknown), responsible for nourishing crime
in the country. Though the previous researches have focused only on known factors, the
present work emphasizes both the factors which may not be considered in previous studies.
Considering and representing all the factors mathematically we tried to develop a
mathematical model using neutrosophic cognitive maps so that the situation could be
analyzed at ground level. The model further evaluated using some mathematical laws of
calculation like graphs and linear algebra. Later the results are interpreted which shows how
indeterminate and uncertain factors are giving rise to criminal behaviour in the population of
South Africa. Below is the finding of our work that shows what are the certain factors
nourishing crime and what are the indeterminate/uncertain factors nourishing crime:
Known and certain factors nourishing crime:
relative poverty & inadequate housing,
limited social and cognitive abilities,
exclusion from school,
family violence,
culture conflict,
colonialism,
unemployment,
income inequality,
violent expressions of masculinity and
use of violence to ‘resolve’ conflict
Unknown and uncertain factors nourishing crime:
Adherence to social norms,
multi-racial character of the society,
Racial discrimination,
apartheid policy,
political transition,
restructuring of the criminal justice system,
gathering of people,
intimate partner violence (IPV) & femicide and
use of ‘tik’ (crystal meth/ methamphetamine)
This study is expected to help policymakers in taking corrective measures to curb crime in the
country. The current work takes a very limited number of factors in consideration and all the work
is performed manually. Future work in this regard would be modelling the situation mathematically
13. Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, Vol. 41, 2021 27
Mohd. Saif Wajid & Mohd Anas Wajid, The Importance of Indeterminate Factors in Nourishing Crime: A Case Study of
South Africa Using Neutrosophic Cognitive Maps
considering a large number of factors and employing machine learning algorithms so that it may
become easy to model the situation and interpret the results.
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Received: Jan 1, 2021. Accepted: March 2, 2021.