The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women:
A Test of Social Cognitive Career Theory
Lisa Y. Flores
The Ohio State University
Karen M. O’Brien
University of Maryland, College Park
This study tested R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, and G. Hackett’s (1994) model of career choice with 364
Mexican American adolescent women. Path analyses were run to determine the influence of contextual
and social cognitive variables on career aspiration, career choice prestige, and traditionality. Partial
support for the model was evidenced as nontraditional career self-efficacy, parental support, barriers,
acculturation, and feminist attitudes predicted career choice prestige. Acculturation, feminist attitudes,
and nontraditional career self-efficacy predicted career choice traditionality. Feminist attitudes and
parental support predicted career aspiration. The paths between nontraditional career interests and the 3
outcome variables were not supported. Finally, none of the background contextual variables in this study
predicted nontraditional career self-efficacy. Implications of the results and suggestions for future
research are discussed.
Mexican American women constitute a significant portion of the
American population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996), are
underrepresented at all levels of education (Carter & Wilson, 1993;
Lango, 1995; McNeill et al., 2001; U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1991), and are overrepresented in low-paying occupations tradi-
tionally occupied by women (Arbona, 1989; Arbona & Novy,
1991; Ortiz, 1995). Relatively little empirical research has been
conducted to identify the variables that contribute to the educa-
tional and occupational underachievement of Mexican American
women. Indeed, researchers have noted that the career develop-
ment of Hispanics has received only slight consideration in the
counseling and vocational literature (Arbona, 1990; Fouad, 1995;
Hoyt, 1989; McNeill et al., 2001), and they have questioned the
generalizability of career development theories to Hispanics (Ar-
bona, 1990, 1995; Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994; Hackett, Lent, &
Greenhaus, 1991). The purpose of this study was to investigate the
applicability of a current model of career choice to the experiences
of Mexican American adolescent women and to extend the current
model to incorporate variables that are hypothesized to be salient
to this population.
It is well documented that Hispanics are the least educated when
compared with other major racial/ethnic groups in the United
States and that, among Hispanics, Mexican Americans have the
lowest high school and college completion rates (47% and 6.5%,
respectively; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996). Mexican Ameri-
can women are less likely to graduate from college than their male
counterparts (Ortiz, 1995; Tinajero, Gonzalez, & Dick, 1991), and
their representation in higher education decreases significantly at
each successive level (Carter & Wilson, 1993). Moreover, those
Mexican American women who pu.
TitleAuthorsAddressSourceNLM Title AbbreviatTakishaPeck109
Title:
Authors:
Address:
Source:
NLM Title Abbreviation:
Publisher:
Other Publishers:
ISSN:
Language:
Keywords:
Abstract:
Document Type:
Subjects:
Record: 1
The career development of Mexican American adolescent women:
A test of social cognitive career theory.
Flores, Lisa Y.. Ohio State U, Dept of Psychology, Columbus, OH,
US, [email protected]
O'Brien, Karen M.
Flores, Lisa Y., Ohio State U, Dept of Psychology, 1885 Neil Avenue
Mall, Columbus, OH, US, 43210-1222, [email protected]
Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 49(1), Jan, 2002. pp. 14-27.
J Couns Psychol
US : American Psychological Association
US : Wm. C. Brown Co.
0022-0167 (Print)
1939-2168 (Electronic)
English
career choice model, Mexican American adolescent women,
contextual variables, social cognitive variables, career aspiration,
prestige, traditionality, feminist attitudes, predictors
This study tested R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, and G. Hackett's (1994)
model of career choice with 364 Mexican American adolescent
women. Path analyses were run to determine the influence of
contextual and social cognitive variables on career aspiration,
career choice prestige, and traditionality. Partial support for the
model was evidenced as nontraditional career self-efficacy, parental
support, barriers, acculturation, and feminist attitudes predicted
career choice prestige. Acculturation, feminist attitudes, and
nontraditional career self-efficacy predicted career choice
traditionality. Feminist attitudes and parental support predicted
career aspiration. The paths between nontraditional career interests
and the 3 outcome variables were not supported. Finally, none of
the background contextual variables in this study predicted
nontraditional career self-efficacy. Implications of the results and
suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Journal Article
*Mexican Americans; *Occupational Aspirations; *Occupational
Choice; *Occupational Success Prediction; *Sociocultural
Factors; Models
PsycINFO Classification:
Population:
Location:
Age Group:
Methodology:
Format Covered:
Publication Type:
Publication History:
Release Date:
Copyright:
Digital Object Identifier:
PsycARTICLES Identifier:
Accession Number:
Database:
Occupational Interests & Guidance (3610)
Human
Female
US
Adolescence (13-17 yrs)
Empirical Study
Print
Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal
Accepted: Mar 21, 2001; Revised: Mar 19, 2001; First Submitted:
Feb 2, 2000
20060710
American Psychological Association. 2002
http://dx.doi.org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.14
cou-49-1-14
2001-05923-002
APA PsycArticles
The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women: A Test of Social
Cognitive Career Theory
By: Lisa Y. Flores
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University;
Karen M. O'Brien
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park
Acknowledgement: This study was based on the doctoral dissertation of Lisa Y. Flores, which wa ...
ARTICLE IS BELOWSelect and read one of the following articles, l.docxwraythallchan
ARTICLE IS BELOW
Select and read one of the following articles, located in the Topic 4 materials:
The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women: A Test of Social Cognitive Career Theory
Write a 500-750-word analysis of your selected article. Include the following in your analysis:
What are the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research designs?
What are the essential components that should be considered when applying qualitative methods to counseling outcomes?
Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.
This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.
You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. Refer to the directions in the Student Success Center.
By: Lisa Y. Flores
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University
;
Karen M. O'Brien
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park
Acknowledgement:
This study was based on the doctoral dissertation of Lisa Y. Flores, which was conducted under the direction of Michael J. Patton. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 108th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, August 2000.
We thank Nancy Betz, Mary Heppner, and Fred Leong for helpful feedback on earlier versions of this article; Kristopher Preacher and Robert MacCallum for statistical consultation; Jamilla Griffin and Jason Quarantillo for assistance with coding data; and the students, teachers, counselors, and administrators of the participating schools.
Mexican American women constitute a significant portion of the American population (
U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996
), are underrepresented at all levels of education (
Carter & Wilson, 1993
;
Lango, 1995
;
McNeill et al., 2001
;
U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1991
), and are overrepresented in low-paying occupations traditionally occupied by women (
Arbona, 1989
;
Arbona & Novy, 1991
;
Ortiz, 1995
). Relatively little empirical research has been conducted to identify the variables that contribute to the educational and occupational underachievement of Mexican American women. Indeed, researchers have noted that the career development of Hispanics has received only slight consideration in the counseling and vocational literature (
Arbona, 1990
;
Fouad, 1995
;
Hoyt, 1989
;
McNeill et al., 2001
), and they have questioned the generalizability of career development theories to Hispanics (
Arbona, 1990
,
1995
;
Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994
;
Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991
). The purpose of this study was to investigate the applicability of a current model of career choice to the experiences of Mexican American adolescent women and to extend the current model to incorporate variables that are hypothesized to b.
127 African American Students’ Perceptions of Influentia.docxdrennanmicah
127
African American Students’ Perceptions of Influential Factors
for Attendance in Doctoral Psychology*
JEFFERY M. VERGO
University of Indianapolis
MIXALIS POULAKIS
University of Indianapolis
TJ LESHER
University of Indianapolis
SAMREEN KHONDKER
University of Indianapolis
PANSORN BENYASUT
University of Indianapolis
SEBASTIAN DEL CORRAL WINDER
University of Indianapolis
ABSTRACT
This study explores African American undergraduate students’
perceptions of factors influencing their decision to attend doctoral
programs in psychology. There is a scarcity of literature examining
perceptions held by specific minority groups in regard to influential
factors used to make a significant step toward their career development.
Eight undergraduate students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in
psychology were interviewed. A semi-structured interview and two paper-
pencil measures were used. Interviews were analyzed utilizing the
consensual qualitative research (CQR) method. The following themes
* Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mixalis Poulakis, University of
Indianapolis School of Psychological Sciences, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227.
128 Journal of the Indiana Academy of the Social Sciences Vol. 20 (2017)
emerged: reasons for pursuing a doctoral degree, navigating the
application process, factors influencing interest in psychology, perception
of a program’s commitment to diversity, importance of ethnic minority
representation in a program, financial concerns, family view of
psychology, most important factor for attendance, and prior school
experiences outside of psychology. The study found that issues related to
African American representation and research, as well as the presence of
financial aid, are highly relevant in students’ evaluation of which doctoral
programs they prefer to attend. This information will pave the way for
further studies focusing on how to increase the number of African
American students in doctoral programs around the country.
KEY WORDS Consensual Qualitative Research Method; CQR; African American;
Students; Psychology
The enrollment of African American students in graduate programs has been a struggle
despite continuing efforts. As professional psychology programs place greater emphasis
on training students to work with multicultural populations, it is necessary to increase
minority representation in the field. (Henceforth, the term “minority” in this article
represents racial minorities within the United States.) There are several important reasons
for increasing the minority representation in psychology. These include enhanced quality
and sensitivity of services to clients, increased quality of education programs to students,
new perspectives generated for theory development and application related to
contemporary social issues, and greater congruence with.
TitleAuthorsAddressSourceNLM Title AbbreviatTakishaPeck109
Title:
Authors:
Address:
Source:
NLM Title Abbreviation:
Publisher:
Other Publishers:
ISSN:
Language:
Keywords:
Abstract:
Document Type:
Subjects:
Record: 1
The career development of Mexican American adolescent women:
A test of social cognitive career theory.
Flores, Lisa Y.. Ohio State U, Dept of Psychology, Columbus, OH,
US, [email protected]
O'Brien, Karen M.
Flores, Lisa Y., Ohio State U, Dept of Psychology, 1885 Neil Avenue
Mall, Columbus, OH, US, 43210-1222, [email protected]
Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 49(1), Jan, 2002. pp. 14-27.
J Couns Psychol
US : American Psychological Association
US : Wm. C. Brown Co.
0022-0167 (Print)
1939-2168 (Electronic)
English
career choice model, Mexican American adolescent women,
contextual variables, social cognitive variables, career aspiration,
prestige, traditionality, feminist attitudes, predictors
This study tested R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, and G. Hackett's (1994)
model of career choice with 364 Mexican American adolescent
women. Path analyses were run to determine the influence of
contextual and social cognitive variables on career aspiration,
career choice prestige, and traditionality. Partial support for the
model was evidenced as nontraditional career self-efficacy, parental
support, barriers, acculturation, and feminist attitudes predicted
career choice prestige. Acculturation, feminist attitudes, and
nontraditional career self-efficacy predicted career choice
traditionality. Feminist attitudes and parental support predicted
career aspiration. The paths between nontraditional career interests
and the 3 outcome variables were not supported. Finally, none of
the background contextual variables in this study predicted
nontraditional career self-efficacy. Implications of the results and
suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Journal Article
*Mexican Americans; *Occupational Aspirations; *Occupational
Choice; *Occupational Success Prediction; *Sociocultural
Factors; Models
PsycINFO Classification:
Population:
Location:
Age Group:
Methodology:
Format Covered:
Publication Type:
Publication History:
Release Date:
Copyright:
Digital Object Identifier:
PsycARTICLES Identifier:
Accession Number:
Database:
Occupational Interests & Guidance (3610)
Human
Female
US
Adolescence (13-17 yrs)
Empirical Study
Print
Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal
Accepted: Mar 21, 2001; Revised: Mar 19, 2001; First Submitted:
Feb 2, 2000
20060710
American Psychological Association. 2002
http://dx.doi.org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.14
cou-49-1-14
2001-05923-002
APA PsycArticles
The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women: A Test of Social
Cognitive Career Theory
By: Lisa Y. Flores
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University;
Karen M. O'Brien
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park
Acknowledgement: This study was based on the doctoral dissertation of Lisa Y. Flores, which wa ...
ARTICLE IS BELOWSelect and read one of the following articles, l.docxwraythallchan
ARTICLE IS BELOW
Select and read one of the following articles, located in the Topic 4 materials:
The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women: A Test of Social Cognitive Career Theory
Write a 500-750-word analysis of your selected article. Include the following in your analysis:
What are the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research designs?
What are the essential components that should be considered when applying qualitative methods to counseling outcomes?
Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.
This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.
You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. Refer to the directions in the Student Success Center.
By: Lisa Y. Flores
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University
;
Karen M. O'Brien
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park
Acknowledgement:
This study was based on the doctoral dissertation of Lisa Y. Flores, which was conducted under the direction of Michael J. Patton. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 108th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, August 2000.
We thank Nancy Betz, Mary Heppner, and Fred Leong for helpful feedback on earlier versions of this article; Kristopher Preacher and Robert MacCallum for statistical consultation; Jamilla Griffin and Jason Quarantillo for assistance with coding data; and the students, teachers, counselors, and administrators of the participating schools.
Mexican American women constitute a significant portion of the American population (
U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996
), are underrepresented at all levels of education (
Carter & Wilson, 1993
;
Lango, 1995
;
McNeill et al., 2001
;
U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1991
), and are overrepresented in low-paying occupations traditionally occupied by women (
Arbona, 1989
;
Arbona & Novy, 1991
;
Ortiz, 1995
). Relatively little empirical research has been conducted to identify the variables that contribute to the educational and occupational underachievement of Mexican American women. Indeed, researchers have noted that the career development of Hispanics has received only slight consideration in the counseling and vocational literature (
Arbona, 1990
;
Fouad, 1995
;
Hoyt, 1989
;
McNeill et al., 2001
), and they have questioned the generalizability of career development theories to Hispanics (
Arbona, 1990
,
1995
;
Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994
;
Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991
). The purpose of this study was to investigate the applicability of a current model of career choice to the experiences of Mexican American adolescent women and to extend the current model to incorporate variables that are hypothesized to b.
127 African American Students’ Perceptions of Influentia.docxdrennanmicah
127
African American Students’ Perceptions of Influential Factors
for Attendance in Doctoral Psychology*
JEFFERY M. VERGO
University of Indianapolis
MIXALIS POULAKIS
University of Indianapolis
TJ LESHER
University of Indianapolis
SAMREEN KHONDKER
University of Indianapolis
PANSORN BENYASUT
University of Indianapolis
SEBASTIAN DEL CORRAL WINDER
University of Indianapolis
ABSTRACT
This study explores African American undergraduate students’
perceptions of factors influencing their decision to attend doctoral
programs in psychology. There is a scarcity of literature examining
perceptions held by specific minority groups in regard to influential
factors used to make a significant step toward their career development.
Eight undergraduate students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in
psychology were interviewed. A semi-structured interview and two paper-
pencil measures were used. Interviews were analyzed utilizing the
consensual qualitative research (CQR) method. The following themes
* Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mixalis Poulakis, University of
Indianapolis School of Psychological Sciences, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227.
128 Journal of the Indiana Academy of the Social Sciences Vol. 20 (2017)
emerged: reasons for pursuing a doctoral degree, navigating the
application process, factors influencing interest in psychology, perception
of a program’s commitment to diversity, importance of ethnic minority
representation in a program, financial concerns, family view of
psychology, most important factor for attendance, and prior school
experiences outside of psychology. The study found that issues related to
African American representation and research, as well as the presence of
financial aid, are highly relevant in students’ evaluation of which doctoral
programs they prefer to attend. This information will pave the way for
further studies focusing on how to increase the number of African
American students in doctoral programs around the country.
KEY WORDS Consensual Qualitative Research Method; CQR; African American;
Students; Psychology
The enrollment of African American students in graduate programs has been a struggle
despite continuing efforts. As professional psychology programs place greater emphasis
on training students to work with multicultural populations, it is necessary to increase
minority representation in the field. (Henceforth, the term “minority” in this article
represents racial minorities within the United States.) There are several important reasons
for increasing the minority representation in psychology. These include enhanced quality
and sensitivity of services to clients, increased quality of education programs to students,
new perspectives generated for theory development and application related to
contemporary social issues, and greater congruence with.
Reaction to Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning.docxmakdul
Reaction to “Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning, and Student Retention”
Marilyn D. Lovett
Florida A&M University
I found the idea of measuring non-cognitive ability intriguing. However, I did not get said measurement in this article. The literature review does not seem to support what the researchers say occurred with the SE2 program. While the policy emphasized rewarding effort with grades, such research was not mentioned in the literature review. As a result, I was not sure how effort was measured. The authors mentioned information in the “sociology literature” but I believe examining psychological literature might have made for a more sound argument. I also wondered if students of African descent were in any of the studies mentioned in the literature review.
In the methodology section, the authors stated that the SE2 policy was developed “to improve student performance by increasing study skills and the preparedness of the students” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 67). However, I do not understand how that would have increased preparedness. I also was not clear on the equations used to answer the research questions, but that is probably because I am not familiar with the Cox proportional hazard model.
There were a couple of times throughout the article that mentioned some information being “available upon request.” I appreciated that because it is a nod toward transparency in research. It reminded me about the replication program touted by the Association for Psychological Science in which researchers are invited to upload their data for other researchers to replicate. I noticed that Table 4 had no non-cognitive skills recorded. I wondered why cognitive and non-cognitive skills could not be increased simultaneously when the authors stated that the SE2 policy “helps those students with unmeasured non-cognitive skills, while potentially harming some of the students with higher measured cognitive skills” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 74). This brought me back to wondering why non-cognitive skills were not operationalized in the first place.
Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS):
Development, Factor Analysis, Reliability, and Validity
Ruth Chu-Lien Chao and Kathy E. Green
University of Denver
Effectively and efficiently diagnosing African Americans’ mental health has been a chronically unre-
solved challenge. To meet this challenge we developed a tool to better understand African Americans’
mental health: the Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS). Three studies reporting the
development and initial validation of the MSMHS were conducted with African American student
samples. First, an exploratory factor analysis of an initial item pool yielded 5 factors assessing subscales
of perceived racism, depression, well-being, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. Second, a confirmatory factor
analysis supported the MSMHS’s 5-dimensional factor structure. Third, test–retest reliability, internal ...
Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)
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A B C D E F G
Author(s) Article Title/Journal Date Hypothesis Types of Participants Method(s) Results/Findings
Stokes-Guiman, K.
Age and Skin Tone as
Predictors of Positive and
Negative Racial Attitudes in
Hispanic Children. Hispanic
Journal of Behavioral Sciences
33(3), 3-21. 2011
Five research questions to
inquire if Hispanic children's
age, gender, and in-group/out-
group status affect interacial
groups, and if skin color has any
relationship.
n=116 Hispanic Children
aged 3-10.
Kowalski (2003) Modfied
PRAM II; doll methodology to
measure Hispanic children's
racial attitudes towards other
groups in the U.S.; skin tone
assessment chart.
White bias preference for white
dolls was determined in some
participants, older children were
generally more positive than the
younger, but negative attitudes
were more prevalent across the
findings.
Wimalawansa,
S., McKnight, A.,
and Bullocks,
J.M.
Socioeconomic Impact of
Ethnic Cosmetic Surgery:
Trends and Potential Financial
Impact the African American,
Asian American, Latin
American, and Middle Eastern
Communities Have on
Cosmetic Surgery. Seminars
in Plastic Surgery 23(3), 159-
162. 2009
Increased popiularity of
cosmetic surgeries with specific
ethnic-related outcomes is less
stigmatized in the present, and
associated with personal choice
and economic prosperity. N/A
Data gathered from the
American Society for
Aesthetic Plastic Surgery
(ASAPS) analyzed by authors.
Increasing economic power
amongst some minorities and
ethnic minorities in the U.S.
created a lucrative market for
plastic surgeons to advertise
and cater to.
Kaw, E.
Medicalization of Racial
Features: Asian American
Women and Cosmetic
Surgery. Medical
Anthropology Quarterly, New
Series 7(1), 74-89. 1993
Certain cultural and institutional
forces work together to
motivate Asian American
women to have eye, eyelid, and
nose surgeries as an escape
from racial prejudice and
stereotyped phenotype features.
n=11 Asian American
women, 18-71-years-old;
and n=50 doctors in the
Bay Area who perform
plastic surgery
procedures.
Qualitative interviews with
the women and structured
open-ended interviews with
five plastic surgeons in
addition to collecting surveys.
Among the personal motives
found included a sense of
empowerment, improving social
status, avoiding daily makeup
application prior to surgery, and
allievieating stereotype threats
associated with eye shape.
Hunter, M.L.
"If You're Light You're
Alright": Light Skin Color as
Social Capital foor Women of
Color. Gender and Society
16(2), 175-193. 2002
Three questions framed the
inquiry:First, did skin color
affect educational attainment
for women of color; Second,
Does skin color affect personal
income realization of these
women; and Finally, Does the
skin color predict the status of
their spouses?
n= 1310 African Amercian
women, 419 of whom
were married; and n=596
Mexi ...
WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. He was honored by the Texas National Association for Multicultural Education as Professor, Scholar, and Pioneer Publisher for Distinguished Service to Multicultural Research Publishing. The ceremony was held at Texas A&M University-College Station. He was inducted into the prestigious William H. Parker Leadership Academy Hall of Honor. He was an Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, United Kingdom. Dr. Kritsonis was a Visiting Scholar at Columbia University’s Teacher College in New York, and Visiting Scholar in the School of Education at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
AUTHORGerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. DicksonTITLE.docxrock73
AUTHOR: Gerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. Dickson
TITLE: Psychosocial Foundations of Academic Performance in Culture-Based Education Programs for American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Reflections on a Multidisciplinary Perspective
SOURCE: Journal of American Indian Education 45 no3 Special Issue 38-59 2006
COPYRIGHT: The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://coe.asu.edu/cie/
Since the Oglalas settled at Pine Ridge, it has been the contention of many policy makers that education is the panacea for the socio-economic ills besetting the society and the means for bringing Indians into the mainstream of American life. Education has been available to the Oglalas for 89 years and the problems remain almost as unresolved as they were that day in 1879 when Red Cloud helped to lay the cornerstone for the first school. For this (and other reasons), the educational system has often become the scapegoat among those impatient for greater progress. Blame has been placed on the schools for many of the social evils, personality disorders and general cultural malaise. But is it fair to expect the schools to counteract all of the negative aspects of the total socio-economic milieu? Is it realistic to expect the educational system alone to achieve a better life for the Oglalas when the environment offers few alternative economic goals and little opportunity to control one's destiny, when many children come from poverty-stricken and unstable family situations? True, the schools have failed in some respects, but the blame is not entirely theirs (Maynard & Twiss, 1970, p. 94).
Can we say the same thing today that was said by Maynard and Twiss and others 34 years ago? What accounts for American Indian/Alaska Native children dropping out at higher rates and having significantly lower academic performances than Euro-Americans? Is lower academic achievement due primarily to schooling or to community and familial factors? Are we following a path towards academic improvement for indigenous children? In this article, we argue that variables outside of the school environment and in-school variables must be carefully and concurrently considered in order to understand and improve the school performance and achievement of American Indian/Alaska Native children. Furthermore, for a culture-based education approach (CBE) to succeed it must chart a course toward a set of ideals and principles that are consistent with the dynamic nature of the lifeways and thoughtways of tribal or village cultures.
Culture-Based Educational Approach
The guiding assumption of CBE is that a discontinuity between home and school environments serves to confuse and alienate indigenous children, fostering a sense of inadequacy and lack of self-efficacy. Factors implicated in this discontinuity include value dif ...
Black Males, Social Imagery, and the Disruption of Pathological IdentitiesJonathan Dunnemann
Throughout the history of the U.S., racialized groups have often had their experiences profoundly shaped by social imagery in ways that have created tremendous hardships in the quest for
self-actualization and a healthy sense of self.
The purpose of this article is to shed light on the manner in which Black males have been one of the primary victims of negative social imagery and how the remnants of these constructions continue to have contemporary influences, ....
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxmoirarandell
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
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Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxjasoninnes20
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
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uthor M
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Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)
The case presented is a philosophy of practice, by Ulf Donner, leade.docxmamanda2
The case presented is a philosophy of practice, by Ulf Donner, leader of the Foundation Home at the psychiatric nursing home in Finland that for 15 years has based its practice on Eriksson’s caritative theory of caring.
Even at an early stage in our serving in caring science, we caregivers recognized ourselves in the caring science theory, which stresses the healing force of love and compassion in the form of tending, playing, and learning in faith, hope, and charity. The caritative culture is made visible with the help of rituals, symbols, and traditions, for instance, with the stone that burns with the light of the Trinity and the daily common time for spiritual reflection. In every meeting with the suffering human being, the attributes of love and charity are striven for, and the day involves discussions of reconciliation, forgiveness, and how we as caregivers can tend by nourishing and cleansing on the level of becoming, being, and doing. In the struggle in love and compassion to reach a fellow human being who, because of suffering, has withdrawn from the communion to find common horizons, the sacrifice of the caregiver is constantly available.
We work with people who often have the feeling that they do not deserve the love they encounter and who, in various ways, try to convince us caregivers of this. We experience patients’ disappointment in their destructive acts, and we constantly have to remember that it may be broken promises that produce such dynamics. Sometimes, it may be difficult to recognize that suffering expressed in this way in an abstract sense seeks an embrace that does not give way but is strong enough to give shelter to this suffering, in a way that makes a becoming movement possible. In recognizing what is bad and what is difficult, horizons in the field of force are expanded, and the possibility of bringing in a ray of light and hope is opened.
As caregivers, we constantly ask ourselves whether the words, the language we use, bring promise, and how we can create linguistic footholds in the void by means of images and symbols. In our effort to nourish and cleanse, that which constitutes the basic movement of tending, we often recognize the importance of teaching the patient to be able to mourn disappointments and affirm the possibilities of forgiveness in the movement of reconciliation.
We also try to bring about the open invitation to the suffering human being to join a communion with the help of myths, legends, and tales concerned with human questions about evil versus good and about eternity and infinity. Reading aloud with common reflective periods often provides us caregivers a possibility of getting closer to patients without getting too close, and opens the door for the suffering the patient bears.
In the act of caring, we strive for openness with regard to the patient’s face and a confirmative attitude that responds to the appeal that we can recognize that the patient directs to us. When we as caregivers re.
The Case of Will Smithers To Exhume or not Exhume, that is the .docxmamanda2
The Case of Will Smithers: To Exhume or not Exhume, that is the Question
A surprising amount of information can be gleaned about an individual just from one’s tissues. In this case, you have been assigned to shadow histopathologist Dr. Jonas Riehm as he attempts to identify the cause of death of 42-year-old Will Smithers. Mr. Smithers’s body was discovered sitting in his car near an alley several miles from his home. There was no obvious cause of death, necessitating an autopsy to determine if the death was from natural causes or foul play. However, due to a clerical error, the decedent’s body was released and interred before a proper autopsy could be performed, and an official cause of death was not established.
Fortunately, several tissue samples were taken before the interment and remain available for examination. Mr. Smithers’s family does not wish to have his body exhumed, so local law enforcement professionals have asked Dr. Riehm to examine the tissue samples in the hopes of determining his cause of death and whether or not an exhumation is needed. The following sections have been taken from the official report that Dr. Riehm sent to the local coroner’s office. You are to report to Dr. Riehm’s office with your anatomy and physiology textbook. He expects students to answer questions related to the work that he does in his histopathology laboratory.
Dr. Riehm enjoys teaching, and has a collection of microscope slides that he uses to introduce students to the fascinating universe of histology. He starts with the following definition: histology is the study of the normal structure of tissues. Although Dr. Riehm is an expert in the study of the diseases and abnormalities of tissues, histopathology, he is a firm believer that you must be able to recognize normal tissue before you can understand diseased tissue. He has set up four microscope stations for students to get familiar with how the microscopes function and to view slides of normal tissues.
Each station has a microscope with a slide of one of the four primary tissue types. (a) Define tissue and organ, and then describe how each fits into the levels of body organization. (b) Describe what you would expect to observe on the epithelial tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue? (c) Describe what you would expect to see on the connective tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue? (d) Describe what you would expect to see on the muscle tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue? (e) Describe what you would expect to observe on the nervous tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue?
Satisfied that you are properly introduced to the concepts of normal tissue, Dr. Riehm begins to fill you in on the details of Mr. Smithers’s case, whose tissue samples have coincidentally arrived just in time for your shadowing visit. The first set of slides included an epithelium sample taken from Mr. Smithers’s forehead. The slide w.
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Similar to The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women.docx
Reaction to Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning.docxmakdul
Reaction to “Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning, and Student Retention”
Marilyn D. Lovett
Florida A&M University
I found the idea of measuring non-cognitive ability intriguing. However, I did not get said measurement in this article. The literature review does not seem to support what the researchers say occurred with the SE2 program. While the policy emphasized rewarding effort with grades, such research was not mentioned in the literature review. As a result, I was not sure how effort was measured. The authors mentioned information in the “sociology literature” but I believe examining psychological literature might have made for a more sound argument. I also wondered if students of African descent were in any of the studies mentioned in the literature review.
In the methodology section, the authors stated that the SE2 policy was developed “to improve student performance by increasing study skills and the preparedness of the students” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 67). However, I do not understand how that would have increased preparedness. I also was not clear on the equations used to answer the research questions, but that is probably because I am not familiar with the Cox proportional hazard model.
There were a couple of times throughout the article that mentioned some information being “available upon request.” I appreciated that because it is a nod toward transparency in research. It reminded me about the replication program touted by the Association for Psychological Science in which researchers are invited to upload their data for other researchers to replicate. I noticed that Table 4 had no non-cognitive skills recorded. I wondered why cognitive and non-cognitive skills could not be increased simultaneously when the authors stated that the SE2 policy “helps those students with unmeasured non-cognitive skills, while potentially harming some of the students with higher measured cognitive skills” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 74). This brought me back to wondering why non-cognitive skills were not operationalized in the first place.
Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS):
Development, Factor Analysis, Reliability, and Validity
Ruth Chu-Lien Chao and Kathy E. Green
University of Denver
Effectively and efficiently diagnosing African Americans’ mental health has been a chronically unre-
solved challenge. To meet this challenge we developed a tool to better understand African Americans’
mental health: the Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS). Three studies reporting the
development and initial validation of the MSMHS were conducted with African American student
samples. First, an exploratory factor analysis of an initial item pool yielded 5 factors assessing subscales
of perceived racism, depression, well-being, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. Second, a confirmatory factor
analysis supported the MSMHS’s 5-dimensional factor structure. Third, test–retest reliability, internal ...
Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)
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Author(s) Article Title/Journal Date Hypothesis Types of Participants Method(s) Results/Findings
Stokes-Guiman, K.
Age and Skin Tone as
Predictors of Positive and
Negative Racial Attitudes in
Hispanic Children. Hispanic
Journal of Behavioral Sciences
33(3), 3-21. 2011
Five research questions to
inquire if Hispanic children's
age, gender, and in-group/out-
group status affect interacial
groups, and if skin color has any
relationship.
n=116 Hispanic Children
aged 3-10.
Kowalski (2003) Modfied
PRAM II; doll methodology to
measure Hispanic children's
racial attitudes towards other
groups in the U.S.; skin tone
assessment chart.
White bias preference for white
dolls was determined in some
participants, older children were
generally more positive than the
younger, but negative attitudes
were more prevalent across the
findings.
Wimalawansa,
S., McKnight, A.,
and Bullocks,
J.M.
Socioeconomic Impact of
Ethnic Cosmetic Surgery:
Trends and Potential Financial
Impact the African American,
Asian American, Latin
American, and Middle Eastern
Communities Have on
Cosmetic Surgery. Seminars
in Plastic Surgery 23(3), 159-
162. 2009
Increased popiularity of
cosmetic surgeries with specific
ethnic-related outcomes is less
stigmatized in the present, and
associated with personal choice
and economic prosperity. N/A
Data gathered from the
American Society for
Aesthetic Plastic Surgery
(ASAPS) analyzed by authors.
Increasing economic power
amongst some minorities and
ethnic minorities in the U.S.
created a lucrative market for
plastic surgeons to advertise
and cater to.
Kaw, E.
Medicalization of Racial
Features: Asian American
Women and Cosmetic
Surgery. Medical
Anthropology Quarterly, New
Series 7(1), 74-89. 1993
Certain cultural and institutional
forces work together to
motivate Asian American
women to have eye, eyelid, and
nose surgeries as an escape
from racial prejudice and
stereotyped phenotype features.
n=11 Asian American
women, 18-71-years-old;
and n=50 doctors in the
Bay Area who perform
plastic surgery
procedures.
Qualitative interviews with
the women and structured
open-ended interviews with
five plastic surgeons in
addition to collecting surveys.
Among the personal motives
found included a sense of
empowerment, improving social
status, avoiding daily makeup
application prior to surgery, and
allievieating stereotype threats
associated with eye shape.
Hunter, M.L.
"If You're Light You're
Alright": Light Skin Color as
Social Capital foor Women of
Color. Gender and Society
16(2), 175-193. 2002
Three questions framed the
inquiry:First, did skin color
affect educational attainment
for women of color; Second,
Does skin color affect personal
income realization of these
women; and Finally, Does the
skin color predict the status of
their spouses?
n= 1310 African Amercian
women, 419 of whom
were married; and n=596
Mexi ...
WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. He was honored by the Texas National Association for Multicultural Education as Professor, Scholar, and Pioneer Publisher for Distinguished Service to Multicultural Research Publishing. The ceremony was held at Texas A&M University-College Station. He was inducted into the prestigious William H. Parker Leadership Academy Hall of Honor. He was an Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, United Kingdom. Dr. Kritsonis was a Visiting Scholar at Columbia University’s Teacher College in New York, and Visiting Scholar in the School of Education at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
AUTHORGerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. DicksonTITLE.docxrock73
AUTHOR: Gerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. Dickson
TITLE: Psychosocial Foundations of Academic Performance in Culture-Based Education Programs for American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Reflections on a Multidisciplinary Perspective
SOURCE: Journal of American Indian Education 45 no3 Special Issue 38-59 2006
COPYRIGHT: The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://coe.asu.edu/cie/
Since the Oglalas settled at Pine Ridge, it has been the contention of many policy makers that education is the panacea for the socio-economic ills besetting the society and the means for bringing Indians into the mainstream of American life. Education has been available to the Oglalas for 89 years and the problems remain almost as unresolved as they were that day in 1879 when Red Cloud helped to lay the cornerstone for the first school. For this (and other reasons), the educational system has often become the scapegoat among those impatient for greater progress. Blame has been placed on the schools for many of the social evils, personality disorders and general cultural malaise. But is it fair to expect the schools to counteract all of the negative aspects of the total socio-economic milieu? Is it realistic to expect the educational system alone to achieve a better life for the Oglalas when the environment offers few alternative economic goals and little opportunity to control one's destiny, when many children come from poverty-stricken and unstable family situations? True, the schools have failed in some respects, but the blame is not entirely theirs (Maynard & Twiss, 1970, p. 94).
Can we say the same thing today that was said by Maynard and Twiss and others 34 years ago? What accounts for American Indian/Alaska Native children dropping out at higher rates and having significantly lower academic performances than Euro-Americans? Is lower academic achievement due primarily to schooling or to community and familial factors? Are we following a path towards academic improvement for indigenous children? In this article, we argue that variables outside of the school environment and in-school variables must be carefully and concurrently considered in order to understand and improve the school performance and achievement of American Indian/Alaska Native children. Furthermore, for a culture-based education approach (CBE) to succeed it must chart a course toward a set of ideals and principles that are consistent with the dynamic nature of the lifeways and thoughtways of tribal or village cultures.
Culture-Based Educational Approach
The guiding assumption of CBE is that a discontinuity between home and school environments serves to confuse and alienate indigenous children, fostering a sense of inadequacy and lack of self-efficacy. Factors implicated in this discontinuity include value dif ...
Black Males, Social Imagery, and the Disruption of Pathological IdentitiesJonathan Dunnemann
Throughout the history of the U.S., racialized groups have often had their experiences profoundly shaped by social imagery in ways that have created tremendous hardships in the quest for
self-actualization and a healthy sense of self.
The purpose of this article is to shed light on the manner in which Black males have been one of the primary victims of negative social imagery and how the remnants of these constructions continue to have contemporary influences, ....
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxmoirarandell
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
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Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxjasoninnes20
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
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uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
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Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)
Similar to The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women.docx (20)
The case presented is a philosophy of practice, by Ulf Donner, leade.docxmamanda2
The case presented is a philosophy of practice, by Ulf Donner, leader of the Foundation Home at the psychiatric nursing home in Finland that for 15 years has based its practice on Eriksson’s caritative theory of caring.
Even at an early stage in our serving in caring science, we caregivers recognized ourselves in the caring science theory, which stresses the healing force of love and compassion in the form of tending, playing, and learning in faith, hope, and charity. The caritative culture is made visible with the help of rituals, symbols, and traditions, for instance, with the stone that burns with the light of the Trinity and the daily common time for spiritual reflection. In every meeting with the suffering human being, the attributes of love and charity are striven for, and the day involves discussions of reconciliation, forgiveness, and how we as caregivers can tend by nourishing and cleansing on the level of becoming, being, and doing. In the struggle in love and compassion to reach a fellow human being who, because of suffering, has withdrawn from the communion to find common horizons, the sacrifice of the caregiver is constantly available.
We work with people who often have the feeling that they do not deserve the love they encounter and who, in various ways, try to convince us caregivers of this. We experience patients’ disappointment in their destructive acts, and we constantly have to remember that it may be broken promises that produce such dynamics. Sometimes, it may be difficult to recognize that suffering expressed in this way in an abstract sense seeks an embrace that does not give way but is strong enough to give shelter to this suffering, in a way that makes a becoming movement possible. In recognizing what is bad and what is difficult, horizons in the field of force are expanded, and the possibility of bringing in a ray of light and hope is opened.
As caregivers, we constantly ask ourselves whether the words, the language we use, bring promise, and how we can create linguistic footholds in the void by means of images and symbols. In our effort to nourish and cleanse, that which constitutes the basic movement of tending, we often recognize the importance of teaching the patient to be able to mourn disappointments and affirm the possibilities of forgiveness in the movement of reconciliation.
We also try to bring about the open invitation to the suffering human being to join a communion with the help of myths, legends, and tales concerned with human questions about evil versus good and about eternity and infinity. Reading aloud with common reflective periods often provides us caregivers a possibility of getting closer to patients without getting too close, and opens the door for the suffering the patient bears.
In the act of caring, we strive for openness with regard to the patient’s face and a confirmative attitude that responds to the appeal that we can recognize that the patient directs to us. When we as caregivers re.
The Case of Will Smithers To Exhume or not Exhume, that is the .docxmamanda2
The Case of Will Smithers: To Exhume or not Exhume, that is the Question
A surprising amount of information can be gleaned about an individual just from one’s tissues. In this case, you have been assigned to shadow histopathologist Dr. Jonas Riehm as he attempts to identify the cause of death of 42-year-old Will Smithers. Mr. Smithers’s body was discovered sitting in his car near an alley several miles from his home. There was no obvious cause of death, necessitating an autopsy to determine if the death was from natural causes or foul play. However, due to a clerical error, the decedent’s body was released and interred before a proper autopsy could be performed, and an official cause of death was not established.
Fortunately, several tissue samples were taken before the interment and remain available for examination. Mr. Smithers’s family does not wish to have his body exhumed, so local law enforcement professionals have asked Dr. Riehm to examine the tissue samples in the hopes of determining his cause of death and whether or not an exhumation is needed. The following sections have been taken from the official report that Dr. Riehm sent to the local coroner’s office. You are to report to Dr. Riehm’s office with your anatomy and physiology textbook. He expects students to answer questions related to the work that he does in his histopathology laboratory.
Dr. Riehm enjoys teaching, and has a collection of microscope slides that he uses to introduce students to the fascinating universe of histology. He starts with the following definition: histology is the study of the normal structure of tissues. Although Dr. Riehm is an expert in the study of the diseases and abnormalities of tissues, histopathology, he is a firm believer that you must be able to recognize normal tissue before you can understand diseased tissue. He has set up four microscope stations for students to get familiar with how the microscopes function and to view slides of normal tissues.
Each station has a microscope with a slide of one of the four primary tissue types. (a) Define tissue and organ, and then describe how each fits into the levels of body organization. (b) Describe what you would expect to observe on the epithelial tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue? (c) Describe what you would expect to see on the connective tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue? (d) Describe what you would expect to see on the muscle tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue? (e) Describe what you would expect to observe on the nervous tissue slide. What are the general functions of this tissue?
Satisfied that you are properly introduced to the concepts of normal tissue, Dr. Riehm begins to fill you in on the details of Mr. Smithers’s case, whose tissue samples have coincidentally arrived just in time for your shadowing visit. The first set of slides included an epithelium sample taken from Mr. Smithers’s forehead. The slide w.
The Case of SamSam is a 62-year-old, widowed, African American male..docxmamanda2
The Case of SamSam is a 62-year-old, widowed, African American male. He is unemployed, receives Social Security benefits, and lives on his own in an apartment. Sam has minimal peer relationships, choosing not to socialize with anyone except his daughter, with whom he is very close. Sam raised his daughter as a single father after his wife passed away. Melissa is 28 years old and works as an emergency medical technician (EMT). When Sam was 7years old, he was placed in foster care and has had very limited contact with his extended family. Prior to September 11, 2001, Sam had a steady employment history in food services and retail.He hadno psychiatric history before that time. Sam reportedhis religious background is Catholic, but he is not affiliatedwith a congregation or church. Sam became depressed and psychotic sometimeafter 9/11 and had to be taken to an emergency room. He was hospitalized at that time for several weeks. His mental status exam (MSE)and diagnostic interview showed no history of alcohol or substance abuse issues,and he had no criminal background or current legal issues. Sam was released to outpatient care but was deemed unable to return to work. At that time,he had a diagnosis of major depression with psychotic features; he alsohas a history of high blood pressure and migraines. After several additional multiple psychiatric hospitalizations, he was gradually stabilized. Sam has been seeing a psychiatrist once a month for over a decade for medication management and is currently prescribedDepakote®, Abilify, and Wellbutrin®. Sam has a positive history of medication and treatment compliance. He wastreated by a social worker at an outpatient program for about 2years after his hospitalizations for his psychosis and depression. He gradually stopped attending sessions with the social worker after his symptoms stabilized, and his termination from the outpatient program was deemed appropriate; he continued to see the psychiatrist monthly for medication management.After about 10years of seeing only the psychiatrist, Sam scheduled a meeting with this social worker for increased feelings of depression. These feelings were broughton after his daughter moved out of the apartment they had shared for many years to live with her boyfriend. He reported difficulty adjusting to living alone and said he often feels lonely and anxious. He reported during sessions with his social worker that he speaks to his daughter frequently, and although she only lives 10blocks away, he misses her terribly.Our sessions for the last 3months have focused on his mixed feelings around his daughter’s new life with her boyfriend. He said he is happy that she is happy but misses her very much. I emphasized his strengths and helped him reframe his situation by focusing on the positive changes in her life as well as his own life. Our goals were to help him reduce his symptoms of anxiety and begin searching for new opportunities for socialization outside of his daughter.
.
The Case of Sam Sam is a 62-year-old, widowed, African American ma.docxmamanda2
The Case of Sam Sam is a 62-year-old, widowed, African American male. He is unemployed, receives Social Security benefits, and lives on his own in an apartment. Sam has minimal peer relationships, choosing not to socialize with anyone except his daughter, with whom he is very close. Sam raised his daughter as a single father after his wife passed away. Melissa is 28 years old and works as an emergency medical technician (EMT). When Sam was 7 years old, he was placed in foster care and has had very limited contact with his extended family. Prior to September 11, 2001, Sam had a steady employment history in food services and retail. He had no psychiatric history before that time. Sam reported his religious background is Catholic, but he is not affiliated with a congregation or church. Sam became depressed and psychotic sometime after 9/11 and had to be taken to an emergency room. He was hospitalized at that time for several weeks. His mental status exam (MSE) and diagnostic interview showed no history of alcohol or substance abuse issues, and he had no criminal background or current legal issues. Sam was released to outpatient care but was deemed unable to return to work. At that time, he had a diagnosis of major depression with psychotic features; he also has a history of high blood pressure and migraines. After several additional multiple psychiatric hospitalizations, he was gradually stabilized. Sam has been seeing a psychiatrist once a month for over a decade for medication management and is currently prescribed Depakote®, Abilify, and Wellbutrin®. Sam has a positive history of medication and treatment compliance. He was treated by a social worker at an outpatient program for about 2 years after his hospitalizations for his psychosis and depression. He gradually stopped attending sessions with the social worker after his symptoms stabilized, and his termination from the outpatient program was deemed appropriate; he continued to see the psychiatrist monthly for medication management. After about 10 years of seeing only the psychiatrist, Sam scheduled a meeting with this social worker for increased feelings of depression. These feelings were brought on after his daughter moved out of the apartment they had shared for many years to live with her boyfriend. He reported difficulty adjusting to living alone and said he often feels lonely and anxious. He reported during sessions with his social worker that he speaks to his daughter frequently, and although she only lives 10 blocks away, he misses her terribly. Our sessions for the last 3 months have focused on his mixed feelings around his daughter’s new life with her boyfriend. He said he is happy that she is happy but misses her very much. I emphasized his strengths and helped him reframe his situation by focusing on the positive changes in her life as well as his own life. Our goals were to help him reduce his symptoms of anxiety and begin searching for new opportunities for socialization outsi.
The case of OD in an NGO in IndiaNisha NairIndian Instit.docxmamanda2
The case of OD in an NGO in India
Nisha Nair
Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indore, India, and
Neharika Vohra
Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, India
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to report an organizational development (OD) exercise carried out in a
prominent non-governmental organization (NGO) that works in the area of rights and advocacy in
India.
Design/methodology/approach – The exercise was part of the first author’s graduate program,
which required the application of behavioral science theory to a live organization under the
supervision of her advisor, the second author. The organizational development exercise spread over
four months, involved entering an organization, interacting with key participants and stakeholders of
the organization both formally and informally, diagnosing issues facing the organization and a
mirroring exercise with the management at the end of the intervention to provide feedback.
Findings – Some of the issues and improvement areas that emerged through the exercise are
discussed in the paper. It also offers reflections on some of the key lessons learnt during the process of
intervention, with implications for OD in developmental organizations.
Originality/value – The paper offers insights into OD interventions in the developmental sector,
posing a different set of challenges than conventional organizations, and also because the organization
itself was in a state of flux at the time of the intervention.
Keywords Non-governmental organizations, Business development, Organizational effectiveness,
Labour efficiency, Change management, India
Paper type Case study
Introduction
Organization development (OD) work has largely been carried out in business or for
profit organizations. Bargal and Schmid (1992) refer to the paucity of literature on
consultation done in developmental organizations. OD in nonprofit organizations
provides some unique challenges for the consultant that may not exist in business
organizations (Ramos, 2007; Waysman and Savaya, 1997). Developmental
organizations are thought to differ from for-profit organizations in a number of
ways (Brown and Covey, 1987). Studies have shown that employees in developmental
organizations seek greater autonomy and less organizational control in their work
(Mirvis and Hackett, 1983). Since there is a need for flexibility and local discretion in
the working of developmental organizations, they tend to be more informal and loosely
organized than business organizations ( Joseph, 2000; Lewis, 2003). Another often cited
concern is the existence of high role ambiguity and lack of clarity about roles and
procedures in such organizations (Goldman and Kahnweiler, 2000; McDonald, 1999). In
his study of organizational change in a human service organization, Ramos (2007)
discusses the poor communication across the various units/programs of the nonprofit.
Given that values and ideology play a central role in developmental organizations
(B.
The Case of “Hector”
Case Study 1: Chronic Hepatitis (Cirrhosis of Liver) & Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
I. Case History
Background Information
Hector is a 44 year old, Hispanic male of low socioeconomic status. He lives on the southwest side of Chicago, Illinois in a neighborhood that is heavily populated with people of his ethnic background. Hector lives in a 3 bedroom home that he is currently renting.
Family History/Current Relationships
Hector was born in San Juan, Mexico and was raised in a two parent household, and has four siblings. Hector is the youngest of the four children. He comes from a Catholic background. Hector’s father worked as a carpenter, and his mother was a homemaker. Hector’s father was an alcoholic and was both physically and verbally abusive to the family. Hector lost his father at age 10 due to a physical altercation that took place at a local watering hole, which resulted in a fatal injury. His mother decided to relocate to the United States where she could receive the support of her family. At age 23, Hector met his current wife. Hector lives with his wife Consuela (age 40), and his 3 children Veronica (age 8), Mateo (age 6) and, Alejandro (age 2). Recently, his mother, and two cousins have moved into the home due to medical and financial reasons. Hector indicates that although times are hard, he is very committed to his family and grateful for their ongoing support.
Support Systems
Hector considers his family to be his primary support system. He indicates that they work very hard to be there for one another no matter what the situation. He indicates that he has a few friends but feel that they are not necessarily positive support systems, but can often times provide an outlet to stress.
Education
Hector has not graduated high school, but when time permits, he attends classes at a community agency who is assisting him with prep classes that will enable him to take the G.E.D. However, Hector admits that he is not able to consistently pursue obtaining his G.E.D because earning a living is his priority at this time.
Employment
Hector indicates that he is the primary provider in the home at this time. He indicates that they are able to receive some government assistance (Medicaid, food-stamps, WIC), but the income is supplemented, depending on his ability to obtain work. Hector currently works as a seasonal worker for a construction company. He reports that when he is actually called in to work, he can make decent money. However, there is question as to whether Hector receives his salary “under the table”. Hector does not have reliable transportation. Although he owns a mini-van, he reports that it is in constant need of repair. Hector chooses use public transportation and carpooling as a primary mode of transportation, because his license is suspended due to receiving his second DUI/DWI.
II. Description of Presenting Problem
Hector reports that he knows that he has an issue wi.
The Case of Joe the Jerk1The Case of Joe the Jerk (or,.docxmamanda2
The Case of Joe the Jerk
1
The Case of Joe the Jerk (or, the Very Capable Jerk)
You have been asked to consult with a module manager in a public service center of the Social Security Administration. A module is a group of about forty workers who work together in processing claims for social security coverage (i.e., requests for the beginning of payments, or other services such as changes and information). A module has all the specialists needed to process a claim from beginning to end——claims authorizers, benefits authorizers, file clerks, and typists/word processors. Each module has a module manager (hereafter, MM) and two assistant module managers (AMMs) who lead and manage the team of workers in the module.
The MM, Joan, has a serious concern about one of the AMMs, Joe. Joe is very intelligent, talented, and younger than most AMMs. As far as his knowledge of the work and technical details is concerned, he is extremely promising and has excellent prospects to move up to become MM and then move on up beyond that. Joe, however, is arrogant in his dealings with the workers in the module. He talks down to people and treats them curtly and rudely. He behaves as if he deserves more special treatment and attention than the module members because he is an AMM. On the other hand, Joe also takes some stands and actions that are not necessarily bad or unjustified.
Some incidents:
One of the file clerks arrives late fairly often. Joe has begun to confront her very aggressively, in front of the other members of the module, criticizing her for arriving late. He has initiated disciplinary action against her. Some other members of the module have pointed out to Joe and Joan that the file clerk is a young single mother with a lot of personal problems. Her brother was recently shot to death in a street fight, apparently drug related. Her child is sick a lot and she has problems getting good child care. Joe, however, insists on going forward with the disciplinary action, saying he cannot let a person arrive late regularly without being unfair to those who do arrive on time. Besides, he says, it is essentially illegal for him not to take action. Joan has to decide whether to intervene in the disciplinary action or let it go through.
Joan is concerned about Joe’s effect on motivation and work satisfaction in the module. He speaks very condescendingly to module members who make mistakes, acting as if he is very superior to them and a lot smarter than they are——which is often true, in a sense. Joan was so concerned about growing tensions in the module that she arranged for a weekend retreat, where the group went through some team development exercises with a consultant. Throughout the retreat and the exercises, Joe had a virtual sneer on his face, and he made repeated sarcastic comments about the time the group was wasting on ―touchy-feely nonsense.
The members of the module have group meetings to discuss problems and changes. Joe has gotten up and wal.
The CASE JournalStakeholders and corporate environmental dec.docxmamanda2
The CASE Journal
Stakeholders and corporate environmental decision making: The BP Whiting Refinery controversy
Bryan T. Stinchfield
Article information:
To cite this document:
Bryan T. Stinchfield , (2009),"Stakeholders and corporate environmental decision making: The BP Whiting Refinery controversy",
The CASE Journal, Vol. 6 Iss 1 pp. 5 - 18
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/TCJ-06-2009-B002
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/TCJ-06-2009-B002
Bryan T. Stinchfield
Franklin & Marshall College_______________________________________
INTRODUCTION
During the late summer of 2007, Bob Malone, British Petroleum (BP) America Chairman
and President, was faced with one of the most important decisions of his career – to
expand the Whiting Refinery in northwest Indiana on the banks of Lake Michigan, or to
yield to pressure from the public and not expand operations. Regional and global
consumer demand for gasoline was rising, which helped push prices toward record highs,
and the refinery had an opportunity to expand capacity to help meet that demand.
However, thousands of citizens, a host of environmental groups, and eve.
The Case of Emily P.Emily is a 62-year-old, single, heterosexual.docxmamanda2
The Case of Emily P.Emily is a 62-year-old, single, heterosexual, African American female who seeks treatment for anxiety. She says she is very concerned since she recently has been pulling her hair out,and it has become noticeable on top of her head. She is taking to wearing hats,which she finds acceptable. She worries about many things, which is not new to her,and she finds that scrubbing her home clean is her best therapy to ease her anxiety.Emily reports that germs have been a regular concern of hers since adolescence, when she learned in health classes about the risks of serious diseases including sexual transmittable disease. Emily presented with meticulous grooming, although the knees of her pants were noted as worn. She has arthritis in herspine and knees and uses a walker to help her manage mobility safely. With her physical disabilities it is challenging sometimes to scrub clean the house daily. This worries her shouldshe get a visitor and the house is not in order as she would like it. She is no longer working,so the amount of time it takes her to scrub the house clean doesn’t delay her daily schedule as it used to.Emily receives Social Security income and is not employed. Although the Social Security is acceptable,her living expenses are always a concern to her. She lives alone in a subsidized apartment in the same building as her 72-year-old, unmarried sister,so rent should not increase. Emily and her sister shared an apartment for over 30 years, beginning when each of their marriages dissolved. Emily reported that when her sister began a romantic relationship 5 years ago, Emily began to feel very anxious and started to cry often. Emily moved into an apartment down the hall in the building and began to pull the hair from her head,hiding her hair loss by wearing wigs. This behavior occurred at different times and resulted in scabbing. Emily said she feels better after but does not always notice how much she is pulling. Her sister learned of Emily’s hair pulling after her wig slipped off one evening to reveal bald spots. She set up a schedule over the past few months with her sister to help stop the hair pulling. Sometimes it works and sometimes it doesnot. She is worried that she will be disappointing her sister by not sticking to the schedule to reduce her hair pulling. Her sister encouraged Emily to seek treatment rather than “hiding her ways.” Emily is reliant upon her sister for transportation and for a sense of social and emotional connection. Emily worries about bothering her sister due to her transportation needs,and she worriesthatwithouther sister she would be helpless. She knows she is edgy with her sister often and worries that might be from a lack of good sleep. She agreed to this session even though she is pessimistic about anything working. During our initial visit at our local mental health center, Emily shared that when she was 2 years old her mother died from tuberculosis, and the following year her father, an a.
The Capital Budgeting ProcessConsidering the 2014 article by Bat.docxmamanda2
The Capital Budgeting Process
Considering the 2014 article by Batra and Verma assigned in this unit, "An Empirical Insight Into Different Stages of Capital Budgeting," discuss the following:
Describe the capital budgeting process.
Explain how the capital budgeting process is used in organizations.
Describe the types of projects that are subject to capital budgeting.
Explain why the capital budgeting process is important for the allocation of resources.
.
The C-130 is large and unmaneuverable compared to tactical jets. .docxmamanda2
The C-130 is large and unmaneuverable compared to tactical jets. With a C-130 crew of 7-10 compared to the 1-2 of tactical jets, it would be risky to operate the C-130 exposed to enemy defenses. So although the C-130's readiness would be increased by keeping it airborne for earlier snatch of descending aviators, it wouldn't be wise to hold it airborne near enemy targets. It should be kept in 'safe areas' over Iran or maybe offshore until needed.
But the pronged C-130 is a potential addition to other rescue forces such as helicopters, so the C-130 too is subject to the same kinds of time delays in communication to get it headed to the site of a potential downing. (And remember it has to get there before the surface is reached by the downed aviator.)
How many people could each C-130 theoretically catch mid air? Is it one person rescued per plane? THE TIMING IS TIGHT, SO GETTING A SECOND DESCENDING AVIATOR WOULD BE VERY RARE EVEN IF TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE.
How fast is the C-130 compared to other options like a search and rescue helicopter? MAX SPEED OF A C130 IS 368 MPH, BUT THAT'S GOING 'DOWNHILL. CRUISING SPEED IS UNDER 300 MPH.
If a C-130 didn't reach it's window of time to grab a pilot midair, is it feasible for this type of plane to conduct the rescue on the ground? NOT VIA THE PRONG (WHICH IS INTENDED TO CATCH AN UNFURLED CHUTE). BUT THERE ARE TECHNIQUES SUCH AS FULTON SKYHOOK THAT MIGHT WORK (BUT ARE NOT PART OF YOUR PROBLEM).
What elevation would the tactical aircraft pilots be flying at, and could they lose altitude after getting hit and while still assessing their situations? (Important for determining time constraints.) SMART WEAPONS PERMIT DELIVERY FROM 15,000 FEET OR ABOVE
How would the C-130 locate a pilot upon arriving at the likely downing position? Visually? Some sort of beacon? /Presumably, sighting the pilot, adjusting to compensate for the pilot's descent, and making the grab would all take a good deal of time, especially if the C-130 comes under enemy fire and must conduct evasive maneuvers. VISUALLY/RADIO WITH PILOT IN CHUTE/PERHAPS GPS
IT WOULD BE QUITE RISKY FOR THE PILOT DESCENDING OR AFTER REACHING THE SURFACE, BUT HE/SHE MIGHT USE FLARES TO MAKE SIGHTING BY RESCUE CREWS EASIER. YES, TIME IS OF THE ESSENCE
You mentioned that C-130s are manned by 7-10 people. What is the typical size of a S&R helicopter crew, for comparison? 3-4
A C-130 would probably be an attractive target for Iran's capable air defense systems. How well is the aircraft able to deal with enemy fire? PROBLEMATIC Would it be escorted during S&R? LIKELY, BY JETS Would S&R helicopters be any less vulnerable (presumably not, as they would be descending to make pick-ups)?LESS VULNERABLE DUE SMALLER RADAR SIGNATURE AND DUE GREATER MANEUVERABILITY
.
The California LegislatureDifferences from the U.S. Congress.docxmamanda2
The California Legislature
Differences from the U.S. Congress
Equal Bicameral
• Lower house is the Assembly
• 80 members elected every 2 years
• Each district has about 450,000 constituents (700,000 for the U.S. House of
Representatives)
• Upper house is the Senate
• 40 members serve for 4 years
• Half run each 2 years
• Each district has about 900,000 constituent
• Term limits
• Legislators are limited to a total of 12 years in the legislature
• May serve in one or both houses
• Only about 1/3 of bills become laws
Leadership
• Speaker of the Assembly is much more powerful than the Speaker of
the House:
• Controls committee appointments
• Present Speaker is John Perez (new Speaker will be Toni Atkins)
• President Pro tem in the Senate not as powerful
• Shares power with rules committee
• Became more influential under old term limits rules because Senators could
serve for 8 years (as opposed to the 6 for Assembly)
Other features
• Governor may use the line item veto for an appropriations bill
• State legislature is less visible to voters than Congress (media rarely
covers it)
• State legislature is not involved in judicial appointments
• No filibuster
• Initiative process means that legislature doesn’t have a monopoly on
legislation (for good or ill)
• Seniority plays a much smaller role
Problems
• Term limits
• Never develop sufficient expertise
• Especially a problem for leadership
• Less willing to compromise because they don’t have a long working
relationship with other legislators
• Cedes power to bureaucrats & lobbyists
• Has contributed to a rise in minority representation
• E.g., Latino legislators increased from 6% in 1990 to 23% today
• Gridlock over taxation
• 2/3 vote required for increasing taxes by state legislature (Prop. 13)
• Staff slashed by 40% in 1990 (first term limits initiative)
The bright side
• Term limits have contributed to a rise in minority representation
• E.g., Latino legislators increased from 6% in 1990 to 23% today
• (see NCSL web site for more demographic information)
• No filibuster
• 2/3 requirement for passing state budget removed in 2010
• Districts now drawn by a citizen commission rather than by the
legislature
• Open primary encourages less extremism
gcc
Federalism
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Confederal Government
States act together through a central
government for limited purposes, but
retain ultimate authority and can veto
actions of the central government (53)
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Confederal Government
STATE
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STATE
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STATE
GOVERNMENT
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
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Unitary Government
The central government has ultimate
authority and may create (and
eliminate) state governments for its
own purposes (53)
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Unitary Government
CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT STATE
GOVERNMENT
STATE
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STATE
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STATE
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Federal Government
Ultimate authority is divided between a
central government an.
The Canterbury Tales Prologue1.) What are Chaucer’s views on the c.docxmamanda2
The Canterbury Tales Prologue
1.) What are Chaucer’s views on the church, based on his descriptions of the clergymen (the Monk, the Friar, etc.)? Using at least two examples from the text, answer this question in no less than seven sentences.
2.) Choose one of the characters in the Prologue. Describe the character in your own words. Who are they? What do they believe? Why are they going on this pilgrimage? Make sure your answer is thorough and complete and at least seven sentences in length.
.
The case file is up loaded ,An analysis of the evidence related to t.docxmamanda2
The case file is up loaded ,An analysis of the evidence related to the victim of a crime may provide insight into why this particular individual was the victim of this particular crime. It may also ascertain any information that provides insight into victim selection (specifically chosen, victim of opportunity, etc.) and if the crime was less about the victim and more about circumstances.
In this Open Forum Discussion, you continue your conversation about the course case, focusing on concepts related to the victim.
What are your initial thoughts of the victim that impact your analysis of the offense?
What other things would you like to know about the victim?
As you reviewed the evidence concerning the victim, what other issues are surfacing/presenting?
.
THE CASE FOR MIXED REALITY TO IMPROVEPERFORMANCEStuart W.docxmamanda2
THE CASE FOR MIXED REALITY TO IMPROVE
PERFORMANCE
Stuart W. Volkow Alex C. Howland, PhD
The world of work is rapidly changing. Now, more than ever, the need for continuous workforce training
is needed. While there are many benefits to social and experiential offerings of face-to-face training,
distance learning is typically more practical in today’s society. Unfortunately, current distance-learning
technologies lack the immersion necessary for learning 21st-century skills. Virtual reality and
augmented reality (i.e., mixed realities) can be more effective for training and learning than traditional
flat-screen media.
THE FUTURE OF WORK AND THE
OPPORTUNITY OF MIXED REALITIES TO
IMPROVE PERFORMANCE
Robots, automation, and artificial intelligence are rapidly
changing the face of the American workforce. As more
and more jobs are filled by machines, experts agree that
the education marketplace will need to change to keep up
with the growing and widespread need for worker retrain-
ing (Pew Research Center Internet & Technology, 2017).
While there are benefits to the social and experiential
learning experiences that can be offered in a face-to-face
setting, distance learning is often an affordable and flexible
way to provide that training.
Unfortunately, most eLearning and webinar platforms
only offer participants a passive experience (e.g., watch-
ing videos, listening to a lecture). With corporate edu-
cation, including employee orientation, onboarding, and
skill building, passive learning is the norm, consisting
largely of sitting down and consuming pre-packaged con-
tent in bulk that’s presented formally by an educator
(Hinchcliffe, 2017). Such offerings do not help develop the
vital skills needed in today’s increasingly global and dis-
tributed economy, such as teaming, communication, lead-
ership, and cultural intelligence. They also do not immerse
learners into the context of the learning and provide the
ability for learners to practice in a safe environment. As
a result, many learners develop feelings of isolation, dis-
connectedness, and frustration, often associated with poor
retention rates and low return on investment (Willging &
Johnson, 2009).
Mixed-reality technologies (i.e., virtual reality and aug-
mented reality) provide solutions to these problems by
allowing people to come together in an active simulated
environment that allows them to see and interact with fel-
low participants and the simulated environment, regard-
less of geographic location. Such technologies have the po-
tential to dramatically transform education, training, and
human performance. The aim of this article is to provide
an overview of mixed realities (MR), to discuss theories as-
sociated with how the technologies can provide value for
performance, and to provide specific examples of effective
early-use cases.
Introduction to Mixed Realities
Well told, any story can be immersive. From spoken word
to literature, film, and television, imagination work.
The budget process for Albany, GA is easy to get access to a sim.docxmamanda2
The budget process for Albany, GA is easy to get access to a simple search was able to get me a lot of information. My untrained eye is unsure how detailed it is, so it could be a lot of fluff. The budget process does seem to be coherent due to the different levels and approvals that the city manager has to go through. The citizens are involved through a public hearing this year was held on June 2nd for the FY 2021. From the search I did, I couldn’t find much commentary that showed that the community disagreed with the process. The process seems very open from the Albany city website. Albany commission leaders and the city manager are very vocal from the local news I see that they are held to task for many of their decisions. I’m not sure is it due to COVID19 but even I tune in the local Facebook open commission meetings now. The impression I get is that the city is more involved and cares more for showing to citizens that they are listening. The citizens from my view are pleased with that response and that difference from when I was in Valdosta I couldn’t even tell u who the major was. It's interesting as someone who has never thought to think how my city spends money to find a lot of resources breaking it down.
Reference
City of Albany. (n.d.). Retrieved September 11, 2020, from
https://www.albanyga.gov/about-us/city-departments/finance-department/budget-document
less
1
.
The bully, the bystander and the victim.There are 3 parts of a b.docxmamanda2
The bully, the bystander and the victim.
There are 3 parts of a bully situation. Look at the latest research surrounding all the parts, what is the motivation behind the bully, bystander and victim and what can be done to help all 3. After doing research you can include your own personal experiences with any of these positions.
.
The City of Vancouver has a number of historic sections or buildings.docxmamanda2
The City of Vancouver has a number of historic sections or buildings of historical value(ST. Paul Hospital) . Using books and other search results, explore the current state and past history of one of Vancouver’s historic buildings or districts. Based on your understanding of urban history, explore the following themes:
What themes or events of Canadian history do the team members find demonstrated by the building or district?
Does the architecture or structure represent themes from the past?
What do the transformations over the years suggest about the development of Vancouver?
What has led to the preservation of the building or district?
Then, based on the research, group discussion, and field trip, write a 1200 word paper that does the following:
1. Explains the historical background to the building or district, its origins or rational for construction.
2. Identifies key transitions in the building or district over the years.
3. Explains why the building or district continues to exist.
4. Tells (in summary form) key stories from the building or district’s past.
5. identifies what was learned from the field trip that was not present in other sources (and something can ALWAYS be learned from a field trip that was not presen
Notes for the powerpoint presentation.
.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
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Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent Women.docx
1. The Career Development of Mexican American Adolescent
Women:
A Test of Social Cognitive Career Theory
Lisa Y. Flores
The Ohio State University
Karen M. O’Brien
University of Maryland, College Park
This study tested R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, and G. Hackett’s
(1994) model of career choice with 364
Mexican American adolescent women. Path analyses were run to
determine the influence of contextual
and social cognitive variables on career aspiration, career
choice prestige, and traditionality. Partial
support for the model was evidenced as nontraditional career
self-efficacy, parental support, barriers,
acculturation, and feminist attitudes predicted career choice
prestige. Acculturation, feminist attitudes,
and nontraditional career self-efficacy predicted career choice
traditionality. Feminist attitudes and
parental support predicted career aspiration. The paths between
nontraditional career interests and the 3
outcome variables were not supported. Finally, none of the
background contextual variables in this study
predicted nontraditional career self-efficacy. Implications of the
results and suggestions for future
research are discussed.
Mexican American women constitute a significant portion of the
American population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996), are
2. underrepresented at all levels of education (Carter & Wilson,
1993;
Lango, 1995; McNeill et al., 2001; U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1991), and are overrepresented in low-paying occupations tradi-
tionally occupied by women (Arbona, 1989; Arbona & Novy,
1991; Ortiz, 1995). Relatively little empirical research has been
conducted to identify the variables that contribute to the educa-
tional and occupational underachievement of Mexican American
women. Indeed, researchers have noted that the career develop-
ment of Hispanics has received only slight consideration in the
counseling and vocational literature (Arbona, 1990; Fouad,
1995;
Hoyt, 1989; McNeill et al., 2001), and they have questioned the
generalizability of career development theories to Hispanics
(Ar-
bona, 1990, 1995; Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994; Hackett, Lent, &
Greenhaus, 1991). The purpose of this study was to investigate
the
applicability of a current model of career choice to the
experiences
of Mexican American adolescent women and to extend the
current
model to incorporate variables that are hypothesized to be
salient
to this population.
It is well documented that Hispanics are the least educated
when
compared with other major racial/ethnic groups in the United
States and that, among Hispanics, Mexican Americans have the
lowest high school and college completion rates (47% and 6.5%,
respectively; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996). Mexican Ameri-
can women are less likely to graduate from college than their
male
counterparts (Ortiz, 1995; Tinajero, Gonzalez, & Dick, 1991),
and
3. their representation in higher education decreases significantly
at
each successive level (Carter & Wilson, 1993). Moreover, those
Mexican American women who pursue higher education
confront
many stressors and may experience psychological distress as
they
seek to reconcile their career aspirations with their familial and
cultural values (Niemann, 2001).
Education is related to occupational status, and thus, the re-
stricted employment status among Mexican American women is
not surprising given their low educational attainment. Arbona
(1989) reported that, occupationally, Hispanic women were con-
centrated in low and mid-level technical, service-oriented, and
clerical type jobs. According to Ortiz (1995), Mexican
American
women were less likely to be professionals or private business
owners and earned less money when compared with women
from
other racial/ethnic groups and Mexican American men.
Moreover,
Mexican American women who were in professional
occupations
were more likely to choose traditional and low-status
occupations
(Ortiz, 1995).
A review of the literature on Mexican American women re-
vealed inconsistencies between their educational and vocational
achievements and aspirations. For example, Arbona and Novy
(1991) reported that the majority of Mexican American college
women in their study aspired to investigative and enterprising
type
jobs. It is interesting that the percentage of women who
expected
4. to enter these fields was smaller than the percentage of women
who aspired to these careers, whereas the opposite was true of
those who aspired and expected to enter fields that have
typically
represented traditional career options for women. Other studies
Lisa Y. Flores, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State
University;
Karen M. O’Brien, Department of Psychology, University of
Maryland,
College Park.
This study was based on the doctoral dissertation of Lisa Y.
Flores,
which was conducted under the direction of Michael J. Patton.
An earlier
version of this article was presented at the 108th Annual
Convention of the
American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, August
2000.
We thank Nancy Betz, Mary Heppner, and Fred Leong for
helpful
feedback on earlier versions of this article; Kristopher Preacher
and Robert
MacCallum for statistical consultation; Jamilla Griffin and
Jason Quaran-
tillo for assistance with coding data; and the students, teachers,
counselors,
and administrators of the participating schools.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Lisa Y.
Flores, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University,
1885 Neil
Avenue Mall, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1222. E-mail:
5. [email protected]
Journal of Counseling Psychology Copyright 2002 by the
American Psychological Association, Inc.
2002, Vol. 49, No. 1, 14 –27 0022-0167/02/$5.00 DOI:
10.1037//0022-0167.49.1.14
14
revealed that Mexican American girls aspired to careers that re-
quired a college degree and to obtaining a postsecondary
education
(Hernandez, Vargas-Lew, & Martinez, 1994; Valenzuela, 1993).
Reyes, Kobus, and Gillock’s (1999) study indicated that 87% of
the girls in a sample of predominantly Mexican American 10th-
grade students aspired to nontraditional or male-dominated ca-
reers. Clearly, a difference exists between Mexican American
women’s educational and vocational aspirations and their actual
achievements, suggesting that these women may not be realizing
their educational and career potential.
Prior studies on the career development of Hispanics have
focused primarily on their educational and career aspirations
(Ar-
bona & Novy, 1991; Hernandez et al., 1994; Reyes et al., 1999)
and the factors postulated to be related to their educational
success
(Cardoza, 1991; Fisher & Padmawidjaja, 1999; Gandara, 1982;
Gillock & Reyes, 1999; Hess & D’Amato, 1996; Keith & Licht-
man, 1994; Lango, 1995; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995; Rodriguez,
1996; Valenzuela, 1993; Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996). Other
studies have examined the barriers that Hispanic students antici-
pate in their educational and career endeavors (Luzzo, 1992;
McWhirter, 1997). The research to date provides insight into the
career development of Hispanic individuals but contains limita-
6. tions that restrict its use.
First, several studies are descriptive in nature, and while helpful
in understanding patterns of behavior with this group, they do
not
further knowledge regarding the salient predictors of career be-
haviors. Second, several studies included racially/ethnically di-
verse samples (in which the number of Hispanics were
dispropor-
tionately small) or failed to report the ethnic background of
Hispanic participants. Because of the educational and
occupational
differences between racial/ethnic groups and among Hispanics,
investigating ethnically diverse subgroups individually seems
war-
ranted (Arbona, 1995). Another limitation of the existing
studies is
that many included both women and men. Given differences in
Mexican American women’s and men’s educational attainment,
occupational status, and socialization within the culture, women
and men should be investigated separately to understand the ef-
fects of cultural and gender role socialization on career
decisions.
Finally, few studies have assessed the influence of cultural vari-
ables, such as acculturation, on Hispanics’ career-related
behaviors
(Arbona, 1995).
One notable exception to the research described above was a
study investigating the educational plans and career
expectations
of Mexican American high school girls (McWhirter, Hackett, &
Bandalos, 1998). McWhirter and her colleagues studied the
utility
of Farmer’s (1985) model of career commitment and aspirations
7. in
explaining the educational planning and career expectations of
Mexican American adolescent women. They extended Farmer’s
model by including acculturation and perceived barriers in their
theoretical models. The results of this study indicated that their
models described the educational and career plans of a sample
of
Mexican American girls; however, only a modest amount of
vari-
ance was accounted for by the models. Thus, McWhirter et al.
encouraged researchers to include additional variables when de-
veloping future models of the career development of Mexican
American adolescent women. Moreover, McWhirter et al. sug-
gested that Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s (1994) social cognitive
career theory had promise for advancing knowledge regarding
the
career development of Mexican American women.
Lent and his colleagues (Lent et al., 1994) extended Bandura’s
(1986) social cognitive theory and Hackett and Betz’s (1981)
career self-efficacy theory to develop a social cognitive career
theory (SCCT) that hypothesized the influence of personal, con-
textual, and social cognitive factors on interest formation,
career
goals, and performance. Of interest in this study are the
proposi-
tions of SCCT that background contextual variables exert an
influence on career self-efficacy, which in turn directly
influences
career interests. In addition, Lent et al. posited that career
interests
directly influence career goals and that career self-efficacy both
directly and indirectly (through career interests) influences
career
goals. Finally, proximal contextual variables were hypothesized
to
8. exert direct effects on career goals (see Figure 1). Lent and his
colleagues suggested that SCCT may be used to guide inquiry
on
the career development of women and racial/ethnic minorities,
and
they recently advocated for more research to test the hypotheses
related to the contextual variables in their model (Lent, Brown,
&
Figure 1. Portions of Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s (1994) model
of career choice tested in the present study.
15MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
Hackett, 2000). Recent studies provided partial support for the
model with racially diverse middle school students (Fouad &
Smith, 1996) as well as Asian American (Tang, Fouad, & Smith,
1999) and Black college students (Gainor & Lent, 1998);
however,
no studies to date have investigated the validity of SCCT with
Mexican American adolescent women.
To test this theory, when operationalizing the constructs ad-
vanced by Lent et al. (1994), we selected variables that were
hypothesized to be salient for racial/ethnic minorities or
women.
Specifically, in our model, we operationalized background
contex-
tual variables to include acculturation level, feminist attitudes,
and
mothers’ modeling through educational attainment and occupa-
tion. Multicultural researchers have identified the importance of
examining within-group differences of racial and ethnic sub-
groups, and Casas and Pytluk (1995) discussed acculturation as
9. one variable that differentiates Hispanic subgroups or
individuals
within a subgroup. Moreover, McWhirter et al. (1998) noted
that
acculturation was the only variable that they added to Farmer’s
(1985) model that accounted for significant variance in the edu-
cational aspirations of Mexican American girls. Other
researchers
also documented that acculturation was positively related to
edu-
cational aspirations (Ramos & Sanchez, 1995), in addition to
interest in nontraditional careers (Reyes et al., 1999), college
attendance (Hurtado & Gauvain, 1997), and achievement styles
(Gomez & Fassinger, 1994) among Hispanic students.
Other variables, specifically feminist and gender role attitudes,
have been shown to relate to the career choices of young women
(Betz, 1994; O’Brien & Fassinger, 1993), such that women with
traditional gender role attitudes exhibited lower levels of career
orientation and aspiration than women holding liberal gender
role
attitudes. Among Mexican American girls, nontraditional gender
role attitudes were positively related to higher levels of
educational
and career expectations (McWhirter et al., 1998) and academic
achievement (Valenzuela, 1993; Vasquez-Nuttal, Romero-
Garcia,
& De Leon, 1987). For Mexican American women, cultural ex-
pectations about gender roles may result in traditional gender
role
attitudes or nonfeminist attitudes (Ginorio, Gutierrez, Cauce, &
Acosta, 1995; Reid, Haritos, Kelly, & Holland, 1995), which in
turn may contribute to lower levels of career achievement.
In addition, parental factors, such as occupation and educational
level, were found to relate to academic achievement and
10. parental
involvement in Mexican American students’ educational and ca-
reer planning (Keith & Lichtman, 1994). With regard to the
influence of mothers, having a mother who attended college was
predictive of college attendance and persistence among Latinas
(Cardoza, 1991). However, other studies that assessed the role
of
parents’ educational or occupational attainment in children’s
edu-
cational and career aspirations reported no relation (Fisher &
Padmawidjaja, 1999; Hernandez et al., 1994; Hess & D’Amato,
1996; Lango, 1995; Reyes et al., 1999), possibly because of the
highly skewed number of parents with lower educational and
occupational levels in these samples. The influence of mothers’
educational level and occupational traditionality were included
in
the present study to determine their influence on daughters’
career
development.
According to SCCT, these background variables were hypoth-
esized to influence nontraditional career self-efficacy or confi-
dence in pursuing nontraditional career-related tasks for women
(Lent et al., 1994). In turn, nontraditional career self-efficacy
should exert a direct effect on both nontraditional career
interests
and career goals (i.e., career choice prestige, career choice
tradi-
tionality, and career aspirations). Indeed, these relations have
been
supported in prior studies, which reported that career self-
efficacy
was related to career interests and careers considered among
Hispanic students (Bores-Rangel, Church, Szendre, & Reeves,
1990; Church, Teresa, Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992; Lauver &
11. Jones, 1991). In addition, research has shown that career
interests
were related to careers considered among Hispanic students
(Bores-Rangel et al., 1990; Church et al., 1992). These findings
were consistent with SCCT, which posited a direct link between
career interests and career goals.
We also hypothesized, in accordance with SCCT (Lent et al.,
1994), that the proximal contextual variables of perceived
support
from parents and perceptions of barriers will influence career
choice prestige, traditionality, and career aspirations. Among
Lati-
nas, encouragement and emotional support from families have
been found to be predictive of educational achievement
(Hernan-
dez et al., 1994; Keith & Lichtman, 1994; Ramos & Sanchez,
1995) and college attendance (Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996).
With regard to perceived barriers, Hispanic students reported
ex-
periencing more barriers to education than students from other
racial/ethnic groups (Luzzo, 1992; McWhirter, 1997), and Mexi-
can American women who experienced negative family attitudes
related to their college attendance were more likely to attend
college close to home (Wycoff, 1996). McWhirter et al. (1998)
found no relation among perceived barriers and Mexican Ameri-
can girls’ educational or career plans. However, they suggested
that the influence of perceived barriers on academic and
vocational
goals be further tested with additional samples. It is possible
that
Mexican American adolescent women’s increased levels of per-
ceived barriers to their educational or career goals may alter
their
decision making, such that they plan to pursue careers that
present
12. the least resistance.
In summary, this study was designed to test several tenets of
SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) with a sample of Mexican American
adolescent women. Specifically, we explored the influence of
background contextual variables, namely, acculturation level,
fem-
inist attitudes, mother’s educational level, and mother’s occupa-
tional traditionality on nontraditional career self-efficacy. Addi-
tionally, we investigated the contributions of nontraditional
career
self-efficacy, nontraditional career interests, parental support,
and
perceived barriers to career choice prestige, career choice tradi-
tionality, and career aspirations. These dependent variables
were
selected because of their importance to women’s career
develop-
ment (Fitzgerald, Fassinger, & Betz, 1995; O’Brien &
Fassinger,
1993). A secondary purpose of this study was to obtain
descriptive
information regarding participants’ demographic characteristics,
career choices, plans following high school graduation, choice
of
colleges/universities, and reasons for choosing these schools,
given the lack of data regarding this population and their career
plans.
Method
Participants
Participants were Mexican American adolescent women enrolled
in their
senior year of high school. At the same time, Mexican American
13. adoles-
16 FLORES AND O’BRIEN
cent men were surveyed for a later study. Participants were
drawn from two
large public high schools in a mid-sized town (a population of
approxi-
mately 30,000) in south Texas. The community is close to the
United
States–Mexican border and is heavily influenced by the
Mexican culture.
A high percentage of U.S. citizens who are of Mexican descent
live in this
area, and this is reflected in the student population at the high
schools, in
which almost 95% of the students are Mexican American.
A total of 931 surveys were distributed to students; 831 were
returned
(450 female, 381 male), resulting in an 89% overall return rate.
Women
who were in their senior year of high school and who identified
as Mexican
American were included in this study (n � 377). Of these
women, 13 were
dropped from the study because of incomplete data, resulting in
a total
sample of 364. Participants ranged in age from 16 to 21 years
with a mean
age of 17.47 (SD � 0.70). The average number of people living
at home
was 4.83 (SD � 1.71; range � 2 to 13).
14. Eighteen percent of the students (n � 65) reported that they
were
first-generation Mexican American, with 37.9% (n � 138)
second gener-
ation, 11.3% (n � 41) third generation, 19.2% (n � 70) fourth
generation,
and 10.7% (n � 39) fifth generation. With regard to
acculturation level,
17% (n � 61) were categorized as “very Mexican oriented,”
38% (n �
138) “Mexican oriented to approximately balanced bicultural,”
34% (n �
123) “slightly Anglo oriented bicultural,” 10% (n � 37)
“strongly Anglo
oriented,” and 1% (n � 5) “very assimilated, Anglicized.”
The educational level of the female and male head of household,
respectively, was as follows: completed elementary school, 24%
and 21%;
attended high school, 25% and 23%; high school graduate, 19%
and 21%;
attended college/university, 14% and 12%; college/university
graduate,
10% and 12%; and graduate or professional degree, 2% and 1%.
Eighty-seven percent (n � 317) of the students planned to
attend a 2- or
4-year college/university following their high school
graduation, with the
remaining students indicating plans to attend technical school
(5.5%), work
(3.2%), enlist in the military (2.1%), and marry or stay at home
(0.5%).
Among students with intentions to continue their education at a
2- or 4-year
college/university, almost half (43.2%, n � 137) reported that
15. they would
work either full time (1.9%, n � 6) or part time (41.3%, n �
131). Over
a third (39.1%, n � 124) planned to attend the local 4-year
university,
and 19.2% (n � 61) planned to attend the local 2-year
community college.
The most often cited reasons for choosing to attend the college
or univer-
sity of their choice were because it was close to home and
family (36.5%,
n � 116), had a good program of study (10.7%, n � 34), was a
good
college/university (6.9%, n � 22), and was affordable or
inexpensive to
attend (4.1%, n � 13). Sixty-eight percent (n � 214) indicated
that they
would rely on financial aid (e.g., loans, grants, and work study)
to finance
their education, whereas 31.5% (n � 100) hoped to earn
scholar-
ships, 26.5% (n � 84) planned to receive financial support from
their
parents or other family members, and 25% (n � 78) planned to
work.
Procedure
Data collection occurred during the fall semester of the school
year.
Student participation was solicited through English IV classes
because
every senior was required to enroll in this class. Data collection
occurred
across 4 days, and Lisa Y. Flores met with every English IV
section (n �
16. 46) at both schools. English teachers escorted their students to a
central
room at the beginning of the class period and stayed to monitor
students’
behaviors.
Packets containing an informed-assent form, an entry form for
cash
prizes, and the research instruments were distributed to students
as they
entered the room. The questionnaires were counterbalanced to
avoid order
effects from fatigue. Participants were told that the investigator
was inter-
ested in studying the career development of Mexican American
adoles-
cents. Students were told that it would take them most, if not
all, of the
class period to complete the questionnaires and were
encouraged to work
quickly. The investigator told the students that two of the
surveys looked
very similar (each listed the same occupations and educational
programs),
but these surveys asked students to rate either interests or skills.
Students
were informed of a possible follow-up study and were invited to
participate
in future studies. As an incentive to participate in the study,
students who
completed and returned the surveys were eligible for a random
drawing for
cash prizes (10 prizes for $20 and 1 prize for $50).
Instruments
17. Acculturation level. The Acculturation Rating Scale for
Mexican
Americans (ARSMA–II; Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995)
was a
30-item scale that assessed association with and identity with
the Mexican
and Anglo cultures on two independent subscales. Participants
responded
to the items using a 5-point scale ranging from not at all (1) to
extremely
often or almost always (5). An acculturation score was
calculated by
subtracting the mean score for items on the Anglo Orientation
Subscale
(AOS) from the mean score for items on the Mexican
Orientation Subscale
(MOS). On the basis of their acculturation score, participants
were cate-
gorized into one of the five acculturation levels described by
Cuellar et al.
(1995). Levels range from very Mexican oriented (1) to very
assimilated
(5). Middle categories represented bicultural individuals. Thus,
high scores
were indicative of a strong orientation toward the Anglo
culture.
The ARSMA–II, as well as prior to its revision, the ARSMA, is
one of
the most widely used measures to assess acculturation among
Mexican
Americans, and evidence suggests that it is a reliable and valid
instrument.
Adequate internal consistency coefficients have been reported
for the two
18. subscales with multiple samples (range from .79 to .83 for the
AOS and .87
to .91 for the MOS; Cuellar et al., 1995; Cuellar & Roberts,
1997;
Lessenger, 1997). Reliability coefficients of .77 for the AOS
and .91 for the
MOS were obtained in the present study.
Cuellar and his colleagues also reported a test–retest reliability
estimate
for the AOS and MOS over a 2-week interval of .94 and .96,
respectively.
Concurrent validity was assessed by comparing scores on the
ARSMA–II
with scores on the ARSMA and yielded a correlation coefficient
of .89.
Concurrent validity for the ARSMA–II was further supported
when its two
subscales correlated in the expected direction with the dominant
group and
ethnic group subscales of the Stephenson Multigroup
Acculturation Scale
(Stephenson, 2000). Lessenger (1997) provided additional
support for
concurrent validity when she reported that acculturation scores
on the
ARSMA–II correlated positively with other acculturation
measures. Con-
struct validity was supported when acculturation scores on the
ARSMA–II
were compared across generations, and differences were found
between
generation levels in the expected directions (Cuellar et al.,
1995; Lessen-
ger, 1997).
19. Feminist attitudes. The Attitudes Toward Feminism and the
Women’s
Movement Scale (FWM; Fassinger, 1994) was used to measure
feminist
attitudes. The FWM is a 10-item scale that assessed attitudes
about the
feminist movement. Participants rated their agreement with the
items along
a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly
agree (5).
Scale scores were obtained by averaging the items; high scores
reflect
profeminist attitudes.
Fassinger (1994) reported that the FWM had high internal
consistency
(� � .89), and O’Brien and Fassinger (1993) reported an
internal reliability
coefficient of .82 for the FWM with a sample of adolescent
women.
Cronbach’s alpha for this sample was .68. Enns and Hackett
(1990)
reported a 2-week test–retest reliability coefficient of .81 with
female
college students. Convergent validity for the FWM was
supported when the
FWM was positively correlated with measures assessing
attitudes toward
women, gender roles, and feminism (Enns & Hackett, 1990;
Fassinger,
1994). In addition, the FWM correlated positively with items
assessing
feminist identification and favorability toward the women’s
movement
(Fassinger, 1994). Finally, Enns and Hackett (1990) reported
that the FWM
20. correlated in the expected directions with both interest and
involvement in
feminist activities. Divergent validity estimates revealed that
the FWM was
17MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
not measuring gender role characteristics, dogmatism, and
social desirabil-
ity (Fassinger, 1994).
Mother’s level of education. A single item asked participants to
indi-
cate the highest level of education completed by their mother.
Options
ranged from elementary school to graduate/professional school.
High
scores represented high levels of education.
Mother’s occupational traditionality. An item asked participants
to
indicate their mother’s occupation, which was later categorized
according
to traditionality. Traditionality of mother’s career was
computed on the
basis of the percentage of women employed in a given career
and was
obtained through the Statistical Abstract of the United States
(1998), a
publication of the U.S. Bureau of the Census. The U.S. Census
Bureau
relies on information from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
and Em-
ployment and Earnings to report these data. Scores ranged from
21. 6 to 99,
with high scores representing careers with high concentrations
of women.
This indicator of career orientation has been used in previous
studies of
women’s career development (O’Brien, 1996; O’Brien &
Fassinger, 1993;
O’Brien, Friedman, Tipton, & Linn, 2000).
Nontraditional career self-efficacy. Self-efficacy expectations
with re-
gard to nontraditional occupations were assessed using a short
form of the
occupational self-efficacy questionnaire used by Church et al.
(1992). The
self-efficacy questionnaire used in this study was comparable
with career
self-efficacy measures used by Betz and Hackett (1981) and
Lauver and
Jones (1991). The original occupational questionnaire contained
a total
of 31 occupations for which participants rated their confidence
in their
ability to successfully learn to perform the job. The
nontraditional career
self-efficacy scale used for this study was modified to include
seven
male-dominated occupations (e.g., electronic equipment
repairer, police
officer, mechanical engineer). Occupations were categorized
according to
the percentage of women in the occupation according to U.S.
census data
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998). A brief description of the
occupation
was provided for each job title.
22. Participants were asked to rate their confidence in their ability
and skills
to successfully learn to do the jobs. Participants responded to
the items
using a scale ranging from very unsure (1) to very sure (4).
Although
studies typically use 5-point scales to measure strength of self-
efficacy, we
followed the reasoning of Bores-Rangel et al. (1990), whose
sample
predominantly consisted of Hispanic students, that students may
depend-
ably and meaningfully discriminate these four bipolar levels.
Occupational
self-efficacy scores for male-dominated occupations were
obtained by
averaging the responses to the items. High scores reflected
strong levels of
nontraditional career self-efficacy.
Church et al. (1992) reported an internal consistency reliability
of .95 for
the 31-item self-efficacy scale with a sample of predominantly
Hispanic
racial/ethnic minority high school students. Convergent validity
was sup-
ported with a sample of Mexican American boys when
nontraditional
career self-efficacy was positively related to nontraditional
career interests,
consideration of nontraditional careers, and selection of careers
dominated
by men (Flores, 2000). Divergent validity estimates indicated
that nontra-
ditional career self-efficacy was not related to acculturation or
23. feminist
attitudes (Flores, 2000). Church et al. reported that the self-
efficacy scale
was not measuring aptitude. An alpha coefficient of .81 for the
short
version of the nontraditional self-efficacy scale was obtained in
the present
study.
Nontraditional career interests. Students’ nontraditional
occupational
interests were assessed using the same male-dominated
occupations on the
nontraditional career self-efficacy scale. Participants were
asked to indicate
their interest in the jobs listed on a scale ranging from dislike
(1) to like (3);
this scale is similar to ones used in other career interest
inventories. Scoring
the nontraditional career interests scale consisted of summing
the items and
dividing by the number of items to obtain a mean score. High
scores
reflected strong levels of interest for the nontraditional or male-
dominated
occupations.
Church et al. (1992) reported an internal consistency reliability
of .86 for
the 31-item interest scale with a sample comprising mainly
Hispanic
students. Construct validity was supported when the original
scale corre-
lated positively with another interest measure (Church et al.,
1992). In
addition, among a group of Mexican American boys, it
24. correlated posi-
tively with nontraditional career self-efficacy, consideration of
nontradi-
tional careers, and choice of nontraditional careers, providing
support for
convergent validity (Flores, 2000). It was not related to feminist
attitudes
(Flores, 2000). Cronbach’s alpha was .74 for the present study.
Parental support. The Career Support Scale (CSS; Binen,
Franta, &
Thye, 1995) was used to assess the amount of perceived support
and
encouragement that participants received in their career pursuits
from their
parents. The CSS was adapted by assessing support from both
parents
concurrently rather than individually and by reducing the
number of items
(10 items that were cross-listed on both Mother and Father
subscales were
retained). Sample items included “My parents agree with my
career goals”
and “My parents and I often discuss my career plans.”
Participants re-
sponded to the 10 items using a 5-point scale ranging from
almost never (1)
to almost always (5). Scale scores were obtained by averaging
the items.
High scores reflected strong levels of perceived support from
parents.
Reliability estimates were .87 for the 22-item Mother–CSS and
.90 for
the 18-item Father–CSS (Binen et al., 1995). Internal
consistency for the
25. modified CCS used in the present study was .76. Discriminant
validity
estimates indicated that the Mother and Father subscales were
not signif-
icantly correlated with social desirability (Binen et al., 1995).
Perceived occupational barriers. The Perceptions of Barriers
scale
(POB; McWhirter, 1997) was a 24-item scale that assessed
ethnic and
gender-related occupational and educational barriers. Because
the present
study assessed career choice goals, only those items of the POB
that
measured participants’ job-related barriers were included. Eight
items,
which assessed anticipated future gender and ethnic
discrimination in the
workplace, were used for this study. Individuals responded to
the items
using a scale ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly
disagree (5).
Scale scores were derived by averaging the responses. High
scores re-
flected low anticipation of gender or ethnic discrimination in a
career.
McWhirter (1997) reported an alpha coefficient of .89 for the
job
discrimination items, and a reliability estimate of .91 was
obtained with the
present sample. Construct validity was supported when
McWhirter (1997)
found significant differences in anticipated job discrimination
between
Mexican American and European American students, boys and
26. girls, and
Mexican American girls and European American girls in the
expected
directions.
Career choice prestige and traditionality. Participants were
asked to
list their top three career choices. The traditionality rating of
the top career
choice was obtained with the same procedure for mothers’
occupational
traditionality.
Career choice prestige was determined on the basis of Stevens
and
Featherman’s (1981) socioeconomic index of occupational
status. Scores
ranged from 13 to 89, with high scores indicating prestigious
careers. This
indicator of career choice has been used in previous studies of
women’s
and racial/ethnic minorities’ career development (O’Brien,
1996; O’Brien
& Fassinger, 1993; O’Brien et al., 2000; Tang et al., 1999).
Career aspiration. The Career Aspiration Scale (CAS; O’Brien,
1992)
contained 10 items that assessed participants’ goals and plans
within their
career field. Example items included “I plan on developing as
an expert in
my career field” and “I do not plan on devoting energy in
getting promoted
in the organization or business I am working in.” Participants
indicated
whether the items applied to them by using a 5-point scale
27. ranging from not
at all true of me (0) to very true of me (4). Scale scores were
derived by
calculating the mean score for the items. High scores indicated
strong
aspirations in one’s career pursuits.
Internal consistency of the CAS has been reported as .76
(O’Brien &
Fassinger, 1993) with female high school students and .77
(Dukstein &
O’Brien, 1994) and .80 (Nauta, Epperson, & Kahn, 1998) with
female
18 FLORES AND O’BRIEN
undergraduate students. In the present study, a reliability
coefficient of .61
was obtained. Convergent validity for the CAS was supported
by relations
with multiple role self-efficacy, career decision-making self-
efficacy, and
career salience (O’Brien, Gray, Tourajdi, & Eigenbrode, 1996).
Discrimi-
nant validity was demonstrated through the absence of relations
between
the CAS and social desirability, as well as a negative relation
between the
CAS and a measure of the relative importance of career versus
family
(O’Brien et al., 1996).
Demographic information. A demographic information survey
was
28. included to obtain age, gender, race/ethnicity, grade level,
number of
people living at home, family income, plans following high
school grad-
uation, parents’ level of education, and parents’ occupations. If
participants
were planning to continue their education following high
school, informa-
tion regarding their major of study, choice of college/university
to attend,
sources of financial support for education, and reasons for
choosing the
college/university was obtained.
Results
The means, standard deviations, ranges, and reliability coeffi-
cients for each of the measured variables, along with a
correlation
matrix, are presented for the full sample in Table 1.
Model Predicting Mexican American Adolescent Women’s
Career Choice Prestige
The original sample of 364 Mexican American young women
was randomly split into two samples. A sample consisting of
262
women was used to test the original models, and a validation
sample consisting of 102 women was set aside for confirmation
purposes in the case that any of the models were revised. A path
analysis was conducted using the EQS (Version 5.7) statistical
package (Bentler & Wu, 1995).
The hypothesized model predicting career choice prestige tested
the paths from acculturation level, feminist attitudes, mothers’
educational level, and mothers’ occupational traditionality to
29. non-
traditional career self-efficacy; nontraditional career self-
efficacy
to nontraditional career interests; and nontraditional career self-
efficacy, nontraditional career interests, parental support, and
per-
ceived future barriers to career choice prestige. The exogenous
variables, which included the background and proximal
contextual
variables, in the model were allowed to covary.
Adequacy of model fit was determined by using a variety of
goodness-of-fit measures, including the chi-square test, the
com-
parative fit index (CFI), the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), the
root-
mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the
standard-
ized root-mean-squared residual (SRMR). The CFI and RMSEA
goodness-of-fit measures are preferred indexes by which to
assess
model fit (Loehlin, 1998).
If a model provides adequate fit, a small chi-square value and a
nonsignificant p value are expected. Values for the CFI and GFI
indexes range from 0 to 1; models with values above .90 have
traditionally been considered models with good fit (Loehlin,
1998); however, values of .95 and higher are suggested today as
the baseline to assess model fit. Models with RMSEA and
SRMR
values around or below .05 (“close fit”) are considered
acceptable
models (Loehlin, 1998). To further test the adequacy of the
model,
Hu and Bentler (1999) recommended joint criteria to minimize
30. the
dual threats of rejecting the right model and retaining the wrong
model. Specifically, a model can be retained if the CFI is .96
and
the SRMR is �.10, or the RMSEA is �.06 and SRMR is �.10.
See Table 2 for a summary of the goodness-of-fit indices for the
career prestige model.
The chi-square statistic for the model predicting career choice
prestige was significant, suggesting a poor fit. However, given
that
the chi-square statistic is overly stringent in its evaluation of
exact
fit (Quintana & Maxwell, 1999), other indexes were studied.
Examination of the CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR indexes implied
that
the data fit the model poorly, indicating that the fit between the
data and model could be improved. Thus, the model was
rejected.
We attempted to identify modifications to the model to improve
the fit of the model and followed the suggestions of MacCallum,
Roznowski, and Necowitz (1992) that changes be made only
when
they are theoretically meaningful. The Lagrange multiplier test
suggested that the model could be improved by adding paths
from
acculturation level and feminist attitudes to career choice
prestige.
The influence of acculturation level on career choice prestige
was
consistent with prior research, which indicated that among
racial/
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges, Reliability Coefficients,
31. and Correlations Among the Measured Variables
Variable M SD Range � 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Acculturation level 2.42 0.93 1–5 —
2. Attitudes toward feminism 3.43 0.43 1–5 .68 .15* —
3. Mothers’ level of education 2.65 1.37 1–6 �.47* �.13* —
4. Mothers’ occupational
traditionality
85.08 17.31 16–99 .09 .09 �.21* —
5. Nontraditional career
self-efficacy
1.75 0.68 1–4 .81 .03 .07 �.04 �.01 —
6. Nontraditional career interests 1.45 0.43 1–3 .74 .05 .12*
�.12* .05 .59* —
7. Career choice traditionality 56.58 27.02 6–99 .23* .15*
�.17* .12* �.18* �.12* —
8. Career choice prestige 64.43 18.59 13–89 �.17* �.01 .16*
�.11 .09 �.01 �.44* —
9. Career aspiration 2.48 0.53 0–4 .61 .11* .31* �.12 .01 .10*
.12* .02 �.05 —
10. Parental support 4.16 0.72 1–5 .76 �.09 .03 .14* �.02 �.09
�.08 �.03 .13* .13* —
11. Perceived occupational barriers 3.97 0.81 1–5 .91 .05 .04
.06 �.01 �.07 �.12* .07 �.11 �.03 .12* —
Note. Statistics are reported for the full sample of 364 Mexican
American adolescent women.
* p � .05.
19MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
32. ethnic minorities in the United States, levels of acculturation
can
directly and indirectly influence career choice and career expec-
tations (Leong & Chou, 1994; McWhirter et al., 1998; Tang et
al.,
1999). Adding the path from feminist attitudes to career choice
prestige was justified on the basis of prior research that
supported
the relation between feminist attitudes (Fassinger, 1990;
O’Brien
& Fassinger, 1993) and career outcomes, such as educational
achievement or career choices.
The model was rerun with these changes, and the fit indexes
indicated a superior fit to the data (see Table 2 for a summary
of
the fit indexes for the initial and revised model predicting
career
choice prestige). Comparing the chi-square statistic for the
initial
and the revised models allows a determination of whether the
modifications resulted in significant improvement in the
model’s
fit (Quintana & Maxwell, 1999). The revised model was a
signif-
icant improvement over the initial model, �2 difference(2, N �
262) � 39.94, p � .01.
Because revisions were made to the original model and because
modifications were based on data from the calibration sample, it
was necessary to validate the revised model using the second
sample. The modified model was run with the validation
sample,
33. and the fit indexes with this group were satisfactory (see Table
2).
To determine whether the corresponding paths had the same
values
across both groups, we performed a multiple group analysis
with
Group 1 as the calibration sample (n � 262) and Group 2 as the
validation sample (n � 102). This analysis runs the model
simul-
taneously for both groups and follows a two-step procedure.
First,
the revised model was tested and the path values were estimated
for each group. Next, we tested the revised model again with all
paths constrained to have equal values across both groups. A
comparison of the chi-square statistic for the multiple group
anal-
ysis with no constraints and the multiple group analysis with
constraints determines whether these models were significantly
different. If the chi-square difference between the constrained
and
nonconstrained models is significant, the path coefficients
differ
across samples. The model predicting career prestige resulted in
a
nonsignificant chi-square value, �2(11, N � 364) � 24.95, p �
.05, indicating that the paths values were not significantly
different
across the two groups. Thus, the modified model was replicated
satisfactorily with the two samples of Mexican American
adoles-
cent women, providing support for the revised model. Table 3
presents the results of the multigroup comparisons for the model
predicting career choice prestige.
The next step involved running the revised model using the
34. combined sample of 364 Mexican American adolescent women
given that the model was replicated for both groups. See Table
2
for a summary of the fit indexes. The squared multiple
correlation
coefficient (R2) was obtained by squaring the residual
coefficient
of the criterion variable and subtracting that value by 1. The R2
for
the model of career prestige indicated that 8% of the variance in
career choice prestige was accounted for by acculturation level,
feminist attitudes, nontraditional career self-efficacy, nontradi-
tional career interests, parental support, and perception of
future
barriers. See Figure 2 for the revised model predicting Mexican
American girls’ career choice prestige.
Model Predicting Mexican American Adolescent Women’s
Career Choice Traditionality
The hypothesized model predicting career choice traditionality
tested the same paths identified in the career prestige model,
Table 2
Summary of Model-Fit Statistics
Model �2 df p CFI GFI RMSEA 90% CI for RMSEA SRMR
Hypothesized career choice prestige modela 50.28 12 �.01 .84
.96 .11 (0.080, 0.143) .07
Revised career choice prestige modela 10.34 10 .41 .99 .99 .01
(0.000, 0.069) .03
Revised career choice prestige modelb 13.31 10 .21 .96 .97 .06
(0.000, 0.129) .05
Revised career choice prestige modelc 19.14 10 .04 .97 .99 .05
(0.011, 0.084) .04
35. Hypothesized career choice traditionality modela 36.35 12 �.01
.89 .97 .09 (0.056, 0.122) .06
Revised career choice traditionality modela 11.31 10 .33 .99 .99
.02 (0.000, 0.073) .03
Revised career choice traditionality modelb 13.48 10 .20 .96 .97
.06 (0.000, 0.130) .05
Revised career choice traditionality modelc 18.92 10 .04 .97 .99
.05 (0.010, 0.083) .04
Hypothesized career aspiration modela 34.65 12 �.01 .89 .97
.09 (0.053, 0.119) .06
Revised career aspiration modela 11.36 11 .41 .99 .99 .01
(0.000, 0.066) .03
Revised career aspiration modelb 12.52 11 .33 .99 .97 .04
(0.000, 0.114) .05
Revised career aspiration modelc 18.47 11 .07 .98 .99 .04
(0.000, 0.076) .04
Note. CFI � comparative fit index; GFI � goodness-of-fit
index; RMSEA � root-mean-square error of approximation; CI
� confidence interval;
SRMR � standardized root-mean-squared residual.
a Calibration sample (n � 262). b Validation sample (n � 102).
c Full sample (n � 364 Mexican American girls).
Table 3
Summary of Multigroup Analyses Between Split Sample of
Mexican American Adolescent Women
Model �2 df
Career choice prestige model, no constraints 23.64 20
Career choice prestige model with constraints 48.59 31
Comparison of career choice prestige models 24.95* 11
Career choice traditionality model, no constraints 23.88 22
Career choice traditionality model with constraints 30.13 32
Comparison of career traditionality models 6.25* 10
36. Career aspiration model, no constraints 24.79 20
Career aspiration model with constraints 33.39 31
Comparison of career aspiration models 8.60* 11
Note. Significance test refers to chi-square difference tests
between con-
strained and nonconstrained models.
* p � .05.
20 FLORES AND O’BRIEN
except that career choice traditionality was used as the criterion
variable. The contextual variables in the model were allowed to
covary.
The chi-square statistic for the model predicting career choice
traditionality was significant, suggesting that the model demon-
strated poor fit. Examination of the CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR
implied a poor fit with the data; however, the GFI indicated an
adequate fit. On the basis of Hu and Bentler’s (1999) criteria,
the
model of career choice traditionality was rejected.
Again, attempts were made to identify modifications to the
model based on suggestions that were theoretically sound.
Adding
paths from acculturation level and feminist attitudes to career
choice traditionality were suggested by the Lagrange multiplier,
and these additions were justified on the basis of previous
research
(Fassinger, 1990; Leong & Chou, 1994; McWhirter et al., 1998;
O’Brien & Fassinger, 1993; Tang et al., 1999) that found
relations
among acculturation levels, feminist attitudes, and career
37. choice.
The model was rerun with the modifications and the fit indices
improved (see Table 2 for a summary of the fit indexes for the
initial and revised model predicting career choice
traditionality).
The values on the CFI and GFI exceeded .95, and the RMSEA
and
SRMR values were less than .05. Further, the revised model met
Hu and Bentler’s (1999) recommended criteria for model accep-
tance. The chi-square difference test indicated that the revised
model was a significant improvement over the initial model, �2
difference(2, N � 262) � 25.04, p � .01.
Consistent with the previous method of analysis, the revised
model predicting career choice traditionality was tested on the
validation sample. On the basis of the fit indexes (see Table 2),
the
revised model was supported with this sample. We performed a
multiple group analysis to determine if the path coefficients in
the
modified model predicting career choice traditionality could be
replicated in the second sample. The chi-square difference
between
the constrained and nonconstrained models resulted in a nonsig-
nificant chi-square value, �2(11, N � 364) � 6.25, p � .05,
indicating that the values for the paths were not significantly
different across the two groups. Thus, the revised model and the
corresponding path values were validated with the validation
sam-
ple. Table 3 presents the results of the multiple group
comparisons
for the model predicting career choice traditionality.
38. Because the model was replicated with an independent sample,
the calibration and validation samples were combined, and the
revised model was run using the full sample. See Table 2 for a
summary of the fit indexes. The squared multiple correlation
coefficient in the revised model of career traditionality
indicated
that 11% of the variance in career choice traditionality was ac-
counted for by acculturation level, feminist attitudes, nontradi-
tional career self-efficacy, nontraditional career interests,
parental
support, and perception of future barriers. See Figure 3 for the
revised model predicting Mexican American girls’ career choice
traditionality.
Model Predicting Mexican American Adolescent Women’s
Career Aspiration
The hypothesized model predicting career aspiration tested the
same paths identified in the previous models, except that career
aspiration was used as the criterion variable. The exogenous
vari-
ables in the model were allowed to covary.
The chi-square statistic for the model predicting career aspira-
tions was significant, suggesting that the model demonstrated
poor
fit. Examination of the CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR fit indexes
indicated a poor fit with the data; however, the GFI indicated
adequate fit. By using Hu and Bentler’s (1999) criteria, the
original
model was rejected.
Respecifications to the model were suggested on the basis of the
Lagrange multiplier modification index. The addition of a path
from feminist attitudes to career aspiration was suggested and
was
39. supported by prior research (Fassinger, 1990; O’Brien & Fass-
inger, 1993).
Figure 2. Respecified model predicting Mexican American
adolescent women’s career choice prestige.
*p � .05.
21MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
The revised model was reestimated and the fit indices improved
(see Table 2 for a summary of the fit indexes for the initial and
revised model predicting career aspiration). Examination of the
chi-square differences between the two models indicated that
the
revised model was an improvement over the initial model, �2
difference(1, N � 262) � 23.29, p � .01.
The revised model was estimated on the validation sample, and
the fit indexes (see Table 2) suggested that this model
adequately
fit the data. We performed a multiple group analysis to
determine
if the path values in the modified model predicting career
aspira-
tion would generalize to other samples in the population. The
chi-square difference between the constrained and
nonconstrained
models resulted in a nonsignificant chi-square value, �2(11, N
�
364) � 8.60, p � .05, indicating that the values of the paths
were
not significantly different across the two groups. Thus, the
revised
40. model and the path coefficients were supported with the
validation
sample. Table 3 presents the results of the multiple group com-
parisons for the model predicting career aspiration.
Again, both of the samples were combined, and a path analysis
of the revised model was performed using the full sample. See
Table 2 for a summary of the fit indexes. The squared multiple
correlation coefficient for the model of career aspiration
indicated
that 13% of the variance in career aspiration was accounted for
by
feminist attitudes, nontraditional career self-efficacy, nontradi-
tional career interests, parental support, and perception of
future
barriers. See Figure 4 for the revised model predicting Mexican
American girls’ career aspiration.
There were no significant paths between the background con-
textual variables of acculturation level, feminist attitudes,
mothers’
educational level, mothers’ occupational traditionality, and non-
traditional career self-efficacy. Nontraditional career self-
efficacy
predicted nontraditional career interests in all models; however,
nontraditional career interests did not predict any of the three
criterion variables of career choice prestige, career choice tradi-
tionality, or career aspiration. Acculturation, nontraditional
career
self-efficacy, parental support, and perceived barriers had
signifi-
cant effects on career choice prestige. Acculturation level and
feminist attitudes had a significant positive effect, and nontradi-
tional career self-efficacy had a significant negative effect, on
choice of traditional careers, but parental support and perceived
41. barriers had no significant effects. Finally, higher parental
support
and higher levels of feminist attitudes were predictive of higher
levels of career aspiration. Nontraditional career self-efficacy
and
perceived barriers did not significantly predict Mexican
American
women’s career aspirations.
Descriptive Statistics
A wide range of careers, representing both traditional and non-
traditional occupational fields, were identified as potential
careers
for this sample. The top two occupations endorsed by these
women
were traditionally female occupations (teacher � 16% and
nurse � 11.3%). Eleven percent intended to be doctors, and
over
6% chose physical therapy as their future occupation. A total of
76
occupations were reported. (Contact Lisa Y. Flores for a
complete
list.)
Discussion
This study was the first to test the validity of SCCT (Lent et al.,
1994) in explaining the career-related goals of Mexican
American
adolescent women. Consistent with SCCT, nontraditional career
self-efficacy predicted nontraditional career interests. In
addition,
nontraditional career self-efficacy had a positive effect on
career
choice prestige and a negative effect on career choice
42. traditional-
ity. As hypothesized by Lent et al., the proximal contextual
vari-
ables of parental support and perceived future occupational
barri-
ers directly predicted career choice prestige, and parental
support
was predictive of career aspiration.
Figure 3. Respecified model predicting Mexican American
adolescent women’s career choice traditionality.
*p � .05.
22 FLORES AND O’BRIEN
However, several SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) propositions were
not supported by data from this sample of Mexican American
women. Specifically, relations did not emerge between the
back-
ground contextual variables (i.e., acculturation level, feminist
at-
titudes, mothers’ educational level, and mothers’ occupational
traditionality) and nontraditional career self-efficacy.
Interestingly,
nontraditional career interests did not exert an influence on any
of
the outcome variables tested in this study. Moreover, the
proximal
contextual variables did not influence career traditionality, and
nontraditional career self-efficacy did not predict career
aspiration.
Finally, although not posited by SCCT, adding paths from
acculturation level and feminist attitudes to career choice
43. prestige
and career choice traditionality were suggested based on the
data
and increased the amount of variance explained in each model.
Also, the addition of the path from feminist attitudes to career
aspiration improved the model explaining Mexican American
ad-
olescent women’s career aspirations.
Explication of potential reasons why several SCCT (Lent et al.,
1994) propositions were not replicated in this sample of
Mexican
American women seems warranted. First, support for the SCCT
hypotheses related to the formation of self-efficacy beliefs was
not
demonstrated by our models. Specifically, SCCT hypothesized
that background contextual variables would have an indirect
effect
on nontraditional career self-efficacy through learning
activities.
Although learning opportunities were not measured in this
study,
contextual factors would be expected to exert an influence on
career self-efficacy, assuming their relationship to learning
oppor-
tunities. However, acculturation level, feminist attitudes,
mothers’
educational attainment, and mothers’ career traditionality did
not
predict nontraditional career self-efficacy. These findings sug-
gested that other contextual variables, not assessed in the
present
study, may account for the variance in Mexican American wom-
en’s nontraditional career self-efficacy. Researchers might
inves-
tigate the contributions of related academic and social
44. experiences,
persuasion, and familial expectations in future models to
account
for the role of learning experiences in the development of
Mexican
American women’s nontraditional career self-efficacy.
With regard to acculturation and nontraditional self-efficacy,
previous research demonstrated a relation between these
variables
with another racial/ethnic minority group (Tang et al., 1999).
The
nonsignificant relation with this sample may be due to defining
acculturation level along a single continuum and the
distribution of
the sample, which was overwhelmingly bicultural (n � 237).
Future studies should conduct multisample analyses on the basis
of
acculturation level to determine if differences are present
among
nonacculturated, bicultural, and highly acculturated individuals.
Feminist attitudes also were not related to nontraditional career
self-efficacy, a finding that has been consistently reported in
samples of predominantly White women (O’Brien, 1996;
O’Brien
& Fassinger, 1993). It is possible that the lack of variability in
scores on the measure assessing feminist values made detecting
a
relation with career self-efficacy difficult. Alternatively,
feminist
beliefs may not be salient for this sample of Mexican American
women, perhaps demonstrated by mean scores in the mid-range
on
this instrument. At times, the feminist movement has been criti-
45. cized for focusing on the needs and values of White women
(Espin, 1994). It is possible that moderate beliefs about
feminism
combined with little variability in scores on this measure may
have
contributed to the lack of predictive validity of this variable
with
regard to confidence in pursuing nontraditional occupations.
In addition to acculturation and feminist attitudes not predicting
nontraditional career self-efficacy, mothers’ educational level
and
mothers’ career traditionality did not influence confidence in
pur-
suing nontraditional occupations. There may be other factors in
the
mother– daughter relationship that influence the strength of the
relation to nontraditional career self-efficacy. Indeed, O’Brien
et
al. (1996) found that high school girls’ relationships with their
mothers often included conflictual feelings. These feelings
could
affect mothers’ influence on their daughters’ career decision
mak-
ing. Future research studies should assess the quality of
mother–
Figure 4. Respecified model predicting Mexican American
adolescent women’s career aspirations. *p � .05.
23MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
daughter relationships to ascertain the predictive ability of
moth-
46. ers’ influence on daughters’ career self-efficacy. Alternatively,
these girls may have looked to their fathers for career role mod-
eling, a finding reported by O’Brien et al. (2000). Seeking other
family members for career role modeling may be common
among
Mexican American girls, especially because Mexican American
women tend to be employed in traditional career fields. Indeed,
over a third of this sample reported that their mothers were
homemakers. Thus, we suggest that future studies also assess
the
influence of additional role models beyond mothers, including
fathers, aunts, uncles, grandparents, siblings, and peers.
An additional SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proposition that was not
supported was the hypothesized relation between nontraditional
career self-efficacy and career aspiration. Although
nontraditional
career self-efficacy appears to exert an influence on the types of
careers Mexican American adolescent women choose, this con-
struct did not contribute to their aspiration or goals within a
given
career. Programs that expose Mexican American women to non-
traditional careers and provide opportunities for increased self-
efficacy in performing tasks associated with nontraditional
occu-
pations could enhance the relation between self-efficacy and
aspiration and perhaps increase the number of Mexican
American
adolescent women who develop interests in and choose
nontradi-
tional, prestigious careers (see O’Brien, Dukstein, Jackson,
Tom-
linson, & Kamatuka, 1999, for an example of a career interven-
tion). Moreover, O’Brien and her colleagues suggested that
educational and career planning occur far in advance of
graduation
47. from high school. Indeed, prior research recommended the
imple-
mentation and evaluation of career-oriented workshops, classes,
or
summer programs with middle school and high school students
who are at risk for educational and vocational underachievement
(O’Brien et al., 1999; O’Brien et al., 2000). Fouad (1995) noted
the
need for such interventions to focus specifically on Hispanic
students. Programs that demystify the college experience,
improve
decision-making skills, and assist participants in learning about
themselves, colleges/universities, and careers could enhance
career
self-efficacy.
Also, the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proposition that career
interests influence career goals was not supported by our data; a
similar finding was reported with Asian American college
students
(Tang et al., 1999). For this sample of Mexican American
women,
factors other than interests, such as confidence in their abilities
to
carry out the duties of the career, had a stronger influence on
career
goals. Alternatively, it is possible that Mexican American
adoles-
cent women may not have the luxury of choosing a career based
on
their interests. If this finding is replicated in other samples, we
recommend that Lent et al. consider revising their proposition
to
reflect the lack of salience of interests in predicting the career
paths of women of color. Moreover, psychologists might recon-
sider the use of a traditional approach to career counseling with
48. Mexican American women, as other factors beyond matching
interests and careers may be stronger determinants to their
career
decisions. Counselors also need to assess if career choices are
consonant with interests, and if not, they should explore the
obstacles that may be preventing them from pursuing careers in
which they have interests.
Finally, modifications to the model suggested that acculturation
level significantly influenced the selection of nontraditional,
highly prestigious careers, and feminist attitudes was a
significant
predictor of career traditionality and career aspiration. Women
who were more oriented toward the Anglo culture tended to
choose less prestigious and more traditional careers. Also,
women
with higher levels of feminist attitudes were more likely to
choose
traditional careers and have higher career aspiration. These rela-
tions were contrary to prior research that suggested that
nontradi-
tional gender role attitudes were positively related to Mexican
American women’s educational and career choices (McWhirter
et
al., 1998; Valenzuela, 1993; Vasquez-Nuttal et al., 1987). One
possible explanation for these findings is that acculturated
women
may be aware of the sociopolitical atmosphere for women in
workplaces that are dominated by men and thus may choose to
avoid those careers. Results also indicated that women who as-
cribed to feminist beliefs were more likely to be goal oriented
within their chosen career. Indeed, O’Brien et al. (2000)
reported
this same phenomenon among a sample of White college women
and suggested that women may choose nontraditional, less
49. presti-
gious careers to balance personal and work demands, yet may
desire to achieve within their career. As such, it is reasonable to
expect that these adolescents may perceive more opportunities
for
advancement in traditional careers for women.
Several of Lent et al.’s (1994) propositions were supported by
our data. First, nontraditional career self-efficacy was found to
have a direct influence on Mexican American women’s
nontradi-
tional career interests, career prestige, and career traditionality.
As
nontraditional career self-efficacy increased, nontraditional
career
interests also increased. Furthermore, higher levels of nontradi-
tional career self-efficacy were related to the selection of
nontra-
ditional and prestigious careers. These findings support the
SCCT
propositions that people develop interests in areas in which they
have a strong sense of agency, and they select careers in which
they feel confident about their ability to complete the tasks nec-
essary for the career.
Second, results of the present study provided empirical support
for Lent et al.’s (1994) proposition that the presence of support
and
few perceived barriers has a positive effect on career goals.
Mex-
ican American adolescent women who perceived support from
their parents for their career pursuits and who anticipated fewer
barriers chose prestigious careers, and women who perceived
their
parents to be supportive of their career goals had stronger levels
of
50. career aspiration. This finding contradicts an earlier study that
found that perceptions of barriers were not predictive of the
career
expectations of Mexican American girls (McWhirter et al.,
1998)
and replicates those studies that found that emotional support
from
the family was predictive of educational plans and career expec-
tations (Gandara, 1982; Hernandez et al., 1994; Keith &
Lichtman,
1994; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995; Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996).
These findings suggest that Mexican American adolescent
women may choose highly prestigious careers on the basis of
the
approval of others or their family obligations. Indeed, with the
exception of feminist attitudes, parental support contributed
more
to the prediction of Mexican American women’s selection of
prestigious careers than any other variable assessed in this
study.
These findings are important given the emphasis placed on the
family unit in the Mexican American culture and are consistent
with vocational decision-making behaviors among Asian Ameri-
cans, a group who similarly place a high value on family (Leong
& Gim, 1995; Leong & Serafica, 1995). Mexican American
women from traditional families may not have the support to
24 FLORES AND O’BRIEN
pursue nontraditional educational and vocational aspirations if
they conflict with cultural norms and family expectations.
Coun-
selors should address these factors when working with Mexican
51. American women.
These findings highlight the salience of addressing cultural
and familial expectations when providing career counseling to
Mexican American women. Furthermore, counseling psychol-
ogists should be encouraged to develop innovative career in-
tervention programs for Mexican American adolescents that
involve parents and other family members. Parental involve-
ment in vocational interventions could facilitate the lines of
communication between children and their parents about career
development and job requirements, which could assist students
in planning for their future. Moreover, parents and children
could clarify the expectations and dreams that each holds re-
garding educational and career attainment. Researching the
effectiveness of these programs in students’ educational and
career planning is strongly recommended.
The importance of family also was reflected in the educational
goals of these young women. Most of the participants who
planned
to continue their education beyond high school indicated that
they
would enroll in the local 2-year community college or 4-year
state
university. Indeed, students reported that the proximity of the
college/university to home was one of the most important
factors
in choosing a college/university. Remaining geographically
close
to their families while attending college seems to be a salient
consideration in the educational planning of Mexican American
women. It is unknown, however, whether these young women
choose to stay close to home because of familial expectations or
personal preferences. It is also unclear whether this choice pro-
vides needed support to pursue their educational and career
aspi-
52. rations or if their future opportunities are limited by this
decision.
Research is needed to understand how attending college in the
same hometown facilitates or hinders attrition and graduation
rates
as well as the career orientation of Mexican American women.
Future researchers should also consider incorporating additional
variables not included in the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) model of
career choice given that the hypothesized models only
accounted
for 8%, 11%, and 13% of the variance in the prediction of
prestige,
traditionality, and career aspiration, respectively. Because the
proximal contextual variable of support contributed to Mexican
American women’s career choice prestige and career
aspirations,
consideration of other contextual variables that may contribute
to
their career goals is warranted. Indeed, analyses revealed that
the
background contextual variables of acculturation level and
femi-
nist attitudes have a direct influence on the prestige level and
traditionality of Mexican American women’s career choices that
are not represented in Lent et al.’s proposed model.
Furthermore,
environmental factors related to the school (i.e., vocational
guid-
ance programs in the school) are not included in Lent et al.’s
model
but should be investigated.
The reliability estimates for the scales used to assess feminist
attitudes and career aspiration were relatively low, and thus, the
findings related to these constructs should be interpreted with
53. caution. For example, it is possible that significant path coeffi-
cients may emerge in the career aspiration model with a more
reliable scale. Given the paucity of research with Mexican
Amer-
icans, future studies should attempt to improve on the
psychomet-
ric properties of the measures used in this study and to develop
new instruments for use in research with this population. Addi-
tional testing of the revised model with several samples of Mex-
ican American women is necessary to determine if these results
can be generalized. Research is also needed to evaluate the
validity
of Lent et al.’s (1994) model with Mexican American boys and
men.
As noted earlier, only a modest amount of variance in the
criterion variables was accounted for by the social cognitive and
contextual variables assessed in this study. Additional variables
that may contribute to career goals should be considered in
future
studies with Mexican American women. For example,
researchers
have suggested that socioeconomic status and student ability
may
be important variables to assess among Mexican Americans and
female participants (e.g., Fassinger, 1990; Lauver & Jones,
1991;
McWhirter et al., 1998). Moreover, given that teen pregnancy
and
marriage occur with some frequency in this population,
assessing
pregnancy and marriage rates at this age could provide data re-
garding how these events affect the educational and career aspi-
rations of young women. Relatedly, although this study included
an assessment of several environmental influences on women’s
54. career development, the focus was on individual variables.
Addi-
tional research is needed to investigate the ways in which the
social environment limits the educational and occupational
oppor-
tunities of Mexican American women.
Finally, a longitudinal study that assesses the career orientation
of Mexican American women at periodic intervals following
high
school graduation is recommended. Such a study would provide
information regarding the factors that affect the vocational
devel-
opment of Mexican American women over the course of their
lives. A longitudinal study would also provide useful
information
regarding the factors that contribute to college graduation
among
Mexican American women. Future studies could investigate the
barriers encountered by students who do not complete college
and
explore the characteristics shared by those who successfully
com-
plete college. Counseling psychologists could then develop
empir-
ically based interventions to optimize success in college.
In conclusion, the results of this study advanced knowledge
regarding the explanatory power and limitations of SCCT (Lent
et
al., 1994) in describing the career development of Mexican
Amer-
ican adolescent women. Because Mexican American women are
largely underrepresented in higher education and in
nontraditional,
high-prestige occupations, investigating their educational and
55. ca-
reer aspirations at a critical decision-making time of their lives
(in
their senior year of high school) seems critically important.
Such
information could inform counseling interventions aimed at this
population to enable Mexican American women to pursue aca-
demic and career opportunities that correspond with their ability
and maximize their potential for educational and vocational
success.
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Received February 2, 2000
Revision received March 19, 2001
Accepted March 21, 2001 �