The ideas, people, and places central to one of the most important religions of our time Today there are nearly 1.4 billion practising Muslims. Founded in the seventh century AD by the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), Islam has spread throughout the world and Muslim communities exist in more than 200 countries. This Guide explores the role of Islam, past and present, in forming the contemporary world of literature, science, and, architecture, and scholarship. There is a valuable overview of the state of Islam today; which sheds light on the current conflict in the Middle East and the division between the Sunni and Shiite sects. with ith an introduction by’ leading commentator and author Ziauddin Sardar, the Guide is an essential introduction to one of the key culture forces of the modern world.

1. T H E B a GUIDE TO
THE ISLAMIC
WORLD
Religion, history, and the future
INTRODUCTION BY ZIAUDDIN SARDAR

2. Also
n,e Britannia Guide to tfclN
Hie Britannia Guide tot
The Britannica Guide!
The Br.tann.ca Guide to (W C*
The Britannica Guide to the Id®
that Made the Modem World
The Britannica Guide to India
The Britannica G
THE ISLAMIC
WORLD
Religion, history,
and the future
Introduction by Ziauddin Sardar

3. Constable & Rob®0" Ltd
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London W6 9ER
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Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
www.britannica.com
CONTENTS
First published in the UK by Robinson,
an imprint of Constable & Robinson, 2009
Text © 2009 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
introduction © 2009 Ziauddin Sardar
The right of Encyclopedia Britannica and Ziauddin Sardar to be identified as the
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs & Patents Act, 1988.
Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, and the Thistle logo
are registered trademarks of Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
All rights reserved. This book is sold subject to the condition
that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold,
hired out or otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being unposed on the subsequent purchaser.
A copy of the British Library Cataloguing in Pubheation
Data is available from the British Library
UK ISBN 978-1-84529-819-7
13579 10 8642
List of Illustrations
Introduction
Transition and Change in the Islamic World
by Ziauddin Sardar
First published in the United States in 2009 by Running Press Book Publishers
All rights reserved under the Pan-American and International Copyright Conventions
No part of this work may be produced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
987654321
Digit on the right indicates the number of this printing
US Library of Congress number: 2007938550
US ISBN 978-0-7624-3420-6
Running Press Book Publishers
2300 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103-4371
WWW‘runnul8press.com
Vlslt us on the web!
Pnn'ed and bound in the EU
Partl Whatislslam?
1 Who was Muhammad?
2 The Foundations of Islam
3 Islamic Thought, Beliefs, and Practice
Part 2 Islamic WorldHistory
4 The Age of Muhammad and the Caliphate
5 The Flowering of Islam
6 Expansion, Reform, and Renewal
Part Islamin the ModemWld
7 Islamic Revivalism
8 Wamist Fundamentalism
^^“ty-Hrst Century
ice
3
24
38
75
105
138
175

4. CONTENTS
Part 4 The Islamic Arts
10 Architecture
11 Visual and Decorative Arts
12 Literature
Part 5 Places - The Islamic World Today
Glossary
index
243
280
300
349
415
list of illustrations
419
■i
ComstockIJupiterimages, courtesy o/
annica, Inc.
I. The Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Nabeel
Turner -Stone/Getty Images, courtesy ofEncyclopcedia Brit­
annica, Inc.
“d- MWaraTb”uftiXTT“ ‘he bitth of Muham
h“IRV*761-2). Mullah’,594-Vl0(/e^
“-T;i>^amascus s.

5. VIII
list of illustrations
6. Interior of the Blue Mosque of Ottoman sultan Ahmed I,
designed by Mehmed Aga, royal architect to the Ottoman
court, 1609-16. Roger Viollet/Topfoto (RV 7754-13).
7. Ivory casket made for al-Mughirah, son of ‘Abd ar-Raha-
man Hl (ad 891-961), the emir of Cordoba, Spain, dating
from ad 968. Musee du Louvre, Paris; photograph Mansell -
Giraudon/Art Resource, New York, courtesy ofEncyclopedia
Britannica, Inc.
introduction
8. An early nineteenth-century prayer rug from the town of
Ghiordes, western Anatolia. New York state private collec­
tion; photograph Otto E. Nelson, courtesy of Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc.
Transition and change in the Islamic World
Ziauddin Sardar
9.Islamiccalligraphy. TopFoto/ImageWorks (imw00900908).
10. The confrontation between radical Islamic groups and
■pvernment forces at Lal Masjid (Red Mosque) in Islambad,
pikistan. 2007. © RIA Novosti / TopFoto (RIA07-017660).
Making sense of the complexity of the Islamic world is only
possible by being alert to the multiplicities of its diversity. The
Islamic world refers to a swathe of nations, regions, and
peoples whose defining feature is adherence to the religion
“J"'I, 'e tred re'igi0n is a f“or, the Islamic
*^^zxtleandinmany^s
W Which ir is ,iewed p ndlng uP°n the prism
on markedly differ. T"’ a'm0St ^appear
«*ie ■ toTdqUeStiOnS 3bo«
e>' Work t-u at °Perate t ’an<^ reconn Oristantlv
?*■». vanX' have“ Pro^
“^4 diversi^°t"sired as
■...

6. INTRODUCTION
immense diversity, an g understood and ex-
^T^mpS'is^Alhe attempt to define the extent
of the Islamic world. Islam as a faith and significant communal
bond is not contained within a collection of neatly bounded
modem nation states. Allowing for the vagaries of census
taking and national sensitivities, India has possibly the world s
second largest Muslim population and has been a huge influ­
ence in the history and development of contemporary Muslim
thought. Yet it does not consider itself to be part of the Islamic
world, nor is it included in the conventional meaning of the
term. To think of the Islamic world solely in terms of Muslim
majority nations excludes not only geographically concen-
■■^^.trated minority populations across its border in places like
V India and China, it also ignores the important influence of
dispersed and distant minority' populations - for example the
»Ze OfMrfn“ " WesKrn wh'eh’has
d“We uifluence in the intellectual arena and makes
“y mane,. At one level all M |™"n“y of Movers, is no
!|»P el the yet “ s “s ^knowledge member-
Md “W' questions about ,|,t " 'f 'aises complicated
"-«Ha,alMysbeen Plural identity. The
d';'l«Pme„td,.t0,er] /“incept;„ati0na|lsn] ijan
aXr*'d -eladn°“WuK sentiment
Neither thfn8' IslSmic world isY C meaning of loyalty
h'^^"or*eIslSm“::*“ofthe^
’ln hlstory or today,
;tiOn ofthe
’worlJ diving
peoP^”t6d te*e ucal teg10"5’fc wodd
isls>rn
ft7os*on«nen«
cttlturS' I’"/1’® general t"®5 senegal' Its norths"
is remarkable- & Mot°cC° • n archipelag , indepen'
*ofAftl“i»fthcInmlthrough the r>e J region
from the 8alka“„ the I**1 Extends
boundary3 rentral Asia f Central ^sia .•
dentrePubllCS .° the steppes of Anatohan P
ofWestern Ch'na. Caucasus acroS and
”“T» *e Mediterranean regton, through along
and
the eastern coast of the African
northern Mozambique. middle belt’ and
Thisarea iswhat is often termed the global miu
includes the temperate climes of eastern Europe, vast stretches
ofdesertand savannah lands as well as tropical and equatorial
lands. The enormous range of environments that are home to
and have been shaped by Islamic history comprise a compar­
able range of cultures and ethnicities, nations and tribes all of
*h have distinct antecedents as well as varied responses to
and social |1( ”“rp'1'i'“"8 and expressingIslam in individual
’S1SmiC w“W does
"»»Khavtah SpK,fK regions. A)1 f .ywluchIslam
■ In history

7. /III
INTRODUCTION__________ ______________
XII ____—------------------ ~~
, an open, globalized world geared to long distance
1 J k wa a worldwide community structured around
X^nsnturionssuchas^theonce-m^det.nre pd-
gnmage to Mecca, as well as a common system of re igious an
legal education which, from the earliest times, facilitated and
encouraged travel and hence the transmission of ideas and
knowledge.
What could be called the Islamicate era gave way to the era
of western colonization. Few parts of the Islamic world es­
caped colonization. Even those parts of the Islamic world not
directly or indirectly colonized were drawn into the growing
power ofWestern economic, military, diplomatic, and cultural
influence. The history of colonization adds another layer of
connections and discontinuities that affect perceptions of and
■r relations to the wider Islamic world. The colonial legacy
■continues to support discontinuities in matters such as lan-
^guage, systems of governance, modern legal code, and social
organization.
‘“r7 ’“h
1S r°day ,s not merely the story of^ C°meS t0 be as k
Sk,p » ,fli» bK has tee, /f™™ '"’W relation-
;»«<rdat,MiMtilthe the cruaWe of th
» » possible to alk Sl“" ’’"W- The result is that
Islamic world oil * ° Seneral trends rr ■ nat
Cntand modern. d distlnctlve
„|y the very c° to be
' f^S«®sK’l^ction’1' of unity-
If*br ud°at be* only»filing The very
b<la"t «wlprincid7riJes from ** or,g| based
bl* * Q"r a ted Lal “itunl praCtl ie nd moral precepts
the ethical and >
X ta pt'-«istin8 “LdlaXe were various ways to
and valid. It was also accep Qur>anlC principle
achieve the ethical and mor again pr0V1Jed
depending on context an circum > nractjse within the
an authentic opening for diversity 0 p
bounds of unity.
The Qur’an also provides a framework - a common core or
concepts and a way of reasoning - which generates strong
unifying trends. Indeed, the Qur’an plays a central part in
shaping the consciousness of each individual Muslim. It is the
basis Of prayer, education, and study. Its injunctions shane
iZeXLXolifaio3™8'’ and family affailS t0
e.lnpbasisontheconununity0f|jr^arllZatlon-And its Powerful
t0 a" world W,ev®15 a motive force of the
Muslims learn ak ,
°f *e Qur’an
sunnah, pk; 10ns of the Pm l 3W: eYa m 1
Ott>enfk andisf S
her-The/n°'vn
n’ft>on

8. XIV
introduction
world ”
are"°'ab-
„„ ta. are supported by shared forms of personal beha-
viour that straddle cultural differences. At its most basic, Islam
is a religion of the home and its strong emphasis on unity is a
powerful sentiment within each individual Muslim. The affec­
tive bonds of unity exist independently of and irrespective of
the complications of history and modern nation states in the
individual believer.
Traditionally, it was axiomatic that a Muslim, whatever his
or her origin, was in some sense a citizen of any Muslim
community where any Muslim stranger could lay valid claim
B to real rights, obligations, and resources. In the pre-modern era
K this made for ease of movement of people and hence ideas and
B knowledge around the Islamic world. The life story of innu­
merable Muslim notables includes travelling from one end of
thelsfrmicworldtotheotherbywayoflongworkingsojourns
b. rrent^CeS al°ng th£ Tbe Provides a
still beleZdUbyrstr^gXSUCh
Principles and exam^o ahMus^ “n"8 °f shared
i'aWnot'>ecause either soXce^is^defi11”5 I basis of
because the moral and ethica C°de
contain impel the formalIX P ^natives
communal organization as gaiU2atIon of social life and
Uccee<fing generatlons
the fulfill
' S°Uone God’
th3t efewand
oone' and
sources- Ar7
w with p ygue *at °iaWand
j the laVV do a & n one ,
**s sh°uid £>*an f
& d,versltt
ho s»< *°*dCT ^producednufflb^of
Tht KX pound rhe globe hasprodu
Two main divisions are wi y emphasize the
Su„n|and^,ra,5linn^’ <*^p^r^ju|iam^]a£|j they constitute
^"Musta-ks^whobeBevethatonJ
descendants ofthe family ofthe Prophet have a legitimate right
to claim political authority, are largely concentrated in Iran
and Iraq. Within this broad division, there are other schools of
thought, various movements of interpretations, and suppor­
ters of liberal, modernist or traditionalist outlooks. There are
also a variety of mystical traditions, generally termpri Q f
from .he Wing Dervishes ”tTU Y t0
With aIi other r* deVel°pment of the Isla haVe been
the S ”p WOdd- But as
Istanbul can be Weighed and k i ^nibcance of tk
*»ls »flT" musques f ,h’anced- A city” *ese
or°"s-The*’ d'"“"’inati0na °Win8 many dT as
"C08nui„e„| rsity is alcw ’ sectarian „ fferent
nsch°^2ionof

9. XVI
INTRODUCTION
I not precluded mutual recognition, interac-
acknowledgement of a superior imperative for unity. The
distinctions between the various traditions are less insurmoun­
table in theological and practical terms than among and
between the denominations of Christianity, for example.
Yet it is also true that affiliation to different traditions can
and has become a source of tension and communal divide.
The Islamic world is defined by the adherence of its popula­
tion to Islam, but what that adherence means and how it is
expressed and practiced is not self-evident. Muslims claim
1^. Islam is a total way of life, containing a blueprint for the
organization and operation of the entire spectrum of the life of
^Ha society. Yet this familiar definition is in many ways more
V rhetorical than real; more an aspiration than a lived reality in
r t e modern nation states in which people actually live. The
sense of disconnection between the ideal and the actual is not
uoM rdUCt °( C°l0n,ZatI0n andmod^ity. The ques
reform movements. °tCe tbe Perennial
*** f0^^A^a^^a!llw^S baJan«d by the
'"""“"'““sluvesouclit, '7' Thr°“8,,0"< history
»ha Jrc X' 7'fe,™fcs«1etyoflts
T^«»l.iureligWsifat2s . »*« from, and
se.., bebasis Asocial life tl ( heir proPer interpreta-
see tie Islamic worlri rh«efore it would k P
' history Of thc
tra1
and
diri°n is 3
defini°on
condi»on'
, ongo,n®
been «’n’p"U"ts.
h as i"tbe
world /.evident
h»””C*hJt requires c and sei „
wn«p» ,ioe s" °b .nretatio" "aS
Totideas a”d ,”dhasal'’a>'sbe!n Xmstances-
lsla* a"d Z'beenZ to
Z-"*0'’“ I«dition HaS dances,
AttiateVteVP”? laces, and <-ircuro 0 effect
tradition has Deet .
radical change. justify both stasis a
The ability to appeal to Isla J Muslims
change should not be taken as another way orsnpg
can make of Islam whatever they wish. It would D
appropriate to see the Islamic world as engaged tn a contin
uous dialogue within its own defined parameters, rhetoric,
ideas, and ideals. The arguments and debates within the
Islamic world cannot be understood through simplistic or
one-dimensional analysis. The complexities of the Islamic
world are simultaneous and coterminous. Tradition and mod­
ernity, stasis and change diversitv onJ • , °
W of legitimacy purZ and H Unity’ aUthentlcity and
astl’esecr^T.ryUnrestandino^L...
„ *mic world
OVq q
t°MiSa
ts as well
laJ,y tat as
„ akento
rOluti»nin
b°* « th"

10. introduction
xw ____ —------------
,h Z
’ • y of 311
. From the late 1940s through to the
XXk which Muslim countries obtained
2 X tae. modernization - or more spee.fally de-
J „) economic ills. Indeed, most Muslim countries
whole-heartedly embarked on a rapid course of moderniza­
tion. But the strategies for modernization were, on the whole,
out of sync with the traditional societies they were attempting
to change. Thus a rift developed between those who backed
modernization and accompanying Westernization and those
who were concerned about preserving the traditional culture,
lifestyle, and outlook of Muslim societies. In most cases, the
traditionalists tended to be romantics who saw tradition not as
a changing and evolving phenomenon, but as an entity that
’ was fixed and frozen in history.
■ The modernist leaders who took over from the departing
. colonial powers often maintained their hold on Muslim socle-
■ ues by resorting to excessive use of force and by ruthlessly
nonal was seen asSsmncT W3S tradi'
which meant‘livingm the nTst’ en^ewhlch was ‘backward’,
and thus a serious obstacle to A ‘nCapable obchange,
Most of these
s°me cases thrived, largely with and
'S1S™ o'
»<„c s '^,’7“°” “Cultural
Md expression „f
3nd thus a serii
• law, WOL1
Islamic laW’ a
jl Musics are
. i I
toX’*rethe
‘Islam^s ramount'
j;^*eQX” -*1°w“ <G°d-T
.l.heltorftaa®"s-,tX and rhe same thing. In this
law and morality wou God-centred world-
frameuork, the integrated, holistic, theocratic
View of Islam is transformed into a totatartan tne
world order and a persuasive moral God is replaced by
coercive, political one. Essential to this transmuted Islamic
fundamentalism, however, is a concept of the state which owes
more to modern Western theory of state formation than
anything based on or derived from Islamic history
n, fundamentalism of Islamic fundamentalists is a new
phenomenon, a new fusion nP nr; i •
seen in essentialist terms as p/8 C ^terpretatl0n °f Islam,
t11'Native era of JJX l'"cl’a"8'ng, which
this model acco T ‘S'Ory as its ™<lel but
°Gh'formativee™7,Tideali2Nnotta X tOtalltarian
J‘ Z Z‘c his'<»y he perf«ion
*torica|.|, ppal >0 I,,,,,.. y' "
1“d,h«"8hts7flsl3'”',otasare|iy’SUCh lament r
"*ld«l inf Stalled > 8“" *rpreW IS* »
X^-asaX.*!■ all its as s7 "the|iveS
n°t,onofr> UtoPlathatP ■ Lilian ^tiling t-k
outside e"Sths and hat
’’^notX^eoX'^-Uence'.^k-
°8^»nd r trh“»>ane ^"0
Sta»d. or a °lutl<>n.
Ppreciate

11. »,X b’ a” emX
sone 1 ietwns totality ot tra.
.. alternative inter
h< t heretics and
at beS ’ tv of Islam
jversity°
l»®”1*X«ttat?»'P“TO ,Xm.Tbe=»“in6
serve
nonafcmartdea an forces
sOT?fete are evr % poamatton^ ces
“Z0”'
both countries ate m a P« utations and combina-
Intense struggles, with dif P CQ t0 Saudi Arabia,
tions, are being acted out fro M wy t0
** rep.blta »f Zd
face the threat of rupture and fragmentation.
This struggle between modernists and traditionalists is not
likely to be resolved in the foreseeable future. Neither party a
shown itself capable of uplifting and bettering the lot of the
Islamicworld. Lockedincontention they construct a permanent
impasse that forecloses the future potential of their societies in
an intractable set of unpalatable options that result in arrested
development. Both the Westernized model of modernity and
ossified traditionalism have failed Muslim societies. Resolving
the impasse requires genuine political and institutional change.
So where does the Islamic world go next?
A viable future for the Islamic world is hard to imagine
without consensual politics, more open societies, and a new,
itX„>
^ot'^Co^l^95
iI,«>ft£tareic£“t"(,otoSieS5I1CeftsO s^’’"
X<e^tevol’i“8i<’ia'‘X’
$< 3 l^po^e needS ■
<^ola ^at±> >e0'
^'^^c^^Ma^de^005 |
useless 1
°’d *tC P'’8"”"' * ®ct a»d lhe '‘"’miss *e
?> XX iss’es ^Cs ^ea
»»»”ltheS his is tte cott,se theocracy after the
’Tta» *h cta“6ed '"Is seen the emergence
of. «e« appwch f0C“sed an(j immutable
o»»cceptmsthe Stan > / progress that needs to be
XX*. Xde, and updated to accommodate
tZ relevant to, contemporary times. The new no ton of
reform has had significant success that needs to be acknowl­
edged and appreciated.
The reformulation of the personal law aspects of the
Shartah in Morocco provide an example of what can be
™*h'd. The new Islamic Tamil, Law, or Mudawwa-
wan,introduced on October id onm <.
»'and blatant hl X’ T
accreted as the meaning and annV • ^as been
“aptoduetot decades Of a^ lZh'0'1 Shar'‘*. It

12. X*"'
INTRODUCTION
XX" -------------------
^^*[M^“of,he*“SKholarsasweu
as the active participation o The traditional
rX;:":*,fJ?aSgone,.he
□, ta„s the join, responsibility of both spouses. The
degrading and debasing language previously used in reference
to women tas been replaced with gender-sensitive terminol-
ogv. Women’s marriageable age has been raised from 15 to 18,
bringing it on par with that of men. Women and men now
have the right to contract their own marriage without the legal
approval of a guardian.Women have the right to divorce and a
man’s right to unilateral divorce has been ditched. Verbal
divorce has been outlawed. Men now require prior authoriza­
tion from a court before they can obtain a divorce. Moreover,
husbands are required to pay all monies owed to the wife and
B children in full before a divorce can be registered. Polvg.imv
» has been all but abolished. Men can take second wives only
F wKh the full consentofthe first wife and onlyifthey can prove
a woman can even regain c» r a remarrX- Indeed,
"”»>■ raW in X o/t|]e ° 10/J" cMdren if the courts
»WiferespM!1Wfc n busband failed
'^"■““Wcaccu™^„„„ '““'“Phmsion fra rite ch]|d
dC™ '"sorher,i™s
Protects the ch.u. PaltrV lumP sum tl nven'
cases where the S t0 adcn°wledgem 6 liW a,so
thechild was bo^™*® has not been off Paternity in
,stares but
^>age 3
ow t0
^^r ^diciary Publicpr0SeCrUt°f|S affairs. NeW fanU
Xh”' b“" 1 °P 1 ta rhe new code is effectively
has been established to ensure tn pnnciple
enforced. The reformulated Shan a $0
that minorities should be allowed 0 follow their 0
Moroccan Jews can be governed by the provi
Hebraic Moroccan Family Law.
Morocco has demonstrated the Sharfah is not fixed in the
way that most puritan Muslims believe it to be. It can be
changed; and every change in the law can be justified with
Chapter and verse from the Qur’an and the example and
surprisingly, the new law has be 1§1°US Sch°lars- Not
r's*PshutaCb X “ WdCOmednOt»b by
deed> similar effOrts r Sllm countries will ( n
attemPtsat^a at reformulation of tk J foll°W.

13. org^’
and Development Party ( - challenged in the
B„ AKP’s percep-
rXT*k.‘"”|*”‘i’'ri,hi,u,opia”isianiic
fata ..6« *e P""* »(** " “n™ta;
ta. means .bat polities in Islam has to be consensual and
based on democratic principles. AKP introduced more liberal
reforms than any other secular Turkish government in modern
times: the death penalty was abolished and minorities were
given more freedom including the right to their own minority
language education. In pursuit of its stated objective of gaining
admission to the European Union, various pieces of human
rrights legislation have been put on the statute books, including
[fending punishment for criticism of the armed forces.
, ' Indeed, the AKP even tried to change the law to ensure the
Turkishmilitarycannotmterveneinthedemocraticprocess as
k has done on numerous occasions in recent history. Econom-
wlly, the AKP has provided efficient and effective manage-
«W's X r ■" the
demonstrated that Islamic n I t ‘"S ^as
'Sdn'Kl' *3" an
ment for mobilizing civic fn 6’ "d ,S> an Active instru-
h««,„edmna ™ndestablishing a SHbJe
« wo)msni «V. Islam ,s not a thrMt k
^sia has achieved
“m8"™ »»d”m' SPK'aCnlar in
,ar» x°™s'rda ” w""'^s iXc,,,c inst,'“-
,„j NX'“,|°r8a"E’“»ns fc"'° °f the
• CO111'
X «!><*«-haS a bv intelle^18
become **
has Xu”h“«’«. ‘tes£ diS"”CXte to promote a new
s=gss!£zS
ofMuhamadiyah, NU activists who
young, liberal writers, scholars, thinkers, and activists W ,
publish on the internet, is described as ‘deformalization .
Overemphasis on formality and symbolism, Indonesian thin­
kers argue, has drained Islam of vital elements; and Muslim
societies need to move away from this obsession with form­
alism.
Deformalization has two objectives. First, it seeks to restore
the, “S «hical and humane aspects of Id - c
seeks to separate the Shari’ah f i- • 3m‘ Seconct it
thepolfc ofJ™ P° ltlcs and 'o redefine
d* * e’°',e from *e graTro0'11
“ ‘Xm ^““"tury.The *'° meet *e
nSI’Wah«a stated thc formal Political
of
........
’nd to redefine

14. XXVI
move away I
implement a
introduction
, m rhe medieval notions of I»!s™c bw
7? rf(M,s bei”s made *°(
1 rede­
fined as a“i «hs.»8 f»™ »“ “ <**•
indeed, which must continually adapt to maintain itself. This
redefined adaptive tradition can generate its own indigenous
form of modernity as an expression of its core values and with
respect for, and relevance to, the lifestyles of traditional
cultures. The emerging synthesis is more evident on the per­
iphery of the Islamic world than at the centre - the Middle
East. But throughout history, it has always been the periphery
L that has changed the centre and eventually the whole of the
i Islamic world.
, f However, not all experiments have been successful. The
Muslim majority region of northern Nigeria has long felt
neglected and overlooked within the creaking and struggling
politics of Africa’s most populous nation. The endemic pro­
blems ofcorruption, mal- and mis-development in an oil rich
state have brought little improvement to rhZ 1
Activists argued that to chan^T MuS1™ re8ion’
lives required a new ethos J £ CKUmStances o{ Peoples’
would Provide this impetus'bi’StitUtlOnallZln8 the SharI‘ah
^o^codeofchenshedva ueX"M tO
°°nS to personal responsibilityI make e^°rta-
^^•ItwouldXX hmUtUal °b^^n more
to wL^rndedIslSmic Xs that'™i °f deveJoP-
social ff ^Cy Were COfflntitted aero ^°P 6 Underst°od and
. a ho^evef’
h^succeedrh the othef
• for Shah 3h ]rontend relTiain^
tW l”dhtco“tts nOt “had * n”ny
by 0>d sch0, L educari0"
Irem “f T Jit 3
<oc®, L Xd aduI«‘X 'vhlle th ■ he extensive
being h advocates of the ext
t,7mtmlZM»slira countries, petso.nl -.nd
family law were the vestigial aspects of Islamic law permitted
to survive under colonial rule and in operating these areas of
law judges made up with prurience what had been lost in
autonomy. The local judges had not been engaged in new
thmking, nor did they seem aware of the potential interpreta­
tions possible within the existing body of SharTah law The
have their convictions overturned ' C°UrtS Would
“■'‘I'befailed „00|d be savT "T'10 highercourts -
->■ body “f the
in
exthe
ebate. te.

15. INTRODUCTION
m is deeply traditional; and tradition will
The Islamic world P what is meant by
play an important part1 and interpretation is the
tradition, itscontent, app^.^ tradition does not mean
most important ques 10 . many and diverse
meaZ wZ^nAat jostle with each other across the
mZ TK ' "caKd "Ze
mod™ Wwonized system can be very different to t ie
tradition of a landless farm worker in a rural backwater. Both
have great attachment to tradition as a function of Islam and
an inheritance of Islamic history, but mutual consensus ends at
the level of rhetoric. Educated urban elites are finding new
confidence in arguing that tradition is not static, defined, and
fixed as inherited from earlier ages.
There is increasing vigour and critical mass in the groups
B arguing that tradition becomes most truly tradition when it is
■f constantly being reinvented, rethought, and changed while
remaining true to and retaining its original spirit. Muslim
identity is invested in Islamic tradition, but finds it truncated,
marginalized and much neglected as an irrelevance to the
modern world. Taking a balanced view ofthe future potential
“ "■ton.cd, open *‘°r *'* ofserving
7 '« rd„„ soW <katKeds t0 thMk iK
’*"W«o„d,an„ ” ® “"ttmporary prob|ems.
’^ikk for *afe,,M- ‘"'Seres
j‘** K;„. and afflrton
8 k' Mrt"es of traditional
XlX
cave *ts
adsf'0’
. ’ "i to their identity
in true j^nhr
s eth°s’
“ralw^ br0Confusion-
often failed ^MusliinS to reina,n been in doubt-
The aspiration Islam ha critical
“ *^0Xd civic society can
reformdedicaredtohberaJfect meaningful change and
speed,
— their chosen direc-
tion. So change in the Islamic world would be slow and
painful, and sometimes minor; but even minor changes have
the potential to generate major perturbations. The important
thing to realize is that the Islamic world is not static but
dynamic. It is changing and will continue to change. Thus
the future will be radically different from the past.

17. WH0 WAS MUHAMMAD'
Adherence .0 I>to is a global phenomenon: Muslims: pre-
dominate in some 30 to 40 countries, from the Atlantic to
the Pacific and along a belt that stretches across northern
Africa into Central Asia and south to the northern regions of
the Indian subcontinent. The Islamic faith continues to
expand, by some estimates faster than any other major
religm In the early twenty-first century there were nearly
f billion practising Muslims in more than 200 ™ > •
Warn is the world’s secnna C0Untries-
Christianity (some 2.2 billion^081 P°Pul°US reli§ion after
hhm was founded by the Pm" k x
seventh century AD Th Mullammad in Arabia i
Brender” ill, The Arabic term • /- bla ln
the b'|ates the 'mdameutal r m”’’ literal'y
,Ca"ed a Muslii, f 8'°US idea of
for God XP'S fr°m active
ne,'«<lrest„ h ls ’fowed as ,k Wil1 of Allak>,
Tr°ftl,e'’orld n ' S°'e G»d - r 3h
"pfo'«, the o is made t he'Vi"of Allah atOr>
Sn|K»'a" wh"rth-u LtOwhich
h,,h

18. 5
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
MutamU. In bum Mohammad .s considered
Z'to ol a senes of prophets (including Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others), and his message s.mul-
taneously consummates and completes the re.elat.ons at-
tnbuted to earlier prophets. Although many sectarian
movements have arisen within Islam, all Muslims are bound
by a common faith and a sense of belonging to a single
community.
Muhammad, in full Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn ‘Abd
Allah ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, was born in Mecca,
in Arabia (now in Saudi Arabia) in ad 570 and died in
Medina on June 8 632. He is the only founder of a major
world religion who lived in the full light of history and about
whom there are numerous records in historical texts,
hr although like other premodern historical figures not every
F detail of his life is known. Because Muhammad is one of the
most influential figures in history, his life, deeds, and
thoughts have been debated by followers and opponents
over the centuries.
Names and Titles of the Prophet
The mostcommon name ofMuhammad, “the Glorified One’ ,
is part of the daily call to prayer {adhan); following the
attestation to the oneness of God, the believer proclaims,
“Verily, I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of
God” (Ashhadu anna Muhammadan rasul Allah). When this
name is uttered among Muslims, it is always followed by the
phrase salla Allahu ‘alayhi iva sallam (“may God’s blessings
and peace be upon him”), just as, whenever Muslims mention
the name ofother prophets such as Abraham, Moses, or Jesus,
they recite the words ‘alayhi al-saldm (“upon him be [God’s]
•jelykn°wn M*hur1’
d’s
») Muhan11” name suchaS,, jvlachmet ( rn°st
M*“”'rtlI«l,nd“:c klan*world’ .Aii S
ll s*h as A jk grandson
cousinandson names, including
and ‘AH’s son). many other him by
» which Muslims believe were g
“sacred names , <. j in various contexts.
ftdandb,'Whij him are commonly used in litanies and
* ,9 names for him a a)so c<_ntral to the
XZ^-^dCTheMostGl^
which is considered an inner and celestial name for Muham
mad. Over the centuries Muslim authorities have believed that,
when Christ spoke of the coming reign of the Paraclete, he was
referring to Ahmad. Also of great importance are the names
that identify Muhammad as the Prophet, including Nabl
CMfl and Rasfli Allah (“the Messenger of God”). Other
names of the Prophet are Toha /“<-!, n r. . .
Yasin (“the Perfect Man”) M ""T ™ber and
2”"1'AW Allah (“the Perfect s’ (“the One
* Beloved of God”) nkt ° G°d”'’ Habib
France of God”l a - ’ ^hikr Allah /“t-k n *
the T (“'hc Tr«ed One I S’ - 6 Reme®-
u'u^oTfothh
e Chapter 5,

19. 7
the ISLAMIC WORLD
The Early Life of Muhammad
Both before the rise of Islam and during the Islamic period
Arab tribes paid great attention to genealogy and guarded
their knowledge of it with meticulous care, developing a whole
science of genealogy (‘tint al-ansdb) that is of much historical
significance. Muslims trace Muhammad’s ancestry to IsmaTl
(Ishmael) and hence to the prophet Abraham. According to
traditional Islamic sources, Muhammad was born in Mecca in
“the Year of the Elephant”, which corresponds to the year ad
570. A single event gave the Year of the Elephant its name
when Abrahah, the king of Abyssinia, sent an overwhelming
force to Mecca to destroy the Ka‘bah, the sanctuary which
Muslims believe was built by Adam and reconstructed by
| Abraham, and which Abrahah viewed as a rival to his newly
constructed temple in Sanaa in Yemen. According to tradition,
r ’ ^phantthatmarchedattheheadofAbrahah’sarmyknelt
as it approached Mecca, refusing to go further. Soon the sky
;b;a“Z
His Ws born in
« acred <ta h Ka'bl n tbat als» guarded
v- The emphasis in
j to the
k relat^ to
otPhanS 1 as w his b
. aS well on-
cS^o^7^^Zic^ons
I^1 d eXPerience 3nd the Qur
masKtAtab.cn-^
<"<11*"* ”1 into the *sert’ “ . rt it was believed,
i'Tlurn ^Ore°Ver;’t
domination oftime an better speaker through
^mZZ^b-pokenbythe^outn.Indus
way the bond with the desert and its purity and sobriety W..
renewed for city dwellers in every generation. Aminah chose a
poor woman named Halimah from the tribe of Banu Sa‘d, a
branch of the Hawazin, to suckle and nurture her son. And so
the young Muhammad spent several years in the desert.
l»s ar this time that, according to tradition, two angels
apjwred to Muhammad in rhe «uise „f m. , ,
^Mnd purified hts heart within,,, opened his
the Islamic beliefth3eP'S°‘fc’ whicf>
"TOd * from sin, was a|^ ”“"7 hls Prophet and
•**te 7 XMwtammad:
'’StMre„ T^ttponnte a„ 7 3 8old
*n"’dMfrom t ' r^'^art-Thisffi Sp ttln8°Pen

20. THE ISLAMIC WORLD
S on Muhammad's back (later identified in the tradit,o„a|
”tes as rhe s.g« of prophecy), Halimah and her husband,
Harith, took the boy back to Mecca,
Muhammad’s mother died when he was six years old Now
completely orphaned, he was brought up by his grandfather
'Abd al-Muttalib, who also died two years later. He was then
placed in the care of Abu Talib, Muhammad s uncle and the
father of ‘All, Muhammad’s cousin. Later in life Muhammad
would repay this kindness by taking ‘All into his household
and giving his daughter Fatimah to him in marriage.
It is believed that Muhammad grew into a young man of
unusual physical beauty as well as generosity of character. His
sense of fairness and justice were so revered that the people of
Mecca often went to him for arbitration and knew him as al-
Amin, the Trusted One”. His striking appearance is the
V subject of countless poems in various Islamic languages. Mu-
■F hammad, according to ‘All, was neither tall nor lanky nor
short and stocky, but ofmedium height. His hair was neither
crisply curled nor straight but moderately wavy. He was not
and his face was not plump. He had a round face
His complexion was white tinged with redness He had L
black eyes with Ions lashes Mi, k had bl§
*>«Wers broad. HelZlp and his
line from mid-chest to navel. The’ COVerinS the
Mies ofhis feel were firmly d.jj ° bls hands and rhe
‘^^^opherhoodfoZeH Sh°“ldm
SHmie screes mdi^ ’i **he 'he last of the
'bar others recogn.2ed
T h” “who if* ‘he Christ‘a"
roptaiomedAta
Pm’'K‘l from a walt|1^"-an,nlad received a marriage
WOman> Khadljah bint
I
is fr01”
Pfopheb
DeSpite the
'it
Ai“'h a'X fo»r da“Shters' ^cs of Muhammad,
**h(:'±reXgh"»bedeSCe" t daughter, and ‘Alt
'"'T W»fBtin,ah’ hr°“”0f the foremost female
^^ Plett’and in logical events con-
tbadTecome a very respected figure
in Mecca and had taken ‘All into his household. When he
was asked, according to Islamic tradition, to arbitrate a
dispute concerning which tribe should place the holy black
stone in the corner of the newly built Ka‘bah, Muhammad
resolved the conflict by putting his cloak on the ground with
”,ht mddle “d having a representative of each
W4arorner0fit„„tilt|,eston F °' each
kight to be set in the wall His m H d ™ aPProPriate
<”« to deep religiosity and attj.”3"0” Stemmed> part,
* c«y and X" T? He Wo^
r.S'nhc40 XdUNng One of these I eaking
S Muhhe M°an'a.nluant medit«ing in10dS °f
’Stir l ■ “"bad ev Llgllt (Jabal i? 3 Cavebr'ela"d'h 2Pene"cMt abp 'a|-Nar)ne
"■•I.*,

21. 10
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
I
The Advent of the Revelation
and the Meccan Period
In the month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Islamic
calendar), in the year 610, the archangel Gabriel, in the form
of a man, appeared to Muhammad, asked him to recite
(iqra’), then overwhelmed him with a very strong embrace.
Muhammad told the stranger that he was not a reciter. But the
angel repeated his demand and embrace three times, before the
verses of the Qur’an, beginning with “Recite in the Name of
thy Lord who created”, were revealed. Muhammad fled the
cave thinking that he had become possessed by the jinn, or
demons. When he heard a voice saying, “Thou art the mes-
senger of God and I am Gabriel,” Muhammad ran down the
Bb mountain. Gazing upward, he saw the man who had spoken to
V him in his real form, an angel so immense that in whatever
direction the Prophet looked the celestial figure covered the
Wh‘Ch kad turnedSreen, the official colour ofIslam to this
cousin Waraqah a Christ' k SCnt °F ^er
wisdom. Hu„„ " rSeSS'd "Wch re"rious
,br fact that Muhammad hadbi””'’ . ara‘,al1 a,s° “"firmed
“^^,afc„ards M„hlt"dC,,0Se" “ G°d'S
rSe fropiH , ™ad ~“;ed a second reeela-
'brough the »on)s 7*"'™ would either
™aW « his heart i T1”"18'1 °r *“tly
’ke sound ofbe|,,b1 J‘er«la”»nwasa«ompa„,ed
*' P'-ss ol
X«myta?"da"*dSh„X7" ° ,lK Q"'S"
his lamilv ,L flrsl preac|red his me ' Propilet’s death.
tk'" »a lew ftends a"dT7° 'b'
d f,nallX. three years after
rhepublicatlaflre Kha^ah’
sssxSSS-iSXSS
* ;Xpro"”nent Xined theWscaVsPeciaUy p Although Muhammad game
family there -e his uncle Abu Lahab, a
support of many 0 adamantly opposed to
majorleader of the Quraysh, rema
klam and Muhammad’s mission. These naysayers
the new religion, based on the oneness of God and unequi
vocally opposed to idolatry, would destroy the favoured
position of the Ka‘bah as the centre of the religious cults of
various Arab tribes and hence jeopardize the commerce that
accompanied the pilgrimage to Mecca to worship idols kept in
or on the Ka‘bah.
Oppos,tio" 'O b™ grew
“''’“"^orrured/wht :SiAJba Jahl some
WhleinU • ,01ned Milk ™ern With kinJ Un*l,fe f°r MulanUnad ,ater in MJdness and
the ed,'na' Mean.
exerted “ M
a “’M«ha hen,bVtheo her«ult
b‘T«b M denMbv.L
°nl^arn deatb Of
M'abhls
f t
i
. I
1
I
, /
/'
/
I i
f
/
t
I
I
I
I1
>
4
I
t
t
f
I
* /
1
♦
/
I
t
1

22. 12
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
devoted wife of 25 years and the mother of his children, but
she was also his friend and counsellor. (Only after her death
did Muhammad marry other women, mostly as a means of
creating alliances with various families and tribes. The excep­
tion was the daughter of Abu Bakr, ‘A’ishah, who was
betrothed to the Prophet when she was very young and in
whose arms he would die in Medina.) The death of Abu Talib,
Muhammad’s protector, created a much more difficult situa­
tion for him and for the young Islamic community in Mecca.
These deaths, combined with Muhammad’s lack of success in
propagating the message of Islam in the city of Ta’if, severely
tested his determination and resolve.
During this extremely difficult time Muhammad underwent
the supreme spiritual experience of his life. On one of his
K nightly visits to the Ka‘bah, he fell asleep in the Hijr, an
| uncovered sanctuary attached to the north wall of the shrine
and experienced the Nocturnal Ascent (Isra’ or Mi‘rai), which
“ mentioned ,n the Qur’an, numerous Hadith, and nearly
which Abraham offered m « c, l °m r0C^ uPon
Dome of the Rock, one of IsWs $ p0" °f the
goes), they ascended through all the'h T m°S_
die Divine Presence itself. At on • StatCS *’eing to
be Could g° no further beca^ CXplained that
be burned; that i M t ' * d° S°’ his ™ngs
h*Aa»rhatoflheaK; had reached a state
,te snpraM Muhammad is said to have
re”eal<d PTtrat'1,timtelfheforeth”e°dV ed8e Wh'le stood
pr, ° h™,lK f“l fem and „ ‘hro“- God also
^r It tm‘C dai'y
°f symbofeed L T L 8 thro“Sh *e
Y he heavenly spheres,
h as M°seS
sUch 35
r fhe prophet
r5’of waythat
J* ■ nal Mu^S DC'Zocorpo^110 fhody and
■ mal but also J both bouy ^ot.n
i ■ -
isider Muhamm
.. or areanh while SUU1V • objections.
vision or . rationahstic 1 _ _
.(.P*1''’10'"" c and 8 ekments of the
of many major literary and meta
,.............
““‘“"'"e^oXnizea Muslims
ream, while some ns cla,ro
**"Aorist and 7“ Xi is the prototype
intual. in __ . • tppra-
thattheMi’raj^
ofspiritual —
tion
Mi’raj has been the source
physical works in both prose and poetry, and figures as
different as the philosophers Avicenna and Ibn al-Arabl have
written of its inner meaning. The Mi’raj is also one of the
reasons why Muslims hold Jerusalem sacred.
The idea of spreading the message of Islam beyond Mecca
^Muhammad’s mind despite the setback in Ta‘7 T
«o>*nd621 a delegation v l ■■ Ta 1E In or
contacted Muhammad an hJ . ’ ' nOrth °f Mecca,
?“* * a° iXb7e°ileadi”8 tribes> hhe'T C°nStant
, '**» ? Jewish “mmu’il Aws and the
8r°Up of '*>' dty a7 C°nstituting the
*“rs7 T'1"e"1Wa7<IUri"8tl’ePill>rWaS l’Cld in Al
dered his fol'l Up°n final* Uld '*
“^tou^the
eave u
'At
622afO|

23. |5
14
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
not to attract attention, and to await him
in small groups, so as
^lu’he departed one evening with his friend Abu Bakr
f Ya hub using an indirect route after commanding ‘All to
sleep in the Prophet’s bed. The Quraysh, who had decided to
get rid of the Prophet once and for all, attacked the house but
found ‘All in Muhammad’s place. They then set out to find the
Prophet. According to the traditional Islamic version of the
story, which is rejected by most modern Western historians,
Muhammad and Abu Bakr hid in a cave that was then
camouflaged by spiders, which spun webs over its mouth,
and birds, which placed their nests in front of the cave. Once
the search party arrived at the mouth of the cave, they decided
not to go in because the unbroken cobwebs and undisturbed
nests seemed to indicate that no one could be inside. This story,
L mentioned in the ninth chapter of the Qur’an, is of great
‘ symbolic importance and is also a popular part of Islamic
piety and Sufi literature.
On September 25 622, Muhammad completed the Hijrah
( emigration ) to Yathrib, which became known as Madlnat
al Nabl ( City of the Prophet”), or Medina. This momentous
event led to the establishment of Islam as a religious and social
der and became the starting point for the Islamic calendar.
Muhammad arrived in Quba’, on the outskirts of Medina,
people of flKt m°SqUe °f Isl3m t0 be buiIt' The
family wantedtoukeTlargenUmbers t0 greet him’ and each
«id that his camel Oa“'T qUarterS’ Therefore’ he
willed, and where it stonTd ’k all°Wed t0 go wbere k
Jater as the Mosque of JhePro St3y‘A mosc*ue’ known
m the courtyard next to th k Mas,ld abNabi), was built
and Muhammad subsequent the CameI stoPPed
the mosque. y lved- Muhammad’s tomb is in
: trusted
Mecca' ,,
- tThe hjs most
, in Meclina’ Mecca
andsoniepr°dually all the Arabs of Me * contin-
founded Islamic order grew.
During the second year of the Hijrah, Muhammad drew up
the Constitution of Medina, defining relations between the
variousgroupsinthefirstIslamiccommunity. Later generations
of Islamic political thinkers have paid much attention to the
constitution, for Muslims believe that Muhammad created the
deal Islamic society in Medina, providing a model fn ill
generations. It was a sociew ■ ■ 8 °del f°r a11 later
and various sociahndT mtegratlOn of tribal
tardZ'o! I T1C Classes based on
year the
Mar cryst ||. e Orderfr°mJerusalem t x y PraYers,
*Hensa|t“a’°" of Warn as a d" "^marking
**" «f th ” as cont'nued to J ‘Stlnct n’onotheiwi:
’nd,

24. "(HE ISLAMIC WORLD
Abraham, or the primordial monotheism (al-din al-hanif).
From that time until his death, Muhammad not only continued
to be the channel for the revelation of the Qur’an but also ruled
the community- of Muslims. He was also the judge and
supreme interpreter of the law of Medinan society.
The Early Battles
The enmity' between the Quraysh and Muhammad remained
ven- strong, in part because of the persecution, aggression, and
confiscation of property the Muslims suffered at the hands of
the Quraysh. On several occasions warriors from Medina
intercepted caravans from Mecca going to or coming from
Syria, but Muhammad did not want to fight a battle against
[ the Meccans until they marched against the nascent Medinan
I communin' and threatened the very future of Islam. At this
T time the following Qur’anic verse was revealed: “Permission to
fight is granted to those against whom war is made, because
they have been wronged, and God indeed has the power to
help them. They are those who have been driven out of then-
homes unjustly only because they affirmed: Our Lord is God”
(22:39-40). Muslims saw this verse as a declaration of war by
God against the idolatrous Quraysh.
In 624 an army of 1,000 men assembled by the Quraysh
marched against Medina and met a much smaller force of 313
Muslims at a place called Badr on the seventeenth day of the
month of Ramadan. Although the number of those involved
as small, this event is seen by Muslims as the most mo­
mentous battle of Islamic history. Muhammad promised all
those who were killed at Badr the death of a martyr and direct
entry mto paradise. Although heavily outnumbered, the
■Mushms achieved a remarkable victory. However, nine of
aS'
f " he c^°se I
‘ J pets°na
........
* t^iousness
»l'he^a”storiCalco"S
did no' «4-5 they dis
d led his f»Kes'° * ed The Muslim5 had
after some
in the engagement. H<W, (ng of the
**^S!XMeccangeneral
^nyskcamp.Khat i military figures of early
iXrZed Muhammad’s left flank and defeated
The Jews of Medina, who allegedly plotted with the Qur­
aysh, rejoiced in Muhammad’s defeat and in 626-7 urged the
Quraysh to take over Medina. To this end the Quraysh helped
raise an army of 10,000 men, which marched on Medina.
al-Farsi, the first Persian convert to Islam, whom
Omenandch^ah

25. |9
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
ordered by the Muslim general Su’d k ..
death; the women and children wereBav'd T
ep.sode cast a shadow upon relations beXeen th "*
munities for many centuries, even though the I 6 Corn'
of the Book” (that is, like Christians and ZoroasS ’ P“*
as Muslims, possessors of a divinely revealed scripture)^'"
erally en.oyed the protection of their lives, 4“^
religion under Islamic rule. P d
The Islamic community had become more solidly estab­
lished by 628, and in that year Muhammad decided to make
the ‘umrah (“lesser pilgrimage”) to the Ka‘bah. He set out for
Mecca with a large entourage and many animals meant for
sacrifice, but an armed Meccan contingent blocked his way.
Because he had intended to perform a religious rite, he did not
’ want to battle the Meccans at that time. So he camped at a site
F known as Al-Hudaybiyah and sent ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, later
the third caliph (khalifah, “successor”) of the Islamic com­
munity, to Mecca to negotiate a peaceful visit. When ‘Uthman
was delayed, Muhammad assembled his followers and had
them make a pact of allegiance (al-bay’ah) to follow him under
all conditions unto death, an act of great significance for later
Islamic history and Sufi belief and practice. Uthman finally
returned with Quraysh leaders who proposed as a compromise
that Muhammad return to Medina but make a peaceful
pilgrimage to Mecca the next year. In addition, a ten-year
truce was signed with the Meccans.
In 628-9 Muhammad’s first conquest was made when t e
Muslims captured Khaybar in a battle in which the va o
■All played an important role. The Jews
Khaybar were allowed to live in peace, pr
Muslims, but they were tinned to pay a re ig f
the jizyah. This became the model for the later
People of the Book in Islamic history.
, acc<’td'l’g
'he He er"phaS'Zenle the
>r.he"’*«“ldbe maBetoMecCa
'Is *4a finally ma* a many of
> of r j eminent Mec-
“’d <4 P^„ B and political figures,
later Ti rAs - accepted Islam, «1»1
Xhd.bn WalTdand 'Amr lb" head of the Banu
Mdwnma’s uncle a bccome a Musll .
Hashim family, was sai throughout Arabia.
^X^rpacta^uponatAT
Hudaybiyah, freeing Muhammad to march on Mecca, which
he did with a large group of the tzkmsdr, the al-muhajirun, and
Bedouins. The Quraysh pleaded for amnesty, which was
granted. After many years of hardship and exile, in 630
Muhammad entered Mecca triumphantly and directed his
followers not to take revenge for the nersernti™
He went directly to the KaW B u
ordered ‘All and Bilal the Ab ' ■ ° h’ where he
to prayer (a(.
?ete'Ka‘bah- A” -be Mec “
variousiea^_ to accept
>fAlexandria; the
■ ofByzantinum;
' these

26. (1
20
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
with a large army north to Tabuk but did not engage the
enemy. Nevertheless, the Jews and Christians of the region
submitted to his authority, whereupon Muhammad again
guaranteed their personal safety and freedom to practise their
religion as he did for the Zoroastrians of eastern Arabia. At
that time too the pagan Arab tribes in the north, as well as in
other regions, embraced Islam.
So by 631 Muhammad had brought to a close the age of
ignorance” (al-jdhiliyyah), as Muslims called the pre-Islamic
epoch in Arabia. He broke the hold of tribal bonds as the
ultimate links between an Arab and the society around him.
Although tribal relations were not fully destroyed, they were
now transcended by a more powerful bond based on religion.
Finally, in 632, Muhammad made the first Islamic pilgrim­
rm age to Mecca (al-hajj), which remains the model to this day for
ft the millions of Muslims who make the hajj each year. This
■ event marked the peak of Muhammad’s earthly life. At that
time he delivered his celebrated farewell sermon, the Farewell
Pilgrimage Address, and the last verse of the Qur’an was
revealed, completing the sacred text: “This day have I per­
fected for you your religion and fulfilled My favour unto you,
and it hath been My good pleasure to choose Islam for you as
your religion” (5:3). On the way back from Mecca, he and his
entourage stopped at a pond called Ghadir Khumm where he
appointed All as the executor of his last will and as his wall, a
term that means friend or “saint” and also describes a
person who possesses authority. This major event is seen by
the Sunni branch of Islam as signifying a personal and family
matter, while Shi'ites believe that at this time ‘All received the
formal investiture to succeed the Prophet.
ate in spring the same year Muhammad, who had been
consi ering another expedition to the north, suddenly fell ill
’3CCOrding t0 trad,t,on> died three days later on June 8. His
da„d*icpiety
*h‘n’n” . morehending
the chnstians celebrate Chmt
Saudi Arabia, dominated
mas but as a major feas . y ,, l- move_
,„teiSh««h«»<yS»th'P"n,an™a, “
ment, are these celebrations not encouraged publicly; there
they are somewhat subdued. In the rest of the Islamic world,
the miracles associated with Muhammad’s life, such as his
Nocturnal Ascent, are celebrated in numerous ways. Ordinary
“"7 well as the highly educated repeat the Our’nnic
that Muhammad was sent as “m C
j 7 Unt° a'l
Mr Session on the Dav f f°r hls shtfd

27. THE 'SIAMIC world
20
W1th a large army north to Tabuk I.
guaranteed their personal Xf/ ’*
rehgion as he did for the Zoroastrians of PrMise *'•
that time too the pagan Arab tribes tn the north" *'
other regions, embraced Islam. ’ We as in
So by 631 Muhammad had brought to a close “th
ignorance” (al-jahiliyyah), as Muslims called the pre'lZ'w
epoch Arabia. He broke the hold of tribal bonds a*
ultimate links between an Arab and the society around him.
Although tribal relations were not fully destroyed, they were
now transcended by a more powerful bond based on religion.
Finally, in 632, Muhammad made the first Islamic pilgrim­
age to Mecca (al-hajj), which remains the model to this day for
1 the millions of Muslims who make the hajj each year. This
event marked the peak of Muhammad’s earthly life. At that
- time he delivered his celebrated farewell sermon, the Farewell
Pilgrimage Address, and the last verse of the Qur’an was
revealed, completing the sacred text: “This day have I per­
fected for you your religion and fulfilled My favour unto you,
and it hath been My good pleasure to choose Islam for you as
your religion” (5:3). On the way back from Mecca, he and his
entourage stopped at a pond called Ghadir Khumm where he
appointed ‘All as the executor of his last will and as his wall, a
term that means “friend” or “saint” and also describes a
person who possesses authority. This mapr event ts seen X
the Sunni branch of Islam as signifying a personaIan
matter, while Shfites believe that at this time Ah
formal investiture to succeed the Prophet.
Late in spring the same year Muhanunad, who^
considering another expedition to t e , His
and, according to tradition, died three y
■!> *eS' 'h ofthe Accord ‘ faInily,
aftertheKa ba ,
Muhamad and Islimic Piety
0„tann«tunderstandlsla™oP«tTW'*”“ /celebrated
^^^-monrh^a
A„al, not in rhe same way that Christians celebrate Christ
mas but as a major feast. Only in Saudi Arabia, dominated
since the eighteenth century by the puritan Wahhabi move­
ment, are these celebrations not encouraged publicly; there
they are somewhat subdued. In the rest of the Islamic world
the miracles associated with Mohammad’s life, such as hii
t"p"!»

28. 22
I M°ulav mP'8rin>aee
/ ,„, ,n India _ e tomb nf .' 'P'acesrf s'4»,
>n Medina are COnsidered %“ a,-D|n S'S
, ,Theb^edict,“a' e«^ions„"^hH
Ilfe, and trad.V Upo" 'he Pm l h“ "*
Ubi9U'toUs nalls|5n»cliferP 'PUn^ateSt|3,
There are m «' event
S1mple dream 0/k™ f°r many ordin Not °nly for
Penetrates '
Z‘TTflthe individ“al and°ofkS7e,’£rOn’ the«Xl
spirit/0 '
During the 23-year period nf k;
accomplished what by any account muTt "h°°d’Mu,«"™ad
the most significant achievements of h. °ns'*red ™™g
transmitted both rhe text of tS Q^r 3n “ *”
standing of the Divine Word, which is the foundX“ti
later Qur ante commentary. Second, he established a bodv of
sunnah (“traditions”) and Hadith (a collection of
attributed to him and to members of the earlv i- Sayin^s
t i r i , ny Muslim com­
munity) that are, after the Qur an, the most important sources
for all things Islamic. Third, he laid the foundation for a new
religious and spiritual community, taught many disciples and
created the means for the continuity and transmission of the
Islamic tradition. Finally, he formed a new society, unifying
Arabia in a sociopolitical structure based on the Qur’an and
establishing an empire of faith in the hearts and minds of his
23
.fb,E;prrf»”«dl,“

29. THE
2
THE FOUNDATIO.
NS OF ISLAM
The Legacy of Muhammad
From the very beginning of Islam, Muhammad inculcated a
sense of communal identity and a bond of faith among his
followers that was intensified by their experiences of persecu­
tion as a nascent community in Mecca. During the early period
at Medina, from 622, when the community-state of Islam
emerged, Islam acquired its characteristic ethos as a religion
uniting in itself both the spiritual and temporal aspects of life
and seeking to regulate not only an individual’s relationship to
God (through that individual’s conscience) but human rela­
tionships in a social setting as well. Thus,
Islamic religious institution but also Isi
other institutions governing society. Not umn me rwentietn
century were the religious (private) and the secular (public)
distinguished by some Muslim thinkers and separated for­
mally, as in Turkey.
This dual religious and social character ot Islam, express,ng
itself as a religious community eomnusstoned by God to brmg
there is not only an
an Islamic law, state, and
- Ar until the twentieth
" , Strugs1' ionS of W“s, btoitghf3 __ under
«»ssCe“' of *•«* pin oi
J.XSotnSp«« fk period heexp^10"
Musltm first ph»se nism with® *e
«required » w *'* asm or to die. The same status
were required either to ac Zoroastrians and
ssxessiL-i---
in order to escape the disability of the jizydb.
k much more massive expansion of Islam after the twelfth
century was inaugurated by the Sufis (Muslim mystics), who
contributed significantly to the spread of Islam in India,
ialKirTUtkey’and sub’Saharan ^ica. Besides the
*«ttZ±y’a”odrfa“>rinthesPrea<'
"«h introduced Islam q ”te”aX ° ‘raders- whr>
Ind°nesia u i Sufls< in convertin H 3111 Catalytic
^ntint Cdturec „ . ■ Carrie
Sr a ernaldifferenc ^^dbvl I
of

30. 25
THE FOUNDATIONS of ISLAM
2
The Legacy of Muhammad
From the very beginning of Islam, Muhammad inculcated a
sense of communal identity and a bond of faith among his
followers that was intensified by their experiences of persecu­
tion as a nascent community in Mecca. During the early period
at Medina, from 622, when the community-state of Islam
emerged, Islam acquired its characteristic ethos as a religion
uniting in itself both the spiritual and temporal aspects of life
and seeking to regulate not only an individual’s relationship to
God (through that individual’s conscience) but human rela­
tionships in a social setting as well. Thus, there is not only an
Islamic religious institution but also an Islamic law, state, and
other institutions governing society. Not until the twentieth
century were the religious (private) and the secular (public)
distinguished by some Muslim thinkers and separated for­
mally. as in Turkey.
ru J.ial religious and social character of Islam, expressingiX a Xo- community God “ b™8
2h ' ,>hinS
•|dtbr<,“hofthf acentury
large Pat‘
«"d'*' Ln.^”s“ its offietal disc'
l*,sa i faithful and"5 rapid co"v
:: „q«d » W the rax M to die The same status
„„ required etthet to a« P Zoroastnans and
in order to escape the disability of the jizyah.
A much more massive expansion of Islam after the twelfth
century was inaugurated by the Sufis (Muslim mystics), who
contributed significantly to the spread of Islam in India,
Central Asia, Turkey, and sub-Saharan Africa. Besides the
aWaud Sufi missionary activity, another factor in the snread
olblimwastlie far-ranging influence of Muslin,, a .
' avinS time "0
C0Untry came

31. Ib
mdfr
hclonB,n« tn . ,
l**«K.I d —
ntnetventh »nd .« *
-na '^▼ntierh st
mmmumn («r»wm«fA) hr
Muslim pec,pl^ ,n thcn <tru
■ Sc mi,|.n,Tono(, trnniry and WjM
t(, U|n
in
" b»..
unth
nturin.
> Amr m longer
lr* to
,r
C hed,f1
•h
1 jl ret
4 the ***
Sources of IslSmic Doctrinal and Soo.l
»fw»
UftmK doctrine, law. and thinking in general an h.« w
tour sources. or fundamental principles (ion/) (1)tlx <>-»>
(2) the sutinah (“traditions”). (3) t/m.r (“conwnsu* .ami■»
i5?rhu<; (' individual thought”),
I he C^ut An (“Reading”, or “Rec itation”) is u gard< dla "
X ord. ot Speech, ol God delivered to Muhammad h "f
archangel Gabriel and is the tund.unent.il source <>• ,
teaching 1'hc chapters revealed at Mecca during the < J'lir‘
pan of Muhammad's career ai< concerned with rthic.i *IU
spiritual teachings and the Day ot Judgement
rescaled to the Prophet at Medina at a later pet
concerned with social legislation, worship, and the
moral principles lot <1
Die word huHfujh was
tireit tribal or common
example erf the Pi ophet -
m known
comped m the ninth urntury
< K th. taVN b..... ..
, , Urac branch, the Shrwr. has m
AncKlirr i*ip . ii»r
. h in addition *o 11K f
leadco ^crfseuU-H-P
..nd tr >np<' -
■ rNu,red 1 i
, lnihe"r,y
nrobleh1-10
. .. ....................., Bunnu ^'■‘’7.
"Jr.rof^’°n
‘■'7,,thrii...bih- u* ,r"'
, ,< the ‘b*r ,n mrthamsm and the
j to i coWk***
• Sunni tra*
. i_ i.
titers it..
nraedtoi
rmers of thi
dem influt
The chapter*
nd
xilltsir-
instituting and ordering the comnium1'
used bv pre-Islamic Arabs to denott
law; m Islam it came to mean ' *
i.e lus wolds and deeds as rrso’rfcw
as Hadith Sis Hadith colkvuo s
ainc to I* regarded as esp<
of lslAtn. the Sunni
c>wu Hadith colics
mwwuaI
a-tame
beds of Hadith virtually closed the
tradition. Nevertheless, certain
,R. al-Ghazali, d. HU) and
i claim the right of new t^tthad
the eighteenth and nineteenth
ences, caused this principle
““ *e Qur’i
W of the Qur'i

32. belonging to a tingle mligimi* commune
political power duringtht periodrdWtwtn-t...7* ’
nineteenth and nventieth centuntw, th. coturp s
community wmwiub' hcomc monger. hlin *
Muslim people* in their struggle* tn gam p.lwjiK.... .
the mid-twentieth century, and the idcahw
d wwx w
community contributed to later attempt* atpilitolwMaw
Sources of Islam,c Doerr,na| a„d So(,„
Wam,c doctnne, law and lhlnk|ng m
our sources, or fundamental principles (utrt/): (1l tin »,».>•
the sunnah ( traditions (3) ijmd' ("conM*n*ut »nc *
trtihad ("individual thought").
The Qur An ("Reading", or "Recitation”) is regarddm*
ord. or Speech, of God delivered to Muhammad h
archangel Gabriel and is the fundamental source <>* l*Unis
teaching I he chapters revealed at Mena during the u1'*’
part of Muhammad's career are concerned with rthua ,!l'
spiritual teachings and the Day of Judgement The char0
rescaled io the Prophet at Medina at a latvr perud
concerned with social legislation, worship, and the’ p',ltK
moral principles for constituting and ordering the comma
The word sunnah was used by pre-lslimic' Arabs to dem*
their tribal or common law; in Islam it came to mean tf*
example of the Prophet - i.e, his words and deeds as recorded
in ^cmipdauon* known as Haduh So Hadith colkshons-
,wnts.kcd in the ninth ermury. came to be rvga.ded as e>p' 11 ufhontanve bv the huge* branch ut Klam, rhe Suiwu
• a. ti.c sh.... ■***
f t nladdmonUHhePiophrt th.
k*dr'*' *** * 1 ,,K,rW
” If’’
-nt**,
.,1^
r *’
. ’ so ' * ,.o*u runlf . .
‘ -r«" N h-d ,f1
< '? .......1>< ,-4'^ ...
■
- 1 ln,rrt*’,u ,n<ofth'
........
»*-W**'** sen. I"'1""''"'1'
' ‘ «’r . ,ndtl’»0,K
^.“■•^(Zlpnxedur..........
•'■'"'"iL."J,hc tbd"h'lht''?'?
............... . J'ul'c
^Idihhatmbahot Hadith virtually closed the
M. >• «*a/ • rhe Sunni tradition. Nevertheless, certain
■ sc • thinkers e.g. al-Gha/ali, d. 1111) and
* v * nrsts continued to daim the right of new ijtihad
***so.and reformers of the eighteenth and nineteenth
■*»«-<•» mfluencn, uustd this principle
» twnc wider acceptance.
1

33. world
28
Presence is believed, k
anything. He is the s X ev«ywhere H ,
universe, wherein ° 6 creator and th Mwsri«m
lordship. But He
P ace, and hls merc^ ” Ch is befe *>
: “creat,on »d Ssr
C , Ct°fLPrime mercy for “"Iv«« i,
God of the Qur’an, while described a S"’gHis'1*^
is also a personal God- whP 6 d ma,estic and sovereign
to Hint, HeSon^Xe^"'?^
guidance and show. u.- 1 He ls the G°d of
the right way, “the straight p”^,,Par"Cularly h““
iustice P'H°f G°d ~ Where'n th£ a"ributts of P"“.
justtce, and mercy interpenetrate - is related to Juda.™ and
ristianity, whence it is derived with certain modifications,
an a so to the concepts of pre-Islamic Arabia, to which it
provided an effective answer. One traditional Arabic religious
belief held that humans were committed to a blind and
inexorable fate over which they had no control. For this
powerful but insensible fate the Qur’an substituted a provident
and merciful God while rejecting idolatory and all divinities
that the Arabs worshipped in their sanctuaries, the most
prominent of which was the Ka‘bah in Mecca itself.
The universe. In order to prove the unity of God, the Qur’an
lays frequent stress on the design and order in the universe.
There are no gaps or dislocations in nature. Order is explained
by the fact that every created thing is endowed with a definite
and defined nature whereby it falls into a pattern. This nature,
though it allows every created thing to function as part of a
& .• end this idea of the limitedness of everythingwhok, "olntVn bod, rhe eosn^gy and theory
^f0^ Qur’ln The universe is viewed as autonomous, in the
,5-.
,ninhere* nfbehav‘ eVeiy
itsoVvn trerns 0 j ThuS’ e
rt.h«se Pa‘ .inritd- ‘" nd5
^‘"d >a’dt>lle"8 nd self'su® emd
al»“e ia8°. llJePc,,cle”t’ .he QutSn’ ,nd
G<d. * l°. Wording •«the T.s, hun>anS * „
o* u L .pedes of «ea‘“ AboUt the /«««’
Thehm” tly Para e P from ^e-A .. i rhat the
bough it is W',ed e mote
Qur’an says little, sibility but
howeveh' wQe Wlthreason human being that the
i‘“n aK Xn humans. It is with th race, 1S
&^r5). ne and Cl^n
centrally concerned is accepted, but
story of the Fall of Adam (th his act of disobedience,
Qur’an states that God org (20;122_3).
which is not viewed in the Qur a & nmtpsfed to
In the story of human creation, angels, w P
God against such creation, lost in a competition of knowledge
against Adam (2:30-34). The Qur’an, therefore, declares
humans to be the noblest creatures of all creation - those
who bore the trust (of responsibility) that the rest of God’s
”a“,'(ustd,° accept. The Qur’an thus reiterates that all
'X‘kX”adeUbSr“ “ hnmnS; n°‘h‘ng 311
*not been creurf” ’and PeoPle *«n-
posebeing
xc ra,ure rec^«s "x s a hmited
5?“4«XTedasre^idXand
naisinot^iXncy-p"de
’ °ecause, kv

34. 30
recognizing its p
violatinga ccea^^S
(Shaytan, or Iblls) h d a"06’ ^be being who b
frOm divine gLtxttrsa *xt
honour Adam when he,
to do so; his act of disobedienr • angels’Was order«l
the sin of pride (2:34) Since tfT C°nStrUed by the Qur’an as
humans into error and sin e"’his Work has been to beguile
only on the Last Day 3 S macbmatl0ns wil1 «e
^hoIe un,verse is repJete with SI§ns of God;the h™"
itself is viewed as a witness to the unity and grace of God.
messengers and prophets of God have, throughout his-
tory, een calling humankind back to God. Yet very few have
accepted the truth; most have rejected it and have become
disbelievers (kafir, plural kuffar-. “ungrateful” — i.e. to God).
When a person thus becomes obdurate, his or her heart is
sealed by God. Nevertheless, it is always possible for a sinner
to repent (tawbah) and to achieve redemption by a genuine
conversion to the truth. Genuine repentance has the effect of
removing all sins and restoring people to the state of sinless­
ness in which they started their lives.
Prophecy. Prophets are specially elected by God to be His
messengers The Qur’an requires recognition of ail prophets
without discrimination, yet they are nor all equal, so™ ot
W , . .rnmlarlv outstanding in qualities of steadfast-
thern being p Abraham, Noah, Moses, and
ness and patience■ un § As indication the truth of
Jesus were such great P y miracIes; Abraham
their mission, God otte
' US deW£’ he Vi®1 All
afro*f ’lyWasJ ved^111 r.theyaf JVtO
was save . Not °n ; J also s*v f jivin^’1 . Jirectv
hrtin^
Muhan^ Th archangel G represented ' .
^rSsheaftGa
andown t°the but the Prophet cou hefs revela-
Qur’an as a sptnt’ , traditions, the P
£ hit.. According “ '7 “ . This phenomenon at tn
..wtrted.». ' an Ratable conviction
same time was accomp Qur’jn jescrlbes itself
written on a “Preserved Tablet (85:21-2).
Eschatology. Because not all requital is meted out in this
life, a final judgement is necessary to bring it to completion.
On the Last Day, when the world will come to an end, the
Wkermrrected and a judgement will be pronounced
in accordance with his deeds A|,h L u
an m the main speaks of , ° Althou§h the
7”«* speak of |Ud8ement> ,h«e are
k*w,l.Th2) to 4st,nct
Si-'::
)
r
1
1
1
e
1
i.
5
d
t-
•t
ll
c
e

35. WAicft /u'’danaen?7P’Sc«ed /,P°S*« ?'»'»,J <V.
of the nStltLlte<; ,-L a r°le k Q ‘ef in c ec^°icef
and *nan 'ly in f tn,s of d
eXp^S[ °f O^of°ral
h^s Xoc:'
aredee^dCt^8- Pr^g yr COns^^ss^allev^Ssuffe[.
Service fo ., ° be a mere f§ G°d and l P*n of
COtl^ry, pr 'n8f°rorhers "n ^spcrs^fac^^are
tUre’ WhjrL miSes Prosn hSyW111 become Pe°P,e’s^
^oretha C°nstjfutes Jn e*chane f’°°r'GocJ’on the
Without " mon^^3 Kithh^ for
PumsHm °8nizing the *estedin Usilrv nd S^ows much
maZZ ent in "» t
of USCS fhe dec Cr and Js decl nvites the mostdire
y°(S°^Sdecred “ b'
faM I tl“S S°«°-eXn„ - W°rU- n^c..a
taith, the idea n( ,nornic docrr'
declared to fce-.^e k"“ <*e bond ol
us Ims are described af‘‘‘11°eacb °rhec ' e who
fitness on mankind” (2-14^ m'dd/e cor^^5 (49:1°f
for mankind”, whose fun e 3 ’ ■ best con^Unity bearing
eV11” (3:110>- Cooperation°andS-tO'njOlngoZZndOfdUCed
-mmumty are emPhasIzed,
m widn
I
eQUa]
arnic
1 THE
/SLAMIC^1^———- ' '
, rcJo«d with armed force t
1,jforrt«'”wtto' lyis the logical outcome. For the
»«or* * tasjcre/,gjous concept- The object o
coaters,on of individuals to Islam but
«feMa'cmm'ovath,eco,lea,vea a,rs
d»run them in accordance with the principles of
Islim. Individusl conversions occur as a by-product of this
process when the power structure passes into the hands of the
Muslim community. In fact, according to strict Muslim doc­
trine, conversions “by force” are forbidden, and it is also
W3gc wars for the sake of acqforine
m A^abi^t of the
^^^softheco^ty0^' ° Was modified
4e consolidation of the emni j COncern became
^^isurpraej^ , re 3ad lts administration , j
Dlstulct'0n and n • ■> er man m
V* ® ^e celeb k°rtace were
't’" < before ^"7^'
nct,°nrecno e(lual child hls death
, 'rlr b'-, Li., ' W'-Wl Af “d.*
nh°^' ' «-beret„ af>'nstitu.
Perso» - . “"d b 7 " Was
Uz._ u Cti nof

36. 34
35
P>Uring th * C6S; ^he f
Cental Pra .
iX'?e:S,C^X^ after
CommUn,tv,S'n8,ed out tnenl,gio^andea,h “'the,
‘T?6 ^Pillar ■ rn,“'ated «
ofS?n°^h^7^,orprof .
The proL " Whlch depend Muha">mad 'a” '*
From X°in,ean'n8 ^•STh'e,y’
lParticuJa , mental belief ard . ajsent bom the htatt
b°°hs (the *' A„ge( *
Christian revel, 3nd saaed h T^21^^
Prophets (am °n descr|bed in the n °°ks °f kcw,sh and
'rad.tion ' e "g f«ure o) ' Q“r (3> ‘
c^ZTical^^-^sh Md ch“
(Day of T, SSen&ers to every naf “ *S believed that
^“'Judgement). rynano"handM|theLaSrDay
1 he second Pmar „ . 7
ormed facing toward rhe Ka'b h d”ly pra>'m> aa/a, per­
Mosque Mecca. n'°T*’h’ ’ Wlth,„ the S.L
one is unable ro go to tKX^^o^indiWttelftif
formed before -nose, el/sZ°oSndUt p^r ts Per-
later in the afternoon, the fourth im a- ^er noon’ the th,rd
the fifth before retiring to bed. SMSet’and
including the washing of hands, face and^f Prayer’ ablutions,
The noon prayer on Fridays is the chiefcon performed-
The third pillar is the obligatory tax call^zalar"^1 Prayer'
tion”, indicating that such a payment makes the^est
wealth religiously and legally pure). This is the only pe°m °nes
dlr o" t0°d
J „ayab|e ‘,n' „ Zakat is
•, d » * Qf"/!«»"' *r the pfr’
war capf . extension,
fees, fa. ’ f Caveliers. h of Rama-
t * *e fourth pillar of
taWd-«<‘^“a" 2b “ a d ends ar sunset, and
tkU Fastmg « da’'br“ “okl are forbidden.
are exempted through the
daily feeding of one poor person.
Hie fifth pillar is participation in the annual pilgrimage
(fa//)to Mecca, prescribed for every Muslim once in a lifetime
-“provided one can afford it” and provided there are enough
provisions for the family in the pilgrim’s absence. A special
U, rhe Sacred Mosque on the seventh day of the
■nilof Dhu al-Higah (the last month of the Muslim >
*"* achrife begin by the eie|,r. . Muslim year).
ie ” thirteenth. The r,rmr V 7 conc,“de on
times aro„nd tVKa?b P’'aCtlVlti« consist of
however, mere elev * M°Unt Marwa / ngand tunning
^"^P'WX^^^-Atth WH1Ch 3re now
WmJ Pend one afrpr fat’ where tk. ’ few miles
. .......
"’’"ion

37. THE ISLAMIC WORLD
approximately half of them from non-Arab coWtVtt
Muslim countries sendofficialdelegations, afactthatis^
increasingly exploited for organizing religio-political
gresses. At other times in theyear it is consideredmerits
to perform the lesser pilgrimage fumrah), whichisnot,W
ever, a substitute for the hajj.
The most
Mecca, which
Sacred Places and Days
“j ~~-> -x
s acred House , where heavenly bliss and power
touch the Earth directly. The Prophet’s mosque in Medina,
w ere Muhammad and the first caliphs are buried, is the next
in sanctity. Jerusalem follows in third place as the first direc­
tion in which Muslims faced to offer prayers (qiblah) and as
the place from where Muhammad, according to tradition,
made his ascent to heaven. For Shi'ites, Karbala’ in Iraq (the
place of martyrdom of ‘All’s son, Husayn) and Meshed in Iran
(where Imam ‘A1T ar-Rida is buried) constitute places of special
veneration and pilgrimage.
For Muslims in general, shrines of Sufi saints are particular
objects of reverence and even veneration. In Baghdad the tomb
of the most venerated Sufi saint, ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, is
visited every year by large numbers of pilgrims from all over
rhe Muslim world. The shrine of Mu’in al-Din Chisti in Ajmer
, X draws thousands of pilgrims annually, inc-(northern Christians as well as Muslims,
luding Hindus centred around the mosque, and in
General^religiouSphre
and early caliphs the mosque was the
f,//mm.. mosques are usuallysup-
centreoi nil .ervisedbyanimamwhoadmins itheprayerservice,though
sometimes also a muezzin (prayer-time announcer) is ap­
pointed.Inlargermosques, whereFridayprayersare offered,
akhatib(onewhogivesthekhutbab, orsermon)isappointed
forFriday service. Many large mosques also function as
andcolleges.
'"i thelunaryear)datesfrom
roMedina
* I1' r‘ 01 ar) dates fro®
Fr,day hools and colleges. lunar yea
lh'SX'!*’• * "X* and Id
in 622- . j nfthe month or , rimes include
^“rf*te'Stf^-tefcwd.,obef
individuals ^nd the world as a whole) and r 6
«»»n of the Prophet to heaven Laylat
Mi’raj). The Shi'ites observe the tenth of Muharram (the first
month of the Muslim year) to mark the day of the martyrdom
of Husayn at Karbala’ (680). Muslims also celebrate the birth
and death anniversaries of various saints in a festival called
* (“birthday”), or 'urs (“nuptial ceremony”). The saints
“ reach rhe zenith of their spiral life on this
are the ‘i
'th of Ramadan, at
[” (Laylat al-Qadr,

38. 3
mic The°|og/
Isl5m'c
.,mrhe^1C
Century are
second nJ*rhe beg*nningS 7rerpretatl0n’
ablefr°L i to'Qur’an‘C1 C
Arabicph'0S ofthe proi
sayin?5 an , During the r
and histonograPny. on
a^bCf°fq; vLch were relevant to
7ons. and fate in (“sp
include all matters t— -
'SLAm,c thought 8EL(efs
EL,EFS- and PRactice
Islamic theology anj n.
Ing deve,oPed by Muslim ‘th^k' trad,dons of leara’
°"C i-nd. tn rhe rn^ --"»d.on4t
Principles of the klan ^anhca^n and defence of the
Pursuit of the ancient zr- '&°n 3nd’ °n dle odier’ “
ers took a position I GreC°'Roman) sciences. These think-
ditionalists, who ,nrermediare between the tra-
of the primary sourced'of tO exprCSS'OnS
the Hadith) and who abhor'?"
reasoning led them to h 7 r,eaSon,n& and those whose
gether 30 on fhe Islamic community alto-
Over the course of time, representatives of certain rheolo­
gical movements succeeded in converring rulers to their cause,
made those rulers declare in favour of rh^ a
. . r ot their movements, and
even encouraged them to persecute their opponents. Thus
there arose in some localities and periods a semblance of an
official, or orthodox, doctrine.
• traJiti011 in
'C silv distmgulS
f theol0^ 1 are not ea Jiscip^11^5
1* bSf X* nun,ber of 0*e0||ecti0n of **
'“rnnd the beginningS interpretation’ r jurisprudence,
. Qur anlC Muhamm3^’1 , renturv
Wb^»fthC^fi^alf0ftheeC.c^’’d
'■i*TPhs»«Xm"8 - G°d'S “Tan s freedom.
„jumberofques were relevant to more
X^-X^-ech..,The
^By the ninth century Islamic theology had coined a vast
number of technical terms and theologians had forged Arabic
into a versatile language of science, Arabic philology had
matured, and the religious sciences (jurisprudence, the study
oftheQuran, Hadith, criticism, and history) had developed
«ph techn^ues „f textual study and interpretation
^xtrf:da"?“nsoiidaKd“m--
»« * * Ph" S dMth Terences
^W-^X“Xni,y °Wr Access,„
s"®>i.Attnrdin ,6 On between rhe ck-«- ’
*®™««[BAelSUnn'S’0rtra<li»onalKt fa” and 'he
^tednosn,.. )Orit>' of Islam , aCtlOn ~ who
>a,*hohadSOr'AfterSO,ne dispute Pr°phet had
t^:7,htSher,mco*Uni; fe"chief.
*" td de*e *'■«, or 'rured *ife Upon
^ated a$ . PartiSans„ , A *hah.

39. 41
WORLD
40
“"•‘"-’’w‘All, husband of hi
'S,.°nly surviving grandsons H
Al. and the Prophet’s closest k Md S
for burial, Abu Bakr -II k n'enwerePre»ariJ'v'1*
comSnXXiteX^h^^
leaders of the Medinans and agreed X'*’
as the successor (khalifah, -‘caliph’.) ofthe^?"*'*
h.s k.nsmen were dismayed but agreed - for the saLX
and because ‘Ah was still young - accept the fait
fter the murder of ‘Uthmen, the third caliph, folk,,’,
accusations of nepotism and misrule, ‘Ali was invited by the
rebels at Medina who had assassinated ‘Uthmen to acceptthe
caliphate. Thus ‘Ali became the fourth caliph (reigned 656-
61), but the disagreement over his right of succession brought
about a major schism in Islam.
The rebels who had recognized ‘All as ruler later fought
against him, accusing him of having committed a grave sin in
submitting his claim to the caliphate to arbitration. The bas^
doctrine of the Kharijites (from kharaju, to withdra )
that a person or a group who committed a grave error
did not sincerely repent ceased to be Muslim. Mere pro
the faith did not make a person a Muslim; this al that
accompanied by righteous deeds. The secon pr £
flowed from their aggressive idealism was ™,l,ra ^klani.
which rhe Kharijitesconsidered wai
any Mud.m,
was contrast to he daim^ tha,
Belong to the i ruf /“traditions”).
he must follow the ‘“’ailarions ofGreek philosopluc.1 and
As a consequence of t« k the e,ghth „d ninth
scientific works into
thataPerson
neither a
I
LOse a^ a ^ote P° are c^e that they Qn the
Mu-^
:>d’S>Xf*ilh 10 'V° al 0< (aith as
eiadonsh-P rc a„ csse^ J nted. «3S
sin. “"'T hbuI occupy 3
E**6"1’" * oorM^*e posrnon, M 3
free to choose
•"* X *■ “i their actions. They
‘““'^X.efore.respo^bh'0'' was
op,Ue«ffe««”f 'l’aI (teason. Revelation had
^thedtctatesof i
Tie tenth century a reaction began against the Mil tazilah
that culminated in the formulation and subsequent general
acceptance of another set of theological propositions that
became Sunni, or orthodox, theology. The concept of the
community so vigorously pronounced by the earliest doctrine
T*" k"'*1 b“h1 ”cmphasis and 3 fr«h context
-»XU:Xlb:"dan“ "ad"'°" (Hadith)
*. *e “,hc '««'hat Muslims
X'0”'"’ and'har God'-s n m‘"°rity ^“P5 3re *U
tX*'««u„ln.,X'7hand-Jayson
Mlw" 'C”??™ Hadlth- the com" be “ error'
Q“r'an whh a ° U"lty’ which
with inf" Xd into
aHibthty. The

40. 42
SU
*eo,o&^a
respo^2^d **
Word Of cJ heir actions tk ans "everth i H
hereafter bv k that the qual-^^’^isl^
^nnw^
d's«™ as heretlca| c s*sm
^'.on of the 7TOD?*° -d srn^T'^-
among niv _ phcf ^at says “diffc * putatI'e
rency 1 7 ^"^^ity are a blesL’ °f *
y- 1 his prJncip]e of toleration i ? 8'Ven wqde cur‘
d«verse sects and schools f' l “ t'?lately made ,r possible
W,t e ran8e of differences in bcl f ~ nonv,th^ndwg a
and coexist wirh each other and pnjcr,ce ~t0 recognize
Besides the Sui i
surviving sect in EhJ? P^'i' m “ thc °",y ,mponant
dualistic and c , ■ r°hably under Gnostic (esoteric,
ences, the figure Ink'*'C> and old Iranian (dualistic) influ-
formed in Shi’ism into n ° "T W3S ‘ranS’
God and Hi- . ,neraPhysical being, a manifestationof
be 1X tr ,ePnm;'r?'al l,Bh' *“ S“s“™ »d
h,X tT?n°Wl'd«">" Through rhe — utarf
htdden and true nrean.ng of the Qurs,n]c k
known, because the zmJm alone was infallible The Shfites
thus developed a doctrine of esoteric knowledge that was also
adopted, in a modified form, by the Sufis, or Islamic mystics.
The predominant Shfite community, the Ithna ‘Ashariyah
(Twelvers), recognizes 12 such imams, the last having disap­
peared in the ninth century. Since that time, the mujtahids
(Shfite jurists) have been able to interpret law and doctrme
THE isl
the end u.ir doctrme °r al1Sin «n is behe -
•II rePJfn
wi*'- Ofl th^
MS“° X »"d Ba”« *reaS ‘ rhe source of
sure and tr ckf’ism has
d, infallible ** f Twe|ver Shore. Sh
fold® it ®'“ b d ' the moi[ important of the
J,ad » rand? ot other„ a5 [he seventh
Udteltrf-tama o reeo^.^
Srfte "de” brother Itma'.l. One group of taA
called Sab’iyah (Seveners), considered Isma 11 the seventh an
last ofthe wins. The majority of Isma ilis, however, believed
that the imamate continued in the line of Isma il s descendants.
The Isma’ili teaching spread during the ninth century from
North Africa to Sind, in India, and the Isma’ili Fatimid dynasty
succeeded in establishing a prosperous empire in EgYDt
In Isma’dite theology, rhe universe is viewed as a r
Process, and the unfolding of each ™ I • d ‘C
advent of seven “speakers” ‘ C *S marked by the
with scrip
"B«'w«irh„u,rtvea|cd “"ded seven “si|ents., P
thren of

41. 44
fa7'X’or'nsattheii^tlonofth
Sufem,
theology. These persons stressed the Mus im*
mottvation, contrition agatnst excessive w“
~ the heart- as opposed to the !egalist C **
During a nineteenth-century anticlerical movement in Iran
a certain ‘All Muhammad of Shiraz appeared, declaring him-
self to be the Bab (“Gate”; i.e. to God). At that time the climate
in Iran was generally favourable to messianic ideas. He was,
however, bitterly opposed by the Shl‘ite ‘ulama’ (“the
learned”) and was executed in 1850. After his death, his
two disciples, Sobh-e Azal and Baha’ Ullah, broke and went
in different directions. Baha’ Ullah eventually declared his
religion — stressing a humanitarian pacificism and universalism
- to be independent of and outside Islam. The Baha i faith won
a considerable number of converts in North America unng
the early twentieth century.
Islamic Philosophy
• in and inspiration of Islamic philosophy are
Th'OT‘g"^-of Islamic theology. Philosophy develop
differen ind the non-religious practical and theoretics
out of and arou theoretical limits other than those o
sciences, it recogniz assumed that the truth found by
human reason itse , ,isagree with the truth of Islam when
unaided rea®°" j understood.
both are proper y
flo0'
lher, w, an3
01
heolo8ia"ltion bCt „d
<Lb.*"5 “ o!e of <h" ‘ „:th the re|a" flllX,
‘er<«aoent
- »“ *' "jjr'/W*1” cess except
hha; H° ^ed thx
wot d hiect to fl«x ps _ on the other- thr0Ugh the
........
tx>-ce of a -pe^tal W
*h all these *emen^ lt t0
acknowledged by al-Kind. anj
His prophets by deansing and illuminat g
giving them His aid, right guidance, and inspiration, and y,
inturn, communicate it to ordinary men in an admirably clear,
concise, and comprehensible style. This is the prophets
“divine” knowledge, characterized by a special mode of access
and style of exposition. In principle, however, this very same
knowledge is accessible to human beings without divine aid
even though “human” knowledge mav lack th? m 1 ’
*“'* bequeathed b f knowledge - the human
'■.....
^ur’s" and the

42. World
46
Hadith, the identification of God •
first cause, creation as thp ° d 'Vlttl 'he f,rs, ■
causation distinct from natT7 °f bei"8 «a?*'
enThatl°hni an<i imm°ra^ of the'indi^ ***
The philosopher whose principal cn d vidualM,
opposinon to authority were inspired b"T’
zilah was the physician Abo Bakr ar-Razi In"!'”'*1’'
rury). He was intent on develops a
theory of creation that would not require any change in Godor
attribute to Him responsibility for the imperfection and evil
prevalent in the created world. To this end, he expoundedthe
view that there are five eternal principles - God; Soul; prime
matter; infinite, or absolute, space; and unlimited, or absolute,
time — and explained creation as the result of the unexpected
and sudden turn of events (faltah). Faltah occurred when Soul,
in her ignorance, desired matter and the good God eased her
misery by allowing her to satisfy her desire and to experience
the suffering of the material world, then giving her reaso
make her realize her mistake and to be delivered rom
union with matter, the cause of her suffering an o a
Al-Farabl (ninth-tenth century) saw that theo ogy
juridical study of the law were derivative p e"° , iver
function within a framework set by the Prop e
and founder of a human cormnumty. In thlS C° munity
elation defines the opinions that the members ofthe
rnu^hold and the actions that they must perform rf h<7 »
, or-rhlv happiness of this world and th
attain the ear ld philosophycould not understand
this framework o g content and confined the study
exclusively with 1 s dualistic ethics and personal salvation,
practical science to in a new framework analogous
P Al-Farabi recast_ph ligion. The sciences were organized
47
sics,
I '°*(h3?’’"'6ob>ca'
h^^S*S>,od^"'de9CO
< J*’1 •, ,„ufici affairs-
'*’I *lsB"“ «»«•»"< in pr»cnca id was in*®
* .>‘*X " '° helsla^*0' ydly beyo"3
lnal'FThe Sunni cahphate P llkely that the it and
Srt ’"d “ fi'X'fe *“ld fi”*N oplat°nic “S-
«-**&“■ >S":a% Leral expectano"
tacked »“d «e fltt0US with the
Z‘“g»« *' 4e,e'°,>Xnl of^Sl We and
tar, to meet the poetical Al-FSrabi’s
table alternative to the Sunni «11P“ ,
.dtinss underlined this basic weakness tn lsma iltsm a ,
u*t the Feeimids in Egypt (969-1171), Isma ill theology
modified its cosmology in the direction suggested by al-Farabt.
It returned to the view that the community must continue to
live under the divine law and postponed the prospect of the
abolition of divine laws and the appearance of the qe’im to an
indefinite point in the future
l^Ulamicthelgy and mJ^ °'“ 8radually
"Islam, Foliowin. al Fs ■k-1'"" a”d Petsian Poetry
*’*■1 inquiry mt0T A’i<®na initiL. ?
“Kwe a»d existence u "* wh,ct> he
' ne argued that

43. world
by the essence of«iXX
themselves cannot interact /T 'hat fo"»
Existence must, therefore, be due to"/"'®"84"*
necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existc„« *’
do so, the cause must be an existing thing and
with its effect. The universe consists of a chain ""
each giving existence to the one below it and rKpon*,X
the existence ofthe rest ofthe chain below it. Because 1M1|
infinite is deemed impossible by Avicenna, this chain as a
whole must terminate in a being that is wholly simple andone
whose essence is its very existence, and who is therefore self-
sufficient and not in need of something else to give it existence.
By the twelfth century the writings of al-Farabl, Avicenna,
and al-Ghazali, a Sufi theologian who offered a critical ac­
count of the theories of Avicenna and other Muslim philoso
phers, had found their way to the West. A philosophical
tradition emerged, based primarily on the study o a
Ibn Bajjah (d.ed 1138/9) inured this tta^n -
radical interpretation of al-Farabi s politica p wd
and ways of life, a al sciences and achieving mtn
goal by pursuing the ^elhgence.
tive knowledge throug sees onJy dim shadows-
The multitude m a dark^ca (the
The philosopher’s leave the cave, see all colours asTh llect) To do SO, he mu 1 lf, and finaiiy become trans-
intelle ) d see light e Jaimed, is the only way
they truly Th;tlight.Phii°s‘>Ph>'’h
formed ."to that 18 -
' rV70BLD. |w£°ing
.......................
$“s^
Phllosophyf the divine l*w’he ^nity. This req^ enunCiated
intention0 bers of cOtT1 < of religion of the
"sofal'^i.basicP^P165.,-consensus ) 01
nesS . hpiief in the b i rhe ( uin Beyond
toprofessb i Hadith, and the I f wOrship-Dey
in the Qur’an, the ry act h pursUe
3 »«■is 10 de d make-up pe®«-
L his natural capacity and maT, pursue its
knowledgeas^ashSn,orizes philosophers to put
The divine law directly a _ . ? jernonstratlV
interpretation according “ , ians have no authority to
scientific - method, and t g judg£ lts
Thus', theology must remain under the constant
controlof philosophy and the supervision of the divine law, so
as not to drift into taking positions that cannot be demon­
strated philosophically or that are contrary to the intention of
the divine law.
These philosophical developments were in time met with a
“urgent traditionalism, which found effective defenders in
■"* FbilOS0phy w lefs and prices of the pious
;;'““d'wouudf0rapeno

44. 50
Universe and • d lntr°ducin ^^
and Jir ,ts relation to g T^'^ofe
ThecrlS1°n- °dba^on>natl(
"nd had found a'p^'0^ that l,ad , "**'«<
eIe°enldcZta 3
phers of &IT by Chris, "nda“™ « e 'ia"
. neir argUnients , . 'g- John PhiIopOnJ Helle-
'"dependent theoloT “ con™enti„g a "ud"®
^'fth ce„tury “d phile^T*^
spread among Jew .,o8'«Hy based ami A "*
such as A hr n and Muslim sfI,j Aristotelianisni
ad H 31'Barakat al-Baghdnd- m °f phi,0My
ADln aBRazI. They suggest ^khr
/ ^srode had revealed^ tho 3 thorough lamination
t at the fundamental disagreem T pbdosophical grounds,
theologies based on the re betWeen and the
options, and that Aristotle’s^ JebglOns Resented open
explanatory princinl k W° dle universe was in need of
ogy. This critiZ T “U,d be rC3d‘‘y S"PPM by theol-
of Philosonhv ! PTTd the framewOTj' f“ d.e ,nteg,a«.
ward. P 7 lnt° theoJoSP from rhe thirteenth century on-
,OT°“? ” made T °f “Ch criticisms of phi­
losophy, the new wtsdom took the posit™ that theology dtd
T T P°STe S“bst‘tute for- “nd was incapable ofsolving,
the difficulties ofAristotelian philosophy. It did not question the
need to have recourse to the Qur’an and the Hadith to find the
right answers; it did, however, insist (on the authority ofa long­
standing mystical tradition) that theology concern itself only
with the external expressions of this divine source of knowl­
edge. The inner core was reserved for the adepts of the mystic
path, whose journey leads to the experience of the highest
On Pe^nal
>ce
i the myst,ca < nf bo^ tb
Im <h« nhcP'’1”'’"'11
,be 8rfdtheli- This
self-knowledge, w continuum result
One. The stability and eternity of this s g ,
from every higher light overpowering and subjugating th
lower, and movement and change along the continuum result
from each of the lower lights desiring and loving the higher.
As-Suhrawardi’s doctrine claims to be the inner truth behind
the exoteric (external) teachings of both Islam and Zoroas­
trianism, as well as the wisdom of all ancient sages, especially
Iranians and Greeks, and of the revealed religions as wel I Th '
««1 let positive attitude toward the A r ‘
was to become one of the hall i lversity °f religions
Different «!■ ■ the hal™arks of the r-
u,tterent religions were seen as diff Rcvv
* '"*• 4« essential “ ® “"ifetanr
hisdistn ■ r h|s Centra| do ■ 6 new Wisdom tUrV) On
* Ms b"*e" Ae ab”"! °f 'he “unity ofk CSpecially
8nd 1' H or
Creati«nin
new wisdom,
-—■ions of the
-1 and
lnt0 a single

45. 52
c°nstant r.
Stan*nan 'Val' Ar th
1verse and man f *S aspect as I o □3tUre ls the
through which tru,rrStrUt','"’ll1rTD tfl°*'l»o
Universe a , trut^ ^anifpc^ • tS parts-It i tk r 8 (M
the rrX, nd't,S *e un,^ h*<
thei Iucent bodies Of Pk natUral body th 8 rates'he
heir mixtures all r ftJle spheres tn birthfn
as da^rsV LXwh,t ar-‘«X'tle"'“^
After Ibn al-’A/k m°ther- hatpri^ Wee
p"o'^tuoa; **>
terary culture. Mystical frate educated man’s
uch works, spreading them ’ became Ae c™°d™ of
subcontinent and transmit' Wt° Cenfral Asia and the Indian
another. 1 In& rbem from one generation to
(1258), the Twek^ThHt Htilaga’s entry int0 Baghdad
Tatars and Nazir ad-n * Were encouraSe(l by the II Khanid
logian who accompani^ /the Philosopher and theo-
their hostility to mysticism. Mu’tazdi d
in their theology. Theology hn doctrines were refajned
“formal” lea miner tk «- wever> was downgraded to
formal learning that must be supplemented by higher things,
S' >7 ”7 ! P °nPby o/eX
Shi ite (including Isma’ili) origin and of later q,
nance. Al-Ghazali, As-Suhrawardi, al-Arabi anrl^1
were then eagerly studied and (except for their doctrine of the
imamate) embraced with little or no reservation.
This movement in Shl‘ite thought gathered momentum
edthe'ns‘!i''eS
7-'"' .ne&bli^" they
in 'doctrine of <he
dy*’'f s the off*1 d Iran expe»-
^'^^teenth^Xi^^3
**Ln* D“'"’6 * rific renais«>”“ hjlosophy
new m0na, j and scientiN Islamic Pn
*"** ne new w^0"1 “ 7
te«val 0 ,P creative exp°nents' . f Esfahan radia
u"‘ ? k mastera of the ’ H « a vital tradition
^hl-tte® and continued as 3
U*£asBrn,!l t . nine.
tZX « Xl'^nd” rength
,sSMW Allah ofDelhi and Hadi Sabzevan, and became a
regular part ofhigher education in the Ottoman Empire, Iran,
and the Indian subcontinent, a status never achieved by the
earlier tradition of Islamic philosophy. In collaboration with
its close ally Persian mystical poetry, the new wisdom deter-
•wdfemtellectual outlook and spiritual mood of educated
“t“^Z^p^“th^me the/omi’

46. 54
They were
energies urging them to fce“the”X .
tion, and impressing on them the need to rpf0r%“Qo^a-
and educational institutions. They
required a total reonentation, which could *
so long as the new wisdom remained not only the15“
aim of a few solitary individuals but also a social and " ”
ideal. As late as 1917, Iqbal found that “the p-
Muslim prefers to roam about aimlessly in the valley o[
Hellenic-Persian mysticism, which teaches us to shut our ey>
to the hard reality around, and to fix our gaze on what
described as ‘illumination’.” His reaction was harsh: “To
this self-mystification, this nihilism,
does not exist, is a physiological syrup
the decadence of the Muslim world.”
concerned with
.............
'ey also »» 4*'’^
ne* wisdom remZ7°"ld
■ -t
highest
Popular
Present.day
", J
us to shut our eyes
t is
- me
i.e. seeking reality where it
symptom, giving me a clue to
5
The modern reformers advocated a return to the movements
and masters of Islamic theology and philosophy antedating the
new wisdom. They argued that these, rather than the “Persian
incrustation of Islam”, represented Islam’s original and creat­
ive impulse. The modernists were attracted in particular to the
views of the Mu’tazilah: affirmation of God’s unity and denial
of all similarity between Him and created things, reliance on
human reason, emphasis on human freedom, faith in the
human ability to distinguish between good and bad, and
insistence on the human responsibility to do good and fight
against evil in private and public places. They were also
impressed by the traditionalists’ devotion to the original,
uncomplicated forms of Islam and by their fighting spirit,
well as by the Ithna ‘Ashariyahs’ view of faith as an affair
aS j tfteir spirited defence of the Muslim cornrnu-
of the hea^xtreme expressions of rationalism and sectarianism
alike. cientific and philosophical tradition of
In viewing the s
‘"le r»*raB'S S3*n of SP'rl ’foPgr«PPfc
J, °et ,r in
Xi’*’* I ° rasteffortt0
Si-rE"-'--* *-■“"
„ understand modern science and philosophy, includl g
modern social and political philosophies. Initially, this chal­
lenge became the task of the new universities in the Muslim
world.In the latterpart ofthe twentieth century, however, the
originally wide gap between the various programmes of theo­
logical and philosophical studies in religious colleges and in
modern universities narrowed considerably.
Education
Muslim educational activity began tn the eighth century,
primarily in order to disseminate the teaching of the Qur an
andthesunnahoftheProphet. Thefirsttaskwas to record oral
traditions and collect written manuscripts. By the time of the
mhandearly tenthcenturies the Arab sciences of tradition,
fetory, andliterature had been established.
’he Gttek sc““ - Wy,
K''6’ous ba«
weltthcenturies,

47. 57
uXxp::&Kfo™^uareH.
CUStX^X" Sh^" r"£«a?
Empathetic attitude r ar ah (lsl5»* latw
cl“ded them fro^hthe .
th.plmes but, in the long run f„’ "Ot °nl>’ tho«“a”
because of the lack of ■ n ’ reh8lous thought
tne lack of intellectual challen^ j gen«d
typical madrasah curriculum included lol S^ulatiM
law, Hadith, Qur’an commentary and th § i ’ HtetatUte>
mcctitictsm from certain quarters, rheX^**
ShAT lmPerV1°,US tO Change- In Contrast t0 the Sunnis,the
Shi ites continued seriously to cultivate philosophy, which
developed a strong religious character.
One important feature of Muslim education was that pri­
mary education (which consisted of Qur’an reading, writing,
and rudimentary arithmetic) did not feed candidates to inst­
itutions of higher education, and the two remained separate. In
higher education, emphasis was on books rather than subjects
and on commentaries rather than original works. This,
coupled with the habit of learning by rote (which was devel
oped from a tradition that encouraged learning more than
thinking), impoverished intellectual creativity still fort er
Despite these grave shortcomings, however, the ma rasa
nroduced one important advantage. Through the uni or
^t reliio-legal content, it gave the (-the learned
k noortunity to effect that overall cohesiveness and unit, »
the oppo r desoite great variations in local
thought and P“rP°SC me a palpable feature ofthe world
Muslim cultures, has o
Muslim community- in the form of tradition grew in the
When higher learning around Jearned men
eighth “dtXVtr"ve.W fron>
ro tea u bm
ff,aCiraS
, obta'°e0 “ iudecl fr inosqueS' J^ers,
e s to ^rI,iflge enowned * ^es,
f‘rfS Tl>*u8b th'nT l«8e ptlV!"e,a learning
K»’“nd ,„in* «ntuty „„fic and philosop a(.
( m the Greek (an P > at Baghdad- Cair0 in
M^(‘‘hoUSe°^^^H‘‘hallof^S of the Seljuq
al*SetUP entury. With the advent ot
the tenth-eleventh centu y R created an imp
Turks, the famous^ ’ m learning, tn the latter half
college at Baghdad, devoted to^u *
ofthe eleventh century. for teaching of the
fo^sdo^oTsunni law. Professorial chairs were endowed in
large colleges by princes and governments, and residents
studentswere supported by college endowment funds. Myriad
smaller centres of learning were endowed by private dona­
tions.
One of the world’s oldest surviving universities, al-Azhar at
Ca.ro,was ongmaUy established by the Fatimids. After oustirm
** Salad”’the founder of the
subsequenteX””’^ *° leMn’
■**u«etht0A ent"n«. colleges and „uasi.
^*^’ph,[and^Were’Xd
d,othe
L ' ^h°efstad-«
e Arabic