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The brain E-book by Visible Body - excellent
- 1. ByTheVisibleBodyTeam&ProfessorBlytheNilson Located inside theskull, the brain is an organ of the central nervous system that receives sensory input and information to form perception and thought. It controls activities such as speech, movement, and maintaining homeostasis. THE BIG BRAIN EBOOK
- 2. REGIONS OF THE BRAIN Thebrain can be split into three regions: forebrain, brainstem, and cerebellum. Forebrain Brainstem Cerebellum 2 | Brain Regions
- 3. Cerebral Cortex Diencephalon Limbicsystem Corpus Callosum Basal Ganglia FOREBRAIN Brain Regions>Forebrain | 3 The forebrain is made up of the cerebrum (cerebral cortex and basal ganglia), corpus callosum, diencephalon, and the limbic system.
- 4. CEREBRUM OVERVIEW 4 | BrainRegions> Forebrain> Cerebrum The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is responsible for higher intellectual functions and conscious thought.The cerebrum is made up of the cerebral cortex and the basal ganglia.
- 5. The cerebral cortexis the surface of the cerebrum.The cortex contains around 16 billion neurons (cells that relay sensory information and motor commands as electric signals throughout the body). In order for the cerebral cortex to fit inside the skull, the cerebral cortex has folds called gyri and grooves called sulci. CEREBRAL CORTEX OVERVIEW sulcus gyrus Neurondiagram Brain Regions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Cerebral Cortex | 5
- 6. The cerebral cortexconsists of a left and a right hemisphere.The left is typically responsible for language, calculation, comprehension, and writing.The right is generally responsible for creativity, visual, emotional, and artistic awareness. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. CEREBRAL CORTEX HEMISPHERES Left hemisphere Right hemisphere 6 | Brain Regions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Cerebral Cortex
- 7. Each hemisphere hasfour lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobe. Each lobe is responsible for different brain functions. LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe Temporal Lobe Occipital Lobe Brain Regions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Cerebral Cortex> Lobes | 7
- 8. FRONTAL LOBE Prefrontal associationarea: Executive function (thought, cognition, planning, and personality) Premotor cortex: Planning movement Supplementary motor area: Planning limb and eye movement Broca’s area: Speech production and language processing Gustatory cortex: Receives and processes taste signals Primary motor area:Voluntary movement control Prefrontal association area Supplementary motor area (SMA) Gustatory cortex Primary motor area Broca’s area Premotor cortex 8 | Brain Regions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Cerebral Cortex> Lobes
- 9. Primary somatosensory cortex: Processestactile information (for the opposite side of the body) Secondary somatosensory cortex: Processes tactile information (including pain) Somatosensory association area: Integrates sensory input (perceives temperature, pressure, size, texture, and relationships between touched objects) PARIETAL LOBE Primary somatosensory cortex Secondary somatosensory cortex Somatosensory association area Brain Regions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Cerebral Cortex> Lobes | 9
- 10. Auditory association area:Interprets auditory information such as speech, music, or other sounds Primary auditory cortex: Interprets pitch and rhythm of sounds Wernicke’s area: Comprehension of written and spoken language Primary olfactory cortex: Receives and processes olfaction signals Secondary auditory cortex: Processes auditory information and plays a role in speech perception Visual association area: Participates in object and pattern recognition TEMPORAL LOBE Wernicke’s area Visual association area Primary olfactory cortex Auditory association area Secondary auditory cortex Primary auditory cortex 10 | Brain Regions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Cerebral Cortex> Lobes
- 11. Primary visual cortex:Receives and processes visual signals from the opposite visual field via the thalamus Secondary visual cortex: Interprets visual signals and contributes to visual mapping Tertiary visual cortex: Participates in object recognition and motion sensing OCCIPITAL LOBE Tertiary visual cortex Secondary visual cortex Primary visual cortex Brain Regions>Forebrain>Cerebrum>Cerebral Cortex> Lobes | 11
- 12. 12 | BrainRegions> Forebrain> Cerebrum> Basal Ganglia The basal ganglia contain nuclei inside the cerebrum that influence body movement and muscle tone. BASAL GANGLIA
- 13. Brain Regions> Forebrain>Corpus Callosum | 13 The corpus callosum is a c-shaped structure that straddles the midline of the brain.This connects the two hemispheres to allow communication between them. CORPUS CALLOSUM
- 14. Hypothalamus Thalamus Epithalamus The diencephalonis a region of the brain that consists of the hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus (main structure is the pineal gland). DIENCEPHALON OVERVIEW 14 | Brain Regions> Forebrain> Diencephalon
- 15. The hypothalamus regulatesautonomic nervous functions, emotions, behavior, food consumption, circadian rhythms, and body temperature. It also produces hormones that influence the pituitary gland and regulate endocrine functions. At the base of the hypothalamus, the optic chiasm is the crossing point of the optic nerves. HYPOTHALAMUS Brain Regions> Forebrain> Diencephalon> Hypothalamus | 15
- 16. The thalamus playsa role in learning and memory. It consists of several nuclei that pass sensory information to different regions of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus also determines what sensory information is important enough to send to the cerebral cortex to allow for conscious awareness of the sensory input. THALAMUS 16 | Brain Regions> Forebrain> Diencephalon> Thalamus
- 17. PITUITARY Hormones secreted bythe hypothalamus activate hormone secretion by the pituitary gland. These hormones drive endocrine functions (like sexual development and promotion of bone and muscle growth) by targeting glands and tissues. Brain Regions> Forebrain> Diencephalon> Pituitary | 17
- 18. The limbic systemis located on the inner border of the cerebrum, above the diencephalon, forming a pair of rings between the two cerebral hemispheres. It manages a range of emotions and contributes to the processing of smell memory. Amygdala = memory and emotion Hippocampus = long term memory Mammillary body = smell memory Septal nucleus = feeling of pleasure Cingulate gyrus = expressing emotions through gestures LIMBIC SYSTEM 18 | Brain Regions> Forebrain> Limbic System Amygdala Hippocampus Mammillary body Septal nucleus Cingulate gyrus
- 19. Midbrain Medulla oblongata Pons The brainstem(consisting of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata) connects the brain to the spinal cord. The brainstem controls the involuntary functions of the respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems, while also contributing to hearing, balance, and gustation. BRAINSTEM Brain Regions> Brainstem | 19
- 20. The midbrain containsnuclei, called colliculi, which control visual and auditory reflexes. It also contains nuclei for the oculomotor (CN03) and trochlear (CN04) nerves. Both help control eye movement. MIDBRAIN 20 | Brain Regions> Brain Stem> Midbrain
- 21. The pons connectsthe brain to the brain stem through tracts of white fibers that carry signals between them. It houses pontine nuclei, which affect breathing rhythms. PONS Brain Regions> Brain Stem> Pons | 21
- 22. The medulla oblongatacontrols involuntary functions of the respiratory, digestive, and circulatory system and contributes to hearing, balance, and taste.The medulla plays a role in homeostatis, acting as the autonomic reflex center for heart contraction, vasomotor control, respiratory rate and depth, as well as other reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, vomiting, and sneezing. MEDULLA OBLONGATA 22 | Brain Regions> Brain Stem> Medulla Oblongata
- 23. CEREBELLUM The cerebellum ismostly considered to be a motor structure. Even though motor commands do not directly come from the cerebellum, it modifies the commands to make the movements more accurate. This is why cerebellar damage leads to impairment in motor control. Other functions of the cerebellum include: maintaining balance and posture, coordination of voluntary movements, and motor learning, as well as some cognitive functions related to word association and puzzle solving. Brain Regions> Cerebellum | 23
- 24. 24 | NervousSystem> Overview The brain is connected with the rest of the body via the nervous system.The nervous system is responsible for the correlation and integration of various bodily processes, producing reactions and adjustments based on the current environment.The nervous system can be split into two different regions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system
- 25. Brain Spinal cord The centralnervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The average length of a male spinal cord is 45 cm and for females, it is around 43 cm.The spinal cord carries incoming and outgoing messages between the brain and the rest of the body. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous System> Central Nervous System | 25
- 26. 26 | NervousSystem> Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside of the central nervous system connecting it to all the regions of the body. The PNS can be split into two different divisions: the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The somatic nervous system - controls all voluntary movement plus somatic reflexes The autonomic nervous system - regulates involuntary movement such as heartbeat and smooth muscle contraction. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- 27. CRANIAL NERVES Nervous System>PNS> Cranial Nerves | 27 The cranial nerves are a group of 12 paired nerves in the peripheral nervous system that connect the muscles and organs of the head and some organs outside the head directly to the brain. CN01: olfactory = smell CN02: optic = sight CN03: oculomotor = eye and pupil movement CN04: trochlear = eye movement CN06: abducens = eye movement CN08: vestibulocochlear = hearing, balance CN01 CN02 CN03 CN08 CN06 CN04
- 28. 28 | NervousSystem> PNS> Cranial Nerves CRANIAL NERVES, CONT’D. CN07 CN11 CN09 CN12 CN05 CN05: trigeminal = face sensation CN07: facial = face movement, salivation CN09: glossopharyngeal = taste, swallowing CN10: vagus = heart rate, digestion CN11: accessory = head movement CN12: hypoglossal = tongue movement CN10
- 29. Blood in theBrain> Arteries | 29 The arteries deliver oxygenated blood from the heart to all the regions of the body.The left and right internal carotid and vertebral arteries supply the brain. The blood is distributed throughout the brain via the numerous branches of the circle ofWillis. BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE BRAIN Circle ofWillis Internal carotid Vertebral arteries
- 30. 30 | Bloodin the Brain> Veins BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE BRAIN Veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart. The largest vein in the brain is the venous sinus, located between the two hemispheres of the brain. It receives blood from the left and right superficial cerebral veins of the cerebrum. The blood is then drained via the left and right internal jugular veins Venous sinus Superficial cerebral veins Jugular veins
- 31. The brain andthe spinal cord are vital to the human body, so it is no surprise the body protects these structures at all costs. The meninges is a set of protective connective tissue structures that surround the spinal cord and brain.The meninges consist of three layers, dura mater is the outermost layer; directly underneath the dura is the arachnoid mater; the pia mater is the innermost layer. PROTECTING THE BRAIN Protecting the Brain> Meninges | 31
- 32. Falx cerebri Tentorium cerebelli 32| Protecting the Brain> Meninges> Cranial Dural Septa PROTECTING THE BRAIN, CONT’D. Within the brain there are double layers of dura mater, called cranial dural septa, that separate and support the brain. Two of these, the falx cerebri and the tentorium cerebelli, are highlighted in the picture.
- 33. Protecting the Brain>Ventricles | 33 Inside the brain, there are networked ventricles that produce cerebrospinal fluid.This fluid moves between the ventricles transporting nutrients and wastes. It also provides structural support to the brain and protects against trauma. PROTECTING THE BRAIN, CONT’D.
- 34. Parkinson’s disease isa neurodegenerative disorder that causes a progressive loss of fine motor movements. It is marked by decreased levels of dopamine in the brain.The resulting decrease in dopamine sent to the basal ganglia can lead to difficulties initiating movements.This can lead to tremors, impaired balance, and muscle stiffness.The disorder can also affect bladder function, speech, mood, or higher cognitive function. BRAIN PATHOLOGY: PARKINSON’S 34 | Brain Pathologies> Parkinson’s
- 35. Brain Pathologies> ALS| 35 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive disease that kills neurons of the motor cortex and peripheral motor nerves, inhibiting normal muscle control.Without signals from healthy motor neurons, normal muscle function ceases, causing spasm, weakness, and muscle death.This commonly leads to impaired movement and speech, trouble swallowing, and eventually respiratory failure. BRAIN PATHOLOGY: ALS
- 36. 36 | BrainPathologies> Epilepsy Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, which result from disruptions to the brain’s normal electrical activity. Different forms of epilepsy produce different types of seizures.The most common forms of stroke and hypertension can cause temporal lobe epilepsy producing focal aware seizures with altered hearing, sight, and speech, or focal impaired seizures with impaired consciousness and repetitive movements. BRAIN PATHOLOGY: EPILEPSY
- 37. Brain Pathologies> Alzheimer’s| 37 Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among older people. Dementia is a brain disorder that seriously affects a person’s ability to carry out daily activities. AD begins slowly. It first involves the parts of the brain that control thought, memory, and language. Over time, symptoms get worse. People may not recognize family members or have trouble speaking, reading, or writing. Eventually, they need total care. BRAIN PATHOLOGY: ALZHEIMER’S Healthy brain Alzheimer’s disease
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