The Battle of Britain 1940, by Professor Joel Hayward
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The Battle of Britain 1940 by Professor Joel Hayward By the end of the lecture students should be able to understand: The differing strategic objectives of both sides in the air campaign The importance of control of the air to achieving these objectives The qualities of Dowding’s Integrated Air Defence System
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Understand the nature and scope of the threat to us
An Introduction to Insurgency, by Professor Joel Hayward
This document provides an introduction to insurgency and distinguishes it from terrorism. It defines insurgency as an armed resistance against political authority based on a belief that the authority is illegitimate, unfair, or harmful. Insurgencies can involve conventional warfare, guerrilla warfare, or terrorism, but most only involve guerrilla warfare and are not terrorist. The document discusses different types of insurgencies and their motives, providing examples of insurgent leaders. It concludes that not all insurgents are terrorists and some insurgencies could be seen as having positive motives from the insurgents' perspective.
The Characteristics and Utility of Airpower, by Professor Joel Hayward
By the end of this lecture students should be able to understand that:
Air power represents a technological revolution
Air power has tremendously changed the conduct of warfare
Air power has not changed the nature of warfare
Maneuver Warfare (the Maneuverist Approach), by Professor Joel Hayward
By the end of this lecture students should be able to understand:
the relationship between maneuver and firepower
key Maneuver Warfare concepts
that flexibility is necessary in their interpretation and application
الحصانة المدنية في الفكر الاستراتيجي الإسلامي التأسيسي تحقيقٌ تاريخي البروفيس...
الحصانة المدنية في الفكر الاستراتيجي الإسلامي التأسيسي تحقيقٌ تاريخي البروفيس...Professor Joel Hayward
الحصانة المدنية في الفكر الاستراتيجي الإسلامي التأسيسي
تحقيقٌ تاريخي
البروفيسور جويل هيوارد
تحلل هذه الدراسة الوحي القرآني ووعظ وممارسات النبي محمد من أجل التحقق مما قام الإسلام بتعليمه في مستهل ظهوره فيما يتعلق بمسؤوليات الجيوش الإسلامية والمحاربين اتجاه الأشخاص الذين نسميهم في الوقت الحاضر بالمدنيين وغيرهم من غير المقاتلين. من الواضح أن الوحي الإلهي ونبي الإسلام قد هدوا في عصر الإنسانية خلال حربٍ تفوق تلك التي وجدت في وقت سابق في الجزيرة العربية وفي الواقع في أي مكان في العالم. لم يتعمد محمد الحرب ودمارها لتشمل مجتمعات بأكملها، بل بالأحرى لتطال المقاتلين فقط، الذين جعلتهم عدوانيتهم ورغبتهم في حمل السلاح مذنبين وخاضعين للمقاومة المسلحة. مدركين بأن الله قد سمح بالدفاع عن النفس ضد الهجوم، وقد قام بتوجيه الحرب على المهاجمين، ولكن ليس على نساء قوات العدو، وأطفالهم، وكبار السن. في الواقع، متمشياً مع القانون الدولي الإنساني المعاصر، فقد حظر محمد الإستهداف المتعمد لهم، مالم يتنازلوا عن حقوقهم في الحماية بالمشاركة في القتال. موسّعاً حق الحماية هذا إلى الرهبان وغيرهم من رجال الدين الذين كرسّوا حياتهم للممارسات الدينية، ومن ثمّ إلى أنواع من الممتلكات التي نسميها الآن بالبنية التحتية المدنية، أنشأ محمد بيئة واسعة من الأمان والتي حافظت على أرواح وطرق معيشة الناس حتى في المجتماعات المتحاربة. إن المفاهيم الخاطئة الشائعة التي أججتها الأفعال الوحشية غير المسؤولة لتنظيم القاعدة وتنظيم الدولة الإسلامية ، وبوكو حرام وغيرها من التنظيمات الإرهابية المتطرفة، هي وببساطة لا تستند على قراءة عادلة للدليل التاريخي. حيث يحكي ذلك الدليل قصة مغايرة تماماً لما يرونه: للإنسجام الوثيق بين الممارسات الإسلامية الأولى بتوجيهات محمد وبين المدونة الأخلاقية للحصانة المدنية الراسغة في نظرية الحرب العادلة الغربية والقانون الدولي الانساني. بمعزلٍ عن المقاتلين، لم يكن المسلمين ليقتلوا أو على نحو آخر ليلحقوا الأذى بالأبريا، ولم يكونوا ليدمروا منازلهم، والبنية التحتية أو مستلزمات معيشتهم.
Warfare in the Qur'an, by Professor Joel Hayward
The Qur’an is among the most widely read books on earth, yet it is also commonly misunderstood and misquoted. Islam’s critics say that it contains exhortations of violence against non-Muslims and a concept of war that is far more unbridled and indiscriminate than the western Just War theory.
This study is not a general overview or critique of the Islamic laws of war, which are the varied and sometimes contradictory opinions of medieval Islamic jurists ― mainly from the ninth to thirteenth centuries CE. Instead, this study analyses only the Qur’anic text itself and, by putting its verses into historical context, attempts to explain its codes of conduct in order to determine what it actually requires or permits Muslims to do in terms of the use of military force.
It concludes that the Qur’an is clear: Muslims must not undertake offensive violence and are instructed, if defensive warfare should become unavoidable, always to act within a code of ethical behavior that is closely similar to the western Just War tradition. This study attempts to dispel any misperceptions that Islam’s holy book advocates the subjugation or killing of non-Muslims and reveals that, on the contrary, its key and unequivocal concepts governing warfare are based on justice and a profound belief in the sanctity of human life.
Civilian Immunity and "Collateral Damage", by Professor Joel Hayward
By the end of this lecture you should be able to understand:
why civilians are to be considered “innocent”
the moral and legal importance of civilian immunity
that the attacking force carries responsibility for protecting civilians
that even the accidental killing of civilians is politically damaging
Warfare and Environmental Ethics, by Professor Joel Hayward
Ecologists, activists, lobbyists and of course politicians are already turning their attention to ecological aspects of modern warfare. As a consequence, governments and their armed forces will have to pay more attention to the serious ecological ramifications of conflict. Air forces face the greatest challenges. During both peace and war they have far greater carbon footprints than armies and navies. They use potentially more devastating ordnance. Their targets traditionally include objects in or near population centers and the aquifers, waterways, soils and food sources that sustain them. And air forces cause far worse damage to environmentally significant production, storage and distribution infrastructure (much of it based on petroleum, oil, lubricants or chemicals). This lecture does not recommend the blanket exclusion of any potential target sets from planning processes. Rather, it argues that, when we utilize our existing warrior code, the Just War ethical framework, we must now slightly expand our time-honored moral and legal constructs of proportionality and discrimination to include environmental issues. That is, the lecture argues for the inclusion of ecological protection in military planning and for it to be weighed expertly, along with the likely need for post-war remediation activities, among the factors that will ultimately determine the justifiability of military actions.
Air Power, Ethics and Civilian Immunity during the Great War and its Aftermat...
Air Power, Ethics and Civilian Immunity during the Great War and its Aftermat...Professor Joel Hayward
Little has been published on the ethical and legal basis of air attacks on non-combatants during the First World War. Existing works have focused mainly on the injustice of the German Zeppelin and Gotha raids on British towns. They present British air campaigns on German towns and the formation of the Royal Air Force as a reasoned self-defensive response. This article breaks new ground as it attempts to paint a richer picture by explaining the influence of retributive passions – vengeance – on British thinking about how best to respond to the villainy of German air raids. By using unpublished primary sources to uncover the moral and legal rationale used by British decision-makers, it shows that they (as their German counterparts had) exploited ambiguities or "loopholes" in the ethical and legal prohibitions on the bombardment of non-combatants and explained away their own air attacks on civilian towns and villages as legitimate acts of reprisal. It ends by demonstrating that, far from feeling grave concerns about the inhumanity of targeting civilians and their environs, the most influential air power thinkers after the war were relatively uninterested in moral concepts of proportionality and discrimination. They saw air power's ability to punish the strong and culpable by attacking the weak and vulnerable as a way of making wars shorter and therefore less expensive.Air Power: The Quest to remove Battle from War, by Professor Joel Hayward
Air power emerged from the Great War as a third primary form of military force, along armies and navies. Its early theorists made astounding claims that air power alone could delivery strategy – that is, the war-winning outcomes that involved the enemy’s defeat – without the significant and inevitably bloody contributions of soldiers and sailors. Throughout the next century their ideas were attempted and almost without exception they proved inadequate. The so-called strategic air campaigns damaged enemy production, but only in a zero-sum way, with the cost of producing and maintaining massive air fleets and soaking up their ghastly attrition balancing out the gains being made. The exception might be the nuclear bombings of Japan, but the atomic weapon itself was the game-changer, with air power being merely its delivery system for a brief time before missiles became the major delivery instrument and source of deterrence. Air power’s most effective role was not away from the battlefield, with cities, civilians and industry the focus of attack, but was on the battlefield in coordination with the other services. Air power’s most significant contributions to strategy came in what looks superficially like a tactical role: as close air support, interdiction, reconnaissance, air supply, counter-air operations, and medical evacuation. These, especially the former, close air support, have proven devastating and enabled joint forces to inflict strategic wins.
Stalingrad: An Examination-of Hitler's Decision to Airlift, by Professor Joel...
Stalingrad: An Examination-of Hitler's Decision to Airlift, by Professor Joel...Professor Joel Hayward
After February 1943, the shadow of Stalingrad ever lengthened ahead of Adolf Hitler. The battle for that city had ended in disastrous defeat, shattering the myth of his military "Midas touch," ending his chances of defeating the Red Army, permanently damaging relations with Italy, Rumania, Hungary, and other allied nations, and, of course, inflicting heavy losses on his eastern armies. More than 150,000 Axis soldiers, most of them German, had been killed or wounded in the city's approaches or ruins; 108,000 others stumbled into Soviet captivity, 91,000 in the battle's last three days alone. (Although Hitler never learned of their fate, only six thousand ever returned to Germany.) The battle has attracted considerable scholarly and journalistic attention. Literally scores of books and articles on Stalingrad have appeared during the 50 years since Stalin's armies bulldozed into Berlin, bringing the war in Europe to a close. Most have been published in Germany and, to a lesser degree, Russia, where the name "Stalingrad" still conjures up powerful and emotional imagery. Comparatively few have been published in the English-speaking world, and this is understandable. Because no British, Common wealth, or American forces took part in the battle, they can number none of their own among its many heroes, martyrs, prisoners, and victims. Moreover, although the German defeat at Stalin grad was immediately seen in the West as a turning point, its effects were not directly felt by the Anglo- - American nations. The main focus of Stalin grad historiography, including the dozen books published in 1992 and 1993 to commemorate the battle's 50th anniversary, has been the fighting, encirclement, suffering, and destruction of Generalfeldmarschall Friedrich Paulus's Sixth Army. Few books and articles have devoted adequate attention to the activities of the Luftwaffe, although it made substantial contributions to all battles throughout the 1942 summer campaign—of which Stalingrad was the climax—and it alone was responsible for the maintenance of Sixth Army after Marshal G. K. Zhukov's forces severed it from all but radio contact with other German army formations. Even fewer works—and none in English—have analyzed in depth Hitler's decision to supply the forces trapped at Stalin grad from the air, even though this decision led to the destruction of those forces after the Luftwaffe failed to keep them adequately supplied. Hitler's Quest for Oil: The Impact of Economic Considerations on Military Str...
Hitler's Quest for Oil: The Impact of Economic Considerations on Military Str...Professor Joel Hayward
When asked by his Allied captors in 1945 to what extent German military strategy had been influenced at various stages by economic considerations, Albert Speer, Hitler's outstanding Armaments Minister, replied that in the case of Operation BARBAROSSA the need for oil was certainly a prime motive.' Indeed, even during the initial discussions of his plan to invade the Soviet Union, Hitler stressed the absolute necessity of seizing key oilfields, particularly those in the Caucasus region, which accounted for around 90 per cent of all oil produced in the Soviet Union. For example, during a war conference at the Berghof on 31 July 1940, Hitler revealed to high-ranking commanders his intention to shatter Russia 'to its roots with one blow'2 After achieving the 'destruction of Russian manpower', he explained, the German Army must drive on towards the Baku oilfield, by far the richest of those in the Caucasus and one of the most productive in the world. Despite Hitler's optimism, the 1941 campaign - which opened along a 2,000 km front and involved 148 combat divisions - failed to shatter Russia 'to its roots with one blow'. Consequently, it failed to bring the huge oil region of the Caucasus under German control. After reverses in the winter of 1941/42, it was no longer possible for the Wehrmacht to undertake wide-ranging offensives along the entire front, by then over 2,500 km in length. The summer campaign of 1942, although still immense, was necessarily less ambitious. It opened along a front of around 725 km, and involved 68 German and 25 allied combat divisions. Soviet oil remained a major attraction for Hitler. The offensive's objectives were to destroy the main Russian forces between the Donets and the Don river, capture the crossings into the mountainous Caucasus region and then deliver the rich oilfields into German hands. The perceived importance of these oilfields to the German economy, and hence the war effort, cannot be overstated. On 1 June 1942, four weeks to the day before the summer campaign began, Hitler told the assembled senior officers of Army Group South that 'If I do not get the oil of Maikop and Grozny then I must end this war'.3 The purpose of this study is not to provide a narrative description of the planning of the 1942 campaign, but, rather, to reveal the central role which economic considerations played in the planning of that ill-fated endeavor. In the following pages I shall appraise Hitler's preoccupation with the Caucasus region and its oilfields, and describe how Germany's own oil situation in the first two years of the war led him to believe that the capture of those oilfields was an essential prerequisite to waging a prolonged war of economic attrition. I shall then outline and explain the lengthy planning of the 1942 campaign, which aimed first at protecting the vulnerable Rumanian oilfields - upon which the German war economy was already heavily reliant - and secondly (and more importantly) at possessing the far ...Horatio Lord Nelson's Warfighting Style and the Maneuver Warfare Paradigm, by...
Horatio Lord Nelson's Warfighting Style and the Maneuver Warfare Paradigm, by...Professor Joel Hayward
Readers seeking to analyze Maneuver Warfare’s applicability to combat on the seas that cover most of the globe can be forgiven for noticing the absence of scholarly interest in this theme and thinking that, in short, Maneuver Warfare must have no applicability at sea. One can, however, easily find many fine examples of what is now called Maneuver Warfare in seapower’s long history. This article draws from one such example – splendidly manifest in the person of Britain’s greatest fighting seaman, Vice-Admiral Horatio, Lord Nelson (1758–1805) – to demonstrate that students of maneuver need not fear turning their attention occasionally from land battles towards those fought at sea. They may indeed be greatly enriched by doing so. While being mindful to avoid anachronism (Maneuver Warfare’s conceptual framework, after all, is very recent), this article shows that Lord Nelson’s warfighting style closely resembles the modern Maneuver Warfare paradigm. He was not fighting according to any paradigm, of course, much less one that dates from almost 200 years after his death. He understood naval tactics and battle according to the norms and behavioral patterns of his own era and continuously experimented and tested ideas, rejecting some, keeping others. The article naturally makes no claim that Nelson’s warfighting style was unique among sea warriors or that he contributed disproportionately to conceptual or doctrinal developments in tactics or operational art. Even a cursory glance at the careers of John Paul Jones, Edward Hawke and John Jervis (one of Nelson’s mentors), to mention but a few, reveals that their names fit almost as aptly as Nelson’s alongside Napoleon Bonaparte’s, Erwin Rommel’s and George S. Patton’s in studies of effective maneuverists. Yet Lord Nelson makes an ideal focus for a case study of Maneuver Warfare at sea. Extant sources pertaining to his fascinating life are unusually abundant and reveal that he raised the art of war at sea to unsurpassed heights, all the while perfecting the highly maneuverist warfighting style that gave him victory in several of naval history’s grandest battles.The German Use of Airpower at Kharkov, May 1942, by Professor Joel Hayward
This archival source-based analysis of the role and effectiveness of airpower during the Battle of Kharkov in May 1942 demonstrates that it was the critical factor in determining German success. Masterfully commanded by Generaloberst Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, the Third Reich's leading close air support expert, the Luftwaffe delivered highly effective support to the German army and prevented a major Soviet encirclement attempt from succeeding.
Von Richthofen's 'giant fire-magic': The Luftwaffe's Contribution to the Batt...
Von Richthofen's 'giant fire-magic': The Luftwaffe's Contribution to the Batt...Professor Joel Hayward
The document summarizes the strengths of Soviet forces defending the Kerch Peninsula in 1942, totaling over 200,000 troops packed into fortified defensive lines. It also discusses German General Erich von Manstein's plan for the Battle of Kerch, which involved a surprise attack in the weakly defended southern sector of the peninsula followed by encirclement of Soviet forces further north. Hitler personally oversaw planning for extensive Luftwaffe support, ordering disruption of Soviet supply lines and concentration of bombers, fragmentation bombs, and close air support to breach fortifications and destroy Soviet concentrations of troops.A Case Study in Effective Command: An Analysis of Field Marshal Richthofen's ...
A Case Study in Effective Command: An Analysis of Field Marshal Richthofen's ...Professor Joel Hayward
This article analyzes the leadership of Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, a senior Luftwaffe commander and one of the most effective air strategists, tacticians and leaders of all time. It focuses on his masterful command of Luftflotte 4 and Fliegerkorps VIII on the eastern front during World War II, including during the Stalingrad campaign.A Case Study in Early Joint Warfare: An Analysis of the Wehrmacht's Crimean C...
A Case Study in Early Joint Warfare: An Analysis of the Wehrmacht's Crimean C...Professor Joel Hayward
Military theorists and commentators believe that joint operations prove more effective in most circumstances of modern warfare than operations involving only one service or involving two or more services but without systematic integration or unified command. Many see Nazi Germany's armed forces, the Wehrmacht, as early pioneers of 'jointness'. This essay demonstrates that the Wehrmacht did indeed understand the value of synchronizing its land, sea and air forces and placing them under operational commanders who had at least a rudimentary understanding of the tactics, techniques, needs, capabilities and limitations of each of the services functioning in their combat zones. It also shows that the Wehrmacht's efforts in this direction produced the desired result of improved combat effectiveness. Yet it argues that the Wehrmacht lacked elements considered by today's theorists to be essential to the attainment of truly productive jointness - a single tri-service commander, a proper joint staff and an absence of inter-service rivalry - and that, as a result, it often suffered needless difficulties in combat. Adolf Hitler and Joint Warfare, by Professor Joel Hayward
The document appears to be a scanned copy of a contract between two parties, John Doe and Jane Doe, for the purchase of a residential property located at an address in California. The contract outlines the purchase price of $500,000, down payment terms, closing date, contingencies and other standard elements of a real estate transaction. Signatures from both buyers and sellers indicate their agreement to the terms and conditions as documented.
Too Little, Too Late: An Analysis of Hitler's Failure in August 1942 to Damag...
Too Little, Too Late: An Analysis of Hitler's Failure in August 1942 to Damag...Professor Joel Hayward
Even before Operation Barbarossa petered out in December 1941, Germany's oil reserves were severely depleted. Adolf Hitler worried that his armed forces would soon grind to a halt for want of petroleum products. During the last months of 1941 and the first of 1942, economic considerations played as much of a role in the formulation of a new strategy as did the run-down state of the eastern armies and air fleets. Hitler feared heavy Soviet bombing attacks on Rumanian oilfields, his main source of oil, and knew that the Reich's reserves were almost exhausted. Consequently, he considered the protection of the Rumanian oilfields and the acquisition of new sources of oil crucial if he were to wage a prolonged war against the growing list of nations he opposed.1 He therefore formulated Fall Blau (Case Blue), a major campaign for summer 1942. This aimed first, through preliminary offensives in the Crimea, to protect Rumanian oil centres from Soviet air attacks, and second, through a powerful thrust to the Don River and then into the Caucasus, to deliver that oil-rich region into German hands. The capture of the Caucasus oilfields, he believed, would relieve Germany's critical oil shortages and deliver a massive, and hopefully mortal, blow to the Soviet economy and war effort. The consequences of that ill-fated campaign are well known, and need little discussion here. Hitler became distracted by Stalingrad (which was not even a main campaign objective) and lost an entire army trying to take it. Soviet forces also drove his armies from the Caucasus and pushed them back to the line they had held before Blau started nine months earlier. This study analyses a little-known and poorly documented aspect of the 1942 campaign: Hitler's employment of airpower in the Caucasus region. It focuses on his reluctant admission in October that his ground forces would probably not reach the main oilfields before adverse weather conditions forced them to take up winter positions, and on his subsequent decision to have the Luftwaffe attempt the oilfields' destruction. He believed that if he could not have the oilfields (at present, anyway), he should at least deny Josef Stalin's agriculture, industry, and armed forces their vast output. The essay argues for the first time that the Luftwaffe could have dealt the Soviet economy a major blow, from which it would have taken at least several months to recover, if Hitler had not been so obsessed with Stalingrad and wasted his airpower assets on its destruction. During August and early September 1942, the Luftwaffe possessed the means to inflict heavy damage on Baku, the Caucasus oil metropolis that alone accounted for 80 percent of all Soviet production. The Luftwaffe still possessed a strong bomber force and airfields within striking range and the Soviet Air Force's presence in the Caucasus was still weak. By October, however, when Hitler finally ordered attacks on oilfields, the Luftwaffe's eastern bomber fleet was ...More from Professor Joel Hayward (20)
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- 1. The Battle of Britain Professor Joel Hayward
- 2. By the end of the lecture students should be able to understand: The differing strategic objectives of both sides in the air campaign The importance of control of the air to achieving these objectives The qualities of Dowding’s Integrated Air Defence System
- 3. The Strategic Situation in June 1940 • France fell quicker than expected • Britain expected to negotiate terms • If military action necessary, viewed as adjunct to Battle for France Luftwaffe Group Command 2 Report (1938): “any air war with Britain would be of nuisance value only and under no circumstances exercise any decisive effect on the course of the war.”
- 4. Importance of Control of the Air • Control of the Air denotes the degree of safety and freedom achieved in the skies within all or part of a theatre • It involves at least one of these three states: – A Favourable Air Situation – Air Superiority – Air Supremacy • It had already proved a decisive factor in the fighting in Poland, Scandinavia, the Low Countries and France
- 5. • From early June 1940 Germany sought to gain control of the air in order to: • a) to coerce Britain into embracing a cease-fire or other form of negotiated peace • b) to create conditions that would enable invasion • Both the German Army and Navy insisted that control of the air was an essential pre-requisite for any potential amphibious assault (‘Sealion’)
- 7. Factors Influencing Control of the Air?
- 8. Legacies of the Battle for France • Luftwaffe attrition • Deficiencies exposed • Deficiencies hidden • Experience gained
- 9. Organisation & Logistics • Fighter Command (mono-functional) • Luftflotte (multi-functional) • Approaches to control of the air • Aircraft production & serviceability • Pilot training & experience • Airfield repair & serviceability
- 10. Integrated Air Defence System • Components • Importance of radar • Importance of network • A system for managing chaos? • A force multiplier?
- 11. Intelligence – Uses and Misuses • Centralisation & filtering • Competition & self- preservation • RAF strengths identified as weaknesses • Rampant optimism leading to self-delusion
- 12. Leadership & Decision-Making • Hitler • Göring • Dowding • Park
- 13. Fighter Command – Strategy and Tactics • Self-preservation & survival in 1940 (Dowding & Park) • Limitations of IADS influencing approach • Early interception vital • Maximum attrition of enemy (Leigh-Mallory & Bader) • ‘Big Wings’
- 14. The Luftwaffe – Strategy and Tactics • Novelty of air campaign • Confusion led to ‘scatter gun’ approach • Ability to maintain the initiative & degree of situational awareness increasingly compromised
- 15. The Phases of the Battle
- 16. Phase 1: 10 July – 7 August: 1940 Die Kanalkämpfe (The Channel Battles) • The Luftwaffe first needed to learn how best to beat RAF Fighter Command • Attacks against British shipping in the English Channel • Probing attacks to test Fighter Command’s capability • Luftwaffe closely studied RAF’s airfield locations, tactics, strengths and weaknesses
- 18. Phase 2: 8 August – 6 September 1940 Die Adlerangriffe (The Eagle Attacks) • Luftwaffe began campaign to gain air superiority in earnest • Fighter Command targeted directly • During the second half of August attacks on airfields took its toll • Supply of pilots now more pressing than supply of aircraft • Despite heavy losses German success in the battle looked likely at the time!
- 20. Phase 3: 7 – 5 Oct 1940 Reprieve • 25 Aug RAF initiates attacks on Berlin • 4 Sept Hitler orders retaliatory attacks on London & other cities • Invaluable respite for Fighter Command • Ultimately compounding Luftwaffe task • 17 Sept ‘Sealion’ postponed
- 22. Time • Limited window of opportunity available in 1940 • Weather & realities of invasion • German eyes already on the real strategic priority: the USSR • Battle of Britain as a psychological as well as material contest
- 23. Enduring Significance of the Battle of Britain? • What kind of victory had been achieved? • What kind of defeat had been inflicted? • Depending on perspective? • German war effort? • Luftwaffe? • British war effort? • Neutral and occupied nations?
- 24. Some Concluding Thoughts • Success in the Battle of Britain was a close-run thing • Luftwaffe contributed significantly to its own failure • Further evidence that the bomber would have difficulty ‘getting through’ • Implications for future independent bombing against Germany? • Importance of control of the air reinforced although its wider applicability to integrated operations would be learnt elsewhere…
- 25. Thank you.