The document describes a study that ranked the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Eminence was measured using 6 variables: frequency of journal citations, frequency of citations in introductory psychology textbooks, surveys of professional opinion, membership in the National Academy of Sciences, being elected APA president, and having a psychological term or procedure named after the psychologist. A composite score was calculated using these 6 variables to produce a rank-ordered list of the most eminent psychologists. The list provides a more comprehensive assessment of eminence than previous studies by considering psychologists across the entire 20th century and using multiple measures of eminence.
The document summarizes a study that constructed a rank-ordered list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Eminence was measured using 6 variables: journal citation frequency, introductory psychology textbook citation frequency, survey responses, National Academy of Sciences membership, election as APA president or receiving the APA Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and having one's surname used as an eponym. Scores on the 6 variables were combined to produce a composite score that was used to rank psychologists. The study aimed to provide a more comprehensive and inclusive list than previous studies by using multiple criteria and spanning the entire 20th century.
This chapter discusses the author's dissertation research on what contributes to happiness. The research found that love is the most important factor related to happiness, followed by other interpersonal resources like services and status. While money can alleviate poverty-related suffering, additional wealth beyond meeting basic needs does not significantly increase happiness. People who received little love as children tend to devalue love and value money more as adults. The research suggests intimate relationships are more important for happiness than economic resources.
The Outcome of Psychotherapy: Yesterday, Today, and TomorrowΕιρηνη Κουτσοδοντη
1) The article discusses the ongoing debate within the psychotherapy field about how psychotherapy works and what factors contribute to positive outcomes.
2) While efficacy of psychotherapy is now well-established, there is still disagreement between those who view it as similar to medicine with specific ingredients/treatments for conditions, and those who emphasize nonspecific relationship factors as most important.
3) After 50 years of research, the field has not reached consensus on the "independent variable" responsible for client change, and this limits improvements to outcomes and the profession's standing.
The outcome of psychotherapy yesterday, today and tomorrow (psychotherapy in ...Daryl Chow
In 1963, the first issue of the journal Psychotherapy appeared. Responding to findings reported in a previous publication by Eysenck (1952), Strupp wrote of the ‘staggering research problems’ confronting the field and the necessity of conducting ‘properly planned and executed studies’ to resolve questions about the process and outcome of psychotherapy. Today, both the efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy has been well established. Despite the consistent findings substantiating the field’s worth, a significant question remains the subject of debate: How does psychotherapy work? On this subject, debate continues to divide the profession. In this paper, a ‘way out’ is proposed informed by research on the therapist’s contribution to treatment outcome and findings from studies on the acquisition of expertise.
American journal of psychotherapy 2013 vol 67 pp 23 -46 (2) by paul clementScott Miller
This summarizes a study that analyzed outcome data from 1,599 psychotherapy patients seen by a private practitioner over 45 years. It found that 65.15% of patients were rated as improved or much improved after treatment, with a mean pre-/post-treatment effect size of 1.90. Patients and their parents rated outcomes more positively than the therapist. There was a positive relationship between length of treatment and better outcomes.
This study examined the role of family empowerment and resilience in predicting recovery from psychosis. Ninety-nine family members of patients with psychotic disorders completed assessments of family empowerment, resilience, and the patients' recovery. Regression analysis found that higher levels of family empowerment and resilience significantly predicted greater recovery in patients, accounting for 8.7% of the variance in recovery outcomes. The findings suggest that strengthening family empowerment and resilience may benefit the treatment of psychotic disorders.
Why have the artists created these works and what are they.docxphilipnelson29183
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 1 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
High Renaissance
Raphael, School of Athens, 1509-10. Fresco, 200 x 300 “.
Photorealism
Chuck Close, Big Self-Portrait, 1967-68.
Acrylic on canvas. 107 ½“x 83 1/2”.
*
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 2 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
Boticelli
Birth of Venus, 1486. Tempera on canvas, 67.9 × 109.6 ”
Kees Van Dongen
Femme Fatale. Oil on canvas, 32 X 24”.
German Expressionism, 1905
*
Integrative and Biopsychosocial Approaches in Contemporary Clinical Psychology
Chapter Objective
· To highlight and outline how contemporary clinical psychology integrates the major theoretical models using a biopsychosocial approach.
Chapter Outline
· The Call to Integration
· Biopsychosocial Integration
· Synthesizing Biological, Psychological, and Social Factors in Contemporary Integration
· Highlight of a Contemporary Clinical Psychologist: Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, PhD
· Application of the Biopsychosocial Perspective to Contemporary Clinical Psychology Problems
· Conclusion
Having now reviewed the four major theoretical and historical models in psychology in Chapter 5, this chapter illustrates how integration is achieved in the actual science and practice of clinical psychology. In addition to psychological perspectives per se, a full integration of human functioning demands a synthesis of psychological factors with both biological and social elements. This combination of biological, psychological, and social factors comprises an example of contemporary integration in the form of the biopsychosocial perspective. This chapter describes the evolution of individual psychological perspectives into a more comprehensive biopsychosocial synthesis, perhaps first touched upon 2,500 years ago by the Greeks.
The Call to Integration
While there are over 400 different types of approaches to psychotherapy and other professional services offered by clinical psychologists (Karasu, 1986), the major schools of thought reviewed and illustrated in Chapter 5 have emerged during the past century as the primary perspectives in clinical psychology. As mentioned, these include the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family s.
This document summarizes an article from the International Psychologist journal that examines the relationship between seasonality, subjective stress, and depression symptoms. It discusses three main findings from the article:
1) Subjective stress moderated the relationship between seasonality and atypical depression symptoms such that the relationship was stronger when stress levels were high, but did not impact the relationship with typical depression symptoms.
2) Seasonality and subjective stress were both predictors of more severe typical depression symptoms.
3) The interaction between seasonality and subjective stress significantly predicted atypical depression symptoms, indicating subjective stress moderates this relationship. The study suggests subjective stress plays a greater role in atypical versus typical depression symptoms.
The document summarizes a study that constructed a rank-ordered list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Eminence was measured using 6 variables: journal citation frequency, introductory psychology textbook citation frequency, survey responses, National Academy of Sciences membership, election as APA president or receiving the APA Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and having one's surname used as an eponym. Scores on the 6 variables were combined to produce a composite score that was used to rank psychologists. The study aimed to provide a more comprehensive and inclusive list than previous studies by using multiple criteria and spanning the entire 20th century.
This chapter discusses the author's dissertation research on what contributes to happiness. The research found that love is the most important factor related to happiness, followed by other interpersonal resources like services and status. While money can alleviate poverty-related suffering, additional wealth beyond meeting basic needs does not significantly increase happiness. People who received little love as children tend to devalue love and value money more as adults. The research suggests intimate relationships are more important for happiness than economic resources.
The Outcome of Psychotherapy: Yesterday, Today, and TomorrowΕιρηνη Κουτσοδοντη
1) The article discusses the ongoing debate within the psychotherapy field about how psychotherapy works and what factors contribute to positive outcomes.
2) While efficacy of psychotherapy is now well-established, there is still disagreement between those who view it as similar to medicine with specific ingredients/treatments for conditions, and those who emphasize nonspecific relationship factors as most important.
3) After 50 years of research, the field has not reached consensus on the "independent variable" responsible for client change, and this limits improvements to outcomes and the profession's standing.
The outcome of psychotherapy yesterday, today and tomorrow (psychotherapy in ...Daryl Chow
In 1963, the first issue of the journal Psychotherapy appeared. Responding to findings reported in a previous publication by Eysenck (1952), Strupp wrote of the ‘staggering research problems’ confronting the field and the necessity of conducting ‘properly planned and executed studies’ to resolve questions about the process and outcome of psychotherapy. Today, both the efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy has been well established. Despite the consistent findings substantiating the field’s worth, a significant question remains the subject of debate: How does psychotherapy work? On this subject, debate continues to divide the profession. In this paper, a ‘way out’ is proposed informed by research on the therapist’s contribution to treatment outcome and findings from studies on the acquisition of expertise.
American journal of psychotherapy 2013 vol 67 pp 23 -46 (2) by paul clementScott Miller
This summarizes a study that analyzed outcome data from 1,599 psychotherapy patients seen by a private practitioner over 45 years. It found that 65.15% of patients were rated as improved or much improved after treatment, with a mean pre-/post-treatment effect size of 1.90. Patients and their parents rated outcomes more positively than the therapist. There was a positive relationship between length of treatment and better outcomes.
This study examined the role of family empowerment and resilience in predicting recovery from psychosis. Ninety-nine family members of patients with psychotic disorders completed assessments of family empowerment, resilience, and the patients' recovery. Regression analysis found that higher levels of family empowerment and resilience significantly predicted greater recovery in patients, accounting for 8.7% of the variance in recovery outcomes. The findings suggest that strengthening family empowerment and resilience may benefit the treatment of psychotic disorders.
Why have the artists created these works and what are they.docxphilipnelson29183
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 1 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
High Renaissance
Raphael, School of Athens, 1509-10. Fresco, 200 x 300 “.
Photorealism
Chuck Close, Big Self-Portrait, 1967-68.
Acrylic on canvas. 107 ½“x 83 1/2”.
*
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 2 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
Boticelli
Birth of Venus, 1486. Tempera on canvas, 67.9 × 109.6 ”
Kees Van Dongen
Femme Fatale. Oil on canvas, 32 X 24”.
German Expressionism, 1905
*
Integrative and Biopsychosocial Approaches in Contemporary Clinical Psychology
Chapter Objective
· To highlight and outline how contemporary clinical psychology integrates the major theoretical models using a biopsychosocial approach.
Chapter Outline
· The Call to Integration
· Biopsychosocial Integration
· Synthesizing Biological, Psychological, and Social Factors in Contemporary Integration
· Highlight of a Contemporary Clinical Psychologist: Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, PhD
· Application of the Biopsychosocial Perspective to Contemporary Clinical Psychology Problems
· Conclusion
Having now reviewed the four major theoretical and historical models in psychology in Chapter 5, this chapter illustrates how integration is achieved in the actual science and practice of clinical psychology. In addition to psychological perspectives per se, a full integration of human functioning demands a synthesis of psychological factors with both biological and social elements. This combination of biological, psychological, and social factors comprises an example of contemporary integration in the form of the biopsychosocial perspective. This chapter describes the evolution of individual psychological perspectives into a more comprehensive biopsychosocial synthesis, perhaps first touched upon 2,500 years ago by the Greeks.
The Call to Integration
While there are over 400 different types of approaches to psychotherapy and other professional services offered by clinical psychologists (Karasu, 1986), the major schools of thought reviewed and illustrated in Chapter 5 have emerged during the past century as the primary perspectives in clinical psychology. As mentioned, these include the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family s.
This document summarizes an article from the International Psychologist journal that examines the relationship between seasonality, subjective stress, and depression symptoms. It discusses three main findings from the article:
1) Subjective stress moderated the relationship between seasonality and atypical depression symptoms such that the relationship was stronger when stress levels were high, but did not impact the relationship with typical depression symptoms.
2) Seasonality and subjective stress were both predictors of more severe typical depression symptoms.
3) The interaction between seasonality and subjective stress significantly predicted atypical depression symptoms, indicating subjective stress moderates this relationship. The study suggests subjective stress plays a greater role in atypical versus typical depression symptoms.
This paper explores attribution theory and the importance of individual attribution styles. It discusses how attribution styles can influence one's interpretation of positive and negative events and shape responses to environmental cues. The paper reviews literature showing links between negative attribution styles and poorer academic performance, health outcomes, immune functioning, and mental health. Cultural factors like individualism/collectivism and religious beliefs may help determine one's attribution style. The actor-observer asymmetry also provides insight into positive attribution styles.
Outcomes from 45 Years of Clinical Practice (Paul Clement)Scott Miller
Paul Clement is one of my heroes. He's been tracking the outcome of his clinical services for decades. I was stunned when, in 1994, he published results from his private work over a two decades long period. Now, we have the data from 45 years. Read it!
Beyond four forces_the_evolution_of_psychotherapy (1)jayapratha9
This document discusses the evolution of psychotherapy theory through different "forces" or paradigms that have shaped the field over time. It describes how the first three forces were commonly identified as psychoanalytic, behavioral, and humanistic-existential approaches. The document then examines various theoretical models that have been described as the "fourth force" in the field, including transpersonal psychology, family systems theory, feminist psychology, multiculturalism, ecopsychology, and social constructivism. Recently, social justice and advocacy have been identified as the "fifth force." The document argues that integrative approaches represent an emerging "sixth force" and that the field is evolving toward a more comprehensive and holistic approach to address diverse individual and
IntelligenceNew Findings and Theoretical DevelopmentsRic.docxbagotjesusa
Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and .
IntelligenceNew Findings and Theoretical DevelopmentsRic.docxvrickens
Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and ...
Psychotherapist who abstain from personal theraphymalviani56
Therapists who had never sought personal therapy were less positive about its value and importance than those who had undergone therapy. The top reasons therapists gave for not seeking therapy included dealing with stress in other ways, receiving sufficient support from friends and family, believing their coping strategies were effective, and resolving problems before therapy was needed. Cognitive-behavioral therapists and academics were significantly less likely to have had personal therapy than other therapists.
COMMENTARYThe Foundational Principles as Psychological Lod.docxrichardnorman90310
COMMENTARY
The Foundational Principles as Psychological Lodestars: Theoretical
Inspiration and Empirical Direction in Rehabilitation Psychology
Dana S. Dunn
Moravian College
Dawn M. Ehde
University of Washington School of Medicine
Stephen T. Wegener
The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
Historically, the Foundational Principles articulated by Wright (1983) and others guided theory devel-
opment, research and scholarship, and practice in rehabilitation psychology. In recent decades, these
principles have become more implicit and less explicit or expressive in the writings and work of
rehabilitation professionals. We believe that the Foundational Principles are essential lodestars for
working with people with disabilities that can guide inquiry, practice, and service. To introduce this
special issues, this commentary identifies and defines key Foundational Principles, including, for
example, Lewin’s (1935) person–environment relation, adjustment to disability, the malleability of
self-perceptions of bodily states, and the importance of promoting dignity for people with disabilities. We
then consider the role the Foundational Principles play in the articles appearing in this special issue. We
close by considering some new principles and their potential utility in rehabilitation settings. Readers in
rehabilitation psychology and aligned areas (e.g., social–personality psychology, health psychology,
rehabilitation therapist, psychiatry, and nursing) are encouraged to consider how the Foundational
Principles underlie and can shape their research and practice.
Keywords: adjustment to disability, foundational principles, person–environment relation, psychosocial
assets, value-laden principles
A lodestar is something, or someone, that provides guidance or
inspiration, particularly to a group of people. The term is an apt
one for our “Foundational Principles”, based on Beatrice Wright’s
(1983) and other leader’s classic works, which guide the empirical
research, theory, and practice in rehabilitation psychology. Reha-
bilitation psychology is concerned with the psychological, biolog-
ical, social, environmental, and political factors that influence the
lives and well-being of people with disabilities or chronic health
conditions. The goal of this article is to review these Foundational
Principles and their importance to science and practice to provide
a framework for the articles that comprise this special section of
Rehabilitation Psychology.
Why dedicate a special section to the Foundational Principles?
The primary reason is concern among members of the rehabilita-
tion psychology community that the importance and utility of the
Principles is being overlooked as the discipline advances. New and
future rehabilitation psychologists may be unaware of the Princi-
ples and the rich empirical, theoretical, and practice heritage they
represent. As evidence, consider Ryan and Tree’s (2004) survey of
the American Board of Professional Psychology Diplo.
The document examines differences in models of agency between college-educated (BA) and less educated (HS) European Americans. Through three studies, the authors found that:
1) BA participants and their preferred cultural products (rock lyrics) emphasized expressing uniqueness, controlling environments, and influencing others, whereas HS participants and their preferred products (country lyrics) emphasized maintaining integrity, adjusting selves, and resisting influence.
2) When given choices, BA participants liked chosen objects more, but choice did not affect HS participants' preferences, reflecting their different agency models.
3) The findings suggest BA and HS models of agency qualitatively differ, though there is overlap between their worlds.
Eisenman, russell explanations from undergraduates nfaejWilliam Kritsonis
Undergraduate and graduate counseling students listened to two audio recordings and wrote explanations. Their explanations were rated as either simple or complex. All undergraduate explanations were rated as simple, simply describing what was said. All graduate student explanations were rated as complex, providing critical assessment. However, three graduate students made an error in clinical thinking by claiming religious belief in God speaking indicated schizophrenia. The study shows graduate students demonstrated more complex thinking, but educators need to address clinical reasoning errors.
Ten major review about positive psychologyCristina Senín
This document summarizes 10 reviews related to positive psychology. It begins with 2 introductory studies, including a handbook on positive psychology in Spanish and an article introducing positive psychology. It then summarizes 4 texts on key topics in positive psychology like happiness, flow, optimism and hope. Finally, it reviews 4 papers on assessment and intervention in positive psychology, including the development of an assessment instrument and studies on positive psychotherapy and community interventions. The document provides an overview of the current state of positive psychology through summarizing these influential reviews.
MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docxalfredacavx97
MARY REVIEW
1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions and the priming of mental illness stigma. Stigma and Health, 3(3), 253-264. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=8&sid=66026bf7-aa09-4bcd-a73a-7b9d3e35bcc7%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1lZHMtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=2017-15491-001&db=pdh (Links to an external site.)
2. Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding Research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
3. The topic discussed in the article I chose is mental illness. The article discusses the question of the affect the media plays in regards to one's perception of mental illness. The study designed involves the random assignment of individuals to descriptions of a violent accident. Some descriptions were left unaltered while others were manipulated to mention the term and concept of mental illness. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "we also examined the potential moderating impact of cognitive styles and preexisting attitudes and beliefs."
4. I would say this research is descriptive
5. Experimental
6. Results found that participants are likely to associate mental illness with violent outbursts when stated throughout media. I think this was used for applied social research. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "roughly, 43% of the participants in the experimental condition reported the cause of the incident as related to mental illness, in contrast with only 2% of participants in the control condition." When asked to provide a recount of the article 42% of participants mentioned mental illness while none of the participants of the control group did (Chan & Yanos, 2018).
7. In an unscientific method one can simply ask the question of does mental illness make one violent? Asking a question such as this doesn't entail proper research but a simple yes or no question. Research isn't completed to discover why individuals may have these particular beliefs.
8. Do you think or know of research that discovered why individuals may have these beliefs?
Kenneth Review
1. Article citation.
Steffens, N. K., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Mols, F. (2018). Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence. Political Psychology, 39(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12387
2. Book citation.
Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding research. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
3. Title and topic.
Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence.
This article is fascinating to say the least. It speaks on the idea that people see followers of other groups as being less of an ideal follower, see them as not being an effective follower, and see members of their own group as being “better” overall. This non effective follower is seen as more conformist, blindly following what they are told, and unable to be think for themselves. Conversely, they see their own group as dynamic free thinkers, active, thoug.
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion postDiscu.docxsheronlewthwaite
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion post
Discussion Entry 1
The emerging adulthood stage is being studied in various ways now to include the lifespan theory and the resiliency theory. The lifespan development theory generally concentrates on the ontogenesis and the chronological mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities, while resiliency theory, in contrast, generally focuses the process of positive adaption when facing significant risk (Smith-Osborne, 2007). “Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25” (Arnett, 2000, pg. 1). From my understanding, Arnett’s proposal is basically highlighting on the fact that there is a difference from “back in the day” to “current day” life experiences or achievements. “The reliance on traditional sociological markers that have served for over a century—stable job, independent domicile, financial self-sufficiency, marriage and children—is out of sync with the pace, direction, and even values of twenty-first-century life” (Gilmore, 2019, pg. 1). Arnett explains this by showing how the age of marriage has shifted and how childbirth age patterns has increased. The emerging adulthood phase is when an individual is acting independently in contradiction of social norms.
The first article dealt with homeless emerging adults and how the resiliency theory played a role in the case study. Young adults were interviewed, recruited, and analyzed to find four primary themes amongst the homeless young adults. Individual strengths, positive life perspectives, external social supports, and coping strategies are all themes that contributed to their resilience while living on the streets. Most emerging adults were facing multiple barriers while growing up and they were exposed to traumatizing events which cause most of them to flee their home/family. the resiliency theory reported how these individuals adapted to their new circumstances by learning how to find resources, establishing new relationships and who to trust, and developing a “street smart” skill (Thompson, Ryan, Montgomery, Lippman, Bender & Ferguson, 2016). This case study proposed that using a strength-based method would empower these individuals to use their resilient capabilities to build a self-efficient mentality that offers them a way out of homelessness. One major shortcoming of this study is that the recruits were from one specific city and were mainly Caucasian males. If the study would have been more worldwide, the results may have shown various results. Another factor that may hinder this type of research is that many homeless individuals develop mental health concerns and do not share the full extent of their situation which would alter the results as well. This study reflects how the cognitive and personality development does not always take place in a normal age range or in sequential order and human development rem ...
Prepared by louise kaplan, ph d, arnp, fnp bc, faanp senior pamit657720
This document provides a framework for critiquing research studies. It outlines 14 key aspects of a research article to evaluate, including the title, abstract, introduction, literature review, methods, analysis, results, discussion, limitations and conclusion. It recommends determining the level and quality of evidence using an appropriate scale. Finally, it asks the reader to decide if the study is applicable to their own practice. The overall purpose is to provide guidance on thoroughly reviewing and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of a research article.
Ebooksclub.org contemporary_directions_in_psychopathology__scientific_founda...Rui Pedro Dias Ruca
Contemporary Directions in Psychopathology provides an overview of conceptual issues and directions in the scientific study and classification of mental disorders. The document includes an introduction by the editors outlining the goals of the book, which is to describe advances since previous versions of diagnostic manuals and identify important issues and methods to consider for upcoming revisions. The book contains 30 chapters contributed by experts from various fields on topics such as the history of psychopathology, cultural and contextual factors, philosophical issues in classification, proposals regarding the neuroscientific and evolutionary foundations of psychopathology, and debates around diagnostic constructs and taxonomy. The editors hope the volume will facilitate collaboration between psychology and psychiatry and contribute to improvements in diagnostic systems like DSM-V and ICD-
OverviewThis activity is to be completed after studying the pres.docxkarlhennesey
This summary provides an overview of the sample response to the discussion question:
The sample response addresses the discussion question in four main points: 1) the change humanistic psychology brought, 2) how this change affected psychologists' understanding of human nature, 3) how humanistic psychologists asked questions and conducted research, and 4) how this differed from behaviorists. The response supports these points by discussing key humanistic psychology thinkers like Maslow and Kelly, and how they viewed humans as autonomous and focused on potential rather than illness. It also contrasts the humanistic view of treating subjects humanely with the behaviorist view of strict empiricism. Finally, the response analyzes differences in how humanists and behaviorists framed research questions and methodology
Personality. The five dimensions of personality. By Theresa Lowry-Lehnen. Lec...Theresa Lowry-Lehnen
The document discusses the five factor model of personality which suggests there are five basic dimensions of personality - extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness. Research over the past 50 years from psychologists like Fiske, Norman, Smith, Goldberg, and McCrae and Costa provided evidence supporting this five factor model. While researchers may use slightly different labels, the five dimensions provide a framework for describing personality traits.
This essay discusses industrial/organizational psychology and its applications in the workplace. It focuses on how industrial psychologists assess workers and jobs, develop performance appraisal systems, conduct training programs, and study job satisfaction. The key applications of industrial/organizational psychology mentioned are employee selection and assessment, performance evaluation, training development, and analyzing job satisfaction. The essay provides an overview of the main areas and goals of industrial/organizational psychology as it pertains to improving workplace performance and employee experiences.
Clinical Psychology Case Formulation and Treatment Planning: A PrimerJames Tobin, Ph.D.
The aim of this primer is to support the learning of clinical case conceptualization and treatment planning for graduate students in clinical psychology, other trainees in the mental health professions, and early-career psychologists and mental health workers.
This document provides an overview of chapter one of lecture slides on introduction and research methods in psychology. It discusses the origins of psychology, influential early philosophers and founders. It describes major perspectives in contemporary psychology including biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, positive, evolutionary, cross-cultural, and cognitive. It also discusses research strategies such as descriptive methods like naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys as well as experimental methods. Key terms related to the scientific method and building theories are defined.
Accident Up Ahead!Listen to this text being read aloud by a hu.docxmehek4
Accident Up Ahead!
Listen to this text being read aloud by a human being by clicking on this link.
Answer questions #1 and #2 and then answer #3 or #4.
1. When an accident or disaster occurs, many people will panic or just stand there looking. Why do they react that way? (Answer using a short paragraph.)
2. What fears and doubts does Jody have to overcome as she works? What helps her to keep going? (Answer using two short paragraphs.)
3. Write a paragraph about an accident that you experienced as a victim, an observer, or the person who helped the victim.
or
4. As one of the Fortins or Jodouins, write a letter to Jody Stevens thanking her for what she did.
Accident Up Ahead!
JANICE TYRWHITT
THE NORTHBOUND BUS had scarcely left North Bay, Ontario, when-at 1:30 a.m. on Saturday, October 11, 1975-it came to an abrupt halt. Peering out the bus window at Highway 11, Jody Stevens saw a line of taillights stretching into the night. "There must be an accident up ahead," she said to her seatmate. "I had better get out and help." Jody, a young nurse from Toronto, was on her way home to spend Thanksgiving (and celebrate her twenty-fourth birthday) with her family in Timmins. An October drizzle soaked her shoulders as she trudged past a quarter mile of stopped traffic to an eerie scene. In the flickering light of Coleman lamps and road flares, she saw the two-lane highway spattered with blood. An old school bus converted into a camper lay on its side in the ditch. A hunter's pickup truck was stalled in the left lane, the bodies of two moose lolling grotesquely from the back. Off the right shoulder was a silver Mercedes-Benz with a smashed hood. In the lane between them a silent ring of people had gathered round a fourth vehicle-a blue 1973 Ford, a crumpled wreck, with four people in it.
"I think they're all dead," a burly man told Jody.
She caught her breath and thought, Well, Stevens, what do you do now? Jody had packed a lot of experience into the two years since her graduation as a registered nurse, most recently at the Toronto East General Hospital. She threw off her corduroy coat and crawled into the back seat of the crushed car.
While Jody was riding north, twenty-six-year-old Charles Jodouin, his wife Jeanne, and her parents Omer and Lucie Fortin, were driving south from Timmins to visit Jeanne's sister in Kingston. Despite the late hour, traffic in both directions was fairly heavy. They were less than three miles out of North Bay when, suddenly, the left rear wheel spun off an oncoming converted school bus: it flew straight into the grill of a pickup truck moving south just ahead of the Jodouins. Then, out of control, the camperbus skidded across the centre line and sideswiped the Jodouins' blue Ford. A split second later a brand-new Mercedes, travelling behind the camper, also slammed into the Jodouins.
Scrambling into the wrecked blue Ford, Jody found herself in a welter of blood and splintered glass. Trapped in the driver's se.
Access the annual report provided in Course Materials to complete .docxmehek4
Access
the annual report provided in Course Materials to complete the Financial Reporting Problem, Part 1 assignment due in Week Six.
Analyze
the information contained in the company’s balance sheet and income statement to answer the following questions:
·
Are the assets included under the company’s current assets listed in the proper order? Explain your answer.
·
How are the company’s assets classified?
·
What are cash equivalents?
·
What are the company’s total current liabilities at the end of its most recent annual reporting period?
·
What are the company’s total current liabilities at the end of the previous annual reporting period?
·
Considering all the information you have gathered, why might this information be important to potential creditors, investors, and employees?
Create a table to summarize any dollar value answers. Then Summarize
the analysis in a 700- to 1,050-word paper in a Microsoft
®
Word document.
Format
your paper and presentation consistent with APA guidelines.
.
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Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and .
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Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
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tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
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environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
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little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
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Dawn M. Ehde
University of Washington School of Medicine
Stephen T. Wegener
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rehabilitation therapist, psychiatry, and nursing) are encouraged to consider how the Foundational
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2) When given choices, BA participants liked chosen objects more, but choice did not affect HS participants' preferences, reflecting their different agency models.
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MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docxalfredacavx97
MARY REVIEW
1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions and the priming of mental illness stigma. Stigma and Health, 3(3), 253-264. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=8&sid=66026bf7-aa09-4bcd-a73a-7b9d3e35bcc7%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1lZHMtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=2017-15491-001&db=pdh (Links to an external site.)
2. Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding Research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
3. The topic discussed in the article I chose is mental illness. The article discusses the question of the affect the media plays in regards to one's perception of mental illness. The study designed involves the random assignment of individuals to descriptions of a violent accident. Some descriptions were left unaltered while others were manipulated to mention the term and concept of mental illness. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "we also examined the potential moderating impact of cognitive styles and preexisting attitudes and beliefs."
4. I would say this research is descriptive
5. Experimental
6. Results found that participants are likely to associate mental illness with violent outbursts when stated throughout media. I think this was used for applied social research. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "roughly, 43% of the participants in the experimental condition reported the cause of the incident as related to mental illness, in contrast with only 2% of participants in the control condition." When asked to provide a recount of the article 42% of participants mentioned mental illness while none of the participants of the control group did (Chan & Yanos, 2018).
7. In an unscientific method one can simply ask the question of does mental illness make one violent? Asking a question such as this doesn't entail proper research but a simple yes or no question. Research isn't completed to discover why individuals may have these particular beliefs.
8. Do you think or know of research that discovered why individuals may have these beliefs?
Kenneth Review
1. Article citation.
Steffens, N. K., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Mols, F. (2018). Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence. Political Psychology, 39(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12387
2. Book citation.
Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding research. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
3. Title and topic.
Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence.
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I need 100 words response for each of the discussion post
Discussion Entry 1
The emerging adulthood stage is being studied in various ways now to include the lifespan theory and the resiliency theory. The lifespan development theory generally concentrates on the ontogenesis and the chronological mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities, while resiliency theory, in contrast, generally focuses the process of positive adaption when facing significant risk (Smith-Osborne, 2007). “Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25” (Arnett, 2000, pg. 1). From my understanding, Arnett’s proposal is basically highlighting on the fact that there is a difference from “back in the day” to “current day” life experiences or achievements. “The reliance on traditional sociological markers that have served for over a century—stable job, independent domicile, financial self-sufficiency, marriage and children—is out of sync with the pace, direction, and even values of twenty-first-century life” (Gilmore, 2019, pg. 1). Arnett explains this by showing how the age of marriage has shifted and how childbirth age patterns has increased. The emerging adulthood phase is when an individual is acting independently in contradiction of social norms.
The first article dealt with homeless emerging adults and how the resiliency theory played a role in the case study. Young adults were interviewed, recruited, and analyzed to find four primary themes amongst the homeless young adults. Individual strengths, positive life perspectives, external social supports, and coping strategies are all themes that contributed to their resilience while living on the streets. Most emerging adults were facing multiple barriers while growing up and they were exposed to traumatizing events which cause most of them to flee their home/family. the resiliency theory reported how these individuals adapted to their new circumstances by learning how to find resources, establishing new relationships and who to trust, and developing a “street smart” skill (Thompson, Ryan, Montgomery, Lippman, Bender & Ferguson, 2016). This case study proposed that using a strength-based method would empower these individuals to use their resilient capabilities to build a self-efficient mentality that offers them a way out of homelessness. One major shortcoming of this study is that the recruits were from one specific city and were mainly Caucasian males. If the study would have been more worldwide, the results may have shown various results. Another factor that may hinder this type of research is that many homeless individuals develop mental health concerns and do not share the full extent of their situation which would alter the results as well. This study reflects how the cognitive and personality development does not always take place in a normal age range or in sequential order and human development rem ...
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This summary provides an overview of the sample response to the discussion question:
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The document discusses the five factor model of personality which suggests there are five basic dimensions of personality - extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness. Research over the past 50 years from psychologists like Fiske, Norman, Smith, Goldberg, and McCrae and Costa provided evidence supporting this five factor model. While researchers may use slightly different labels, the five dimensions provide a framework for describing personality traits.
This essay discusses industrial/organizational psychology and its applications in the workplace. It focuses on how industrial psychologists assess workers and jobs, develop performance appraisal systems, conduct training programs, and study job satisfaction. The key applications of industrial/organizational psychology mentioned are employee selection and assessment, performance evaluation, training development, and analyzing job satisfaction. The essay provides an overview of the main areas and goals of industrial/organizational psychology as it pertains to improving workplace performance and employee experiences.
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This document provides an overview of chapter one of lecture slides on introduction and research methods in psychology. It discusses the origins of psychology, influential early philosophers and founders. It describes major perspectives in contemporary psychology including biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, positive, evolutionary, cross-cultural, and cognitive. It also discusses research strategies such as descriptive methods like naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys as well as experimental methods. Key terms related to the scientific method and building theories are defined.
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Accident Up Ahead!Listen to this text being read aloud by a hu.docxmehek4
Accident Up Ahead!
Listen to this text being read aloud by a human being by clicking on this link.
Answer questions #1 and #2 and then answer #3 or #4.
1. When an accident or disaster occurs, many people will panic or just stand there looking. Why do they react that way? (Answer using a short paragraph.)
2. What fears and doubts does Jody have to overcome as she works? What helps her to keep going? (Answer using two short paragraphs.)
3. Write a paragraph about an accident that you experienced as a victim, an observer, or the person who helped the victim.
or
4. As one of the Fortins or Jodouins, write a letter to Jody Stevens thanking her for what she did.
Accident Up Ahead!
JANICE TYRWHITT
THE NORTHBOUND BUS had scarcely left North Bay, Ontario, when-at 1:30 a.m. on Saturday, October 11, 1975-it came to an abrupt halt. Peering out the bus window at Highway 11, Jody Stevens saw a line of taillights stretching into the night. "There must be an accident up ahead," she said to her seatmate. "I had better get out and help." Jody, a young nurse from Toronto, was on her way home to spend Thanksgiving (and celebrate her twenty-fourth birthday) with her family in Timmins. An October drizzle soaked her shoulders as she trudged past a quarter mile of stopped traffic to an eerie scene. In the flickering light of Coleman lamps and road flares, she saw the two-lane highway spattered with blood. An old school bus converted into a camper lay on its side in the ditch. A hunter's pickup truck was stalled in the left lane, the bodies of two moose lolling grotesquely from the back. Off the right shoulder was a silver Mercedes-Benz with a smashed hood. In the lane between them a silent ring of people had gathered round a fourth vehicle-a blue 1973 Ford, a crumpled wreck, with four people in it.
"I think they're all dead," a burly man told Jody.
She caught her breath and thought, Well, Stevens, what do you do now? Jody had packed a lot of experience into the two years since her graduation as a registered nurse, most recently at the Toronto East General Hospital. She threw off her corduroy coat and crawled into the back seat of the crushed car.
While Jody was riding north, twenty-six-year-old Charles Jodouin, his wife Jeanne, and her parents Omer and Lucie Fortin, were driving south from Timmins to visit Jeanne's sister in Kingston. Despite the late hour, traffic in both directions was fairly heavy. They were less than three miles out of North Bay when, suddenly, the left rear wheel spun off an oncoming converted school bus: it flew straight into the grill of a pickup truck moving south just ahead of the Jodouins. Then, out of control, the camperbus skidded across the centre line and sideswiped the Jodouins' blue Ford. A split second later a brand-new Mercedes, travelling behind the camper, also slammed into the Jodouins.
Scrambling into the wrecked blue Ford, Jody found herself in a welter of blood and splintered glass. Trapped in the driver's se.
Access the annual report provided in Course Materials to complete .docxmehek4
Access
the annual report provided in Course Materials to complete the Financial Reporting Problem, Part 1 assignment due in Week Six.
Analyze
the information contained in the company’s balance sheet and income statement to answer the following questions:
·
Are the assets included under the company’s current assets listed in the proper order? Explain your answer.
·
How are the company’s assets classified?
·
What are cash equivalents?
·
What are the company’s total current liabilities at the end of its most recent annual reporting period?
·
What are the company’s total current liabilities at the end of the previous annual reporting period?
·
Considering all the information you have gathered, why might this information be important to potential creditors, investors, and employees?
Create a table to summarize any dollar value answers. Then Summarize
the analysis in a 700- to 1,050-word paper in a Microsoft
®
Word document.
Format
your paper and presentation consistent with APA guidelines.
.
Access the Internet to acquire a copy of the most recent annual re.docxmehek4
Access
the Internet to acquire a copy of the most recent annual report for the publicly traded company used to complete the Financial Reporting Problem, Part 1 assignment due in Week Six. (In week six, I wrote about Apple’s financial report)
Analyze
the information contained in the company’s balance sheet and income statement to answer the following questions:
·
Are the assets included under the company’s current assets listed in the proper order? Explain your answer.
·
How are the company’s assets classified?
·
What are cash equivalents?
·
What are the company’s total current liabilities at the end of its most recent annual reporting period?
·
What are the company’s total current liabilities at the end of the previous annual reporting period?
·
Considering all the information you have gathered, why might this information be important to potential creditors, investors, and employees?
Summarize
the analysis in a 700- to 1,050-word paper in a Microsoft® Word document.
Include
a copy of the company’s balance sheet and income statement.
Format
your paper and presentation consistent with APA guidelines.
.
Acc 290 Final Exam MCQs) Which financial statement is used to de.docxmehek4
This document contains 29 multiple choice questions about accounting concepts and principles from an ACC 290 final exam, including questions about:
- Financial statements and the statement of cash flows
- Basic accounting equations and debits and credits
- Adjusting entries, trial balances, and calculating financial metrics like cost of goods sold
- Inventory costing methods like FIFO and LIFO
- Internal controls and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act
AC2760
Week 2 Assignment
Read the following scenario, and complete the form on the following worksheet:
On March 1, 2012, Mitch Quade established Mitch Realty, which completed the following transactions during the month:
(a)
Mitch Quade transferred cash from a personal bank account to an account to be used for the business in exchange for capital stock, $18,000.
(b)
Purchase supplies on account, $1,200.
(c)
Earned sales commission, receiving cash, $14,000.
(d)
Paid rent on office and equipment for the month, $2,800.
(e)
Paid creditor on account, $750.
(f)
Paid office salaries, $3,000.
Instructions:
1
Journalize entries for transactions (a) through (f).
Omit the journal entry explanations. Please use the drop-down list (right of the cell) to enter the account description box on the worksheet.
2
Post the journal entries the T accounts, placing the appropriate letter to the left of each amount to identify the transactions.
Determine the account balance after all posting is complete.
Accounts containing only a single entry do not need a balance.
3
Prepare and unadjusted trial balance as of March 31, 2012.
1.
Journal - Mitch Realty
Description
Debit
Credit
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
2.
Ledger - Mitch Realty
Cash
Capital Stock
(a)
(d)
(a)
(c)
(e)
(f)
Sales Commission
Bal.
(c)
Supplies
Office Salaries Expense
(b)
(f)
Accounts Payable
Rent Expense
(e)
(b)
(d)
Bal.
3.
MITCH REALTY
Unadjusted Trial Balance
March 31, 2012
Debit
Credit
Cash
Supplies
Accounts Payable
Capital Stock
Sales Commissions
Rent Expense
Office Salaries Expense
-
-
.
AC1220 Lab 5.1IntroductionJake determines that owning the .docxmehek4
AC1220 Lab 5.1
Introduction
Jake determines that owning the building where Jake’s Computer Sales and Repair operates makes more sense than leasing the facility. On June 1, 20x1, Jake exchanges a $180,000 note payable for the following fixed assets:
·
Land
·
Land improvements, including fencing, paving, lighting, and signage
·
Building
Jake hires an independent appraiser who assigns the following market values to the assets:
Asset
Fair Market Value
Land
$23,500
Land improvements
$8,000
Building
$164,500
Requirement 1
Jake must allocate the $195,000 among three asset classes: land, land improvements, and building.
a. Compute the total fair market value (FMV) of the lump-sum purchase of assets.
Asset
Fair Market Value
Land
$23,500
Land improvements
8,000
Building
164,000
Total
b. Express land improvements and building as a percentage of the total FMV and allocate the purchase price of $180,000 to land improvements and building—the computation is completed for land.
Asset
Fair Market Value
% of Total Fair Market Value
Purchase Price
Cost of Asset
Land
$23,500
12%
$180,000
$21,600
Land improvements
180,000
Building
180,000
Total
c. Journalize the purchase of the assets, using the allocated costs computed in Requirement 1b.
Date
Account and Explanation
Debit
Credit
6/1/x1
To record purchase of land, land improvements, and building
Requirement 2
a. Classify each of the following spending items as either a capital expenditure or an expense. Indicate the correct choice with an “x”:
Spending
Capital Expenditure
Expense
Routine repairs to fencing, $120 (cash)
Renovation of building, including addition to warehouse, $15,000 (on account)
Resurfaced paving, extending the remaining useful life of the paving from 3 to 5 years, $1,000 (cash)
b. Journalize the expenditures described in Requirement 2a.
Date
Account and Explanation
Debit
Credit
6/1/x1
To record repairs to fencing
6/1/x1
To record renovation of building
6/1/x1
To record extraordinary repair
Requirement 3
a. Using the straight-line depreciation method, compute the depreciation expense and the accumulated depreciation that would be recorded at December 20x1. Completing the shaded cells in the following table:
Date
Asset Cost
Depreciable Cost
Straight-line Depreciation Rate
Depreciation Expense
Accumulated Depreciation
Book Value
Jun 1, 20x1
1/5 x 6/12
b. Using the double-declining balance method, compute the depreciation expense and the accumulated depreciation that would be recorded at December 20x1. Complete the shaded cells in the following table:
Date
Asset Cost
Depreciable Cost
Double-Declining Depreciation Rate
Depreciation Expense
Accumulated Depreciation
Book Value
Jun 1, 20x1
c. Assume that a truck is expected to be driven 7,000 miles through December 31, 20x1, and that each mile driven represents one production unit. Usi.
Abstract(Provide the main generalizable statement resulting .docxmehek4
Abstract
(
Provide the main generalizable
statement
resulting from the paper briefly)
Introduction
(Explain what the assignment is about to the reader briefly)
Anthropology definition
: according to Schaefer (2010) is “……………………………………………..” (p.5).
Interpretation: In your own words
Example: from your experiences
How does the discipline interface with sociology? Connect anthropology with sociology
Psychology definition
:
Interpretation:
Example:
How does it interface with sociology?
Political Science definition
:
Interpretation:
Example:
How does discipline interface with sociology?
Economics definition
:
Interpretation:
Example:
How does discipline interface with sociology?
Sociology definition
:
Interpretation:
Example:
How does discipline interface with sociology?
.
Abusive relationships are at the core of the Coetzee novel, whether .docxmehek4
Abusive relationships are at the core of the Coetzee novel, whether men and their abuse of women, individuals and their abuse of animals, and men and their abuse of other men. What does Coatzee want to convey to the reader about the nature of abuse and violence in relationships? How does he see both as emblematic of South Africa?
5 page paper on this topic above and include quotes or textual examples from the book.
.
Abraham, J., Sick, B., Anderson, J., Berg, A., Dehmer, C., & Tufano, A. (2011).
Selecting a provider: What factors influence patients' decision making?
Journal of Healthcare Management
,
56
(2), 99–114.
Chullen, C. L., Dunford, B. B., Angermeier, I., Boss, R. W., & Boss, A. D. (2011).
Minimizing deviant behavior in healthcare organizations: The effects of supportive leadership and job design
.
Journal of Healthcare Management
,
55
(6), 381–397.
Compare the two studies by analyzing their samples. Use the following questions to guide you.
What sampling design is used?
Is the sample size adequate?
How does the sample affect the validity of the conclusions of the study?
.
Abraham, J., Sick, B., Anderson, J., Berg, A., Dehmer, C., & Tufano, A. (2011).
Selecting a provider: What factors influence patients' decision making?
Journal of Healthcare Management
,
56
(2), 99–114.
·
Chullen, C. L., Dunford, B. B., Angermeier, I., Boss, R. W., & Boss, A. D. (2011).
Minimizing deviant behavior in healthcare organizations: The effects of supportive leadership and job design
.
Journal of Healthcare Management
,
55
(6), 381–397.
Compare the two studies by analyzing their samples. Use the following questions to guide you.
1.
What sampling design is used?
2.
Is the sample size adequate?
.
A.Da la correcta conjugación para cada oración.(Give the corre.docxmehek4
A.
Da la correcta conjugación para cada oración.
(Give the correct verb conjugation in F
ormal Commandfor each sentence)
.
Top of Form
1.
_______________
Ud. la cama. (hacer)
2.
______________ Uds. la mesa. (poner)
3.
______________
Ud. a tiempo. (salir)
4.
_____________
Uds. a la fiesta. (venir)
5.
_____________ Ud. la verdad. (decir)
6.
______________ Uds. a la fiesta. (ir)
7.
______________Ud. bueno. (ser)
8.
______________ Uds. la información. (saber)
9.
______________ Ud. en la clase a tiempo.
(estar)
10.
______________ Uds. respecto a sus profesores.
(dar)
11.
______________ Ud. a clase. (ir)
12.
______________ Uds. buenos. (ser)
13.
______________
Ud. el libro en la mochila. (poner)
14.
______________ Uds. de la casa a las ocho.
(salir)
15.
______________
Ud. a mi casa. (venir)
Bottom of Form
.
Abraham Lincoln is considered by many historians to be the greatest .docxmehek4
Abraham Lincoln is considered by many historians to be the greatest American President. His drive to end slavery and to unify the nation was at great personal cost. For this assignment, you will access two important primary sources authored by Abraham Lincoln.
Using the Internet, review the following primary source document:
[Lincoln, A.?]. [ca. 1863].
The Emancipation Proclamation
. Archived document, U.S. National Archives & Records Administration. Retrieved from
http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/
emancipation_proclamation/transcript.html
In addition, research the Internet for
The Gettysburg Address.
The
Webliography
for this module contains a link to this resource.
Based on your analysis of all the readings for this module, respond to the following:
What is Lincoln’s perception of liberty and equality?
Why did he place so much importance on the destruction of slavery and the continuation of one nation?
What examples from both documents demonstrate both civil liberties and rights?
Support your statements with appropriate scholarly references.
Write your initial response in a minimum of 300 words. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
.
About half of the paid lobbyists in Washington are former government.docxmehek4
About half of the paid lobbyists in Washington are former government staff members or former members of Congress. Why would interest groups employ such people? Why might some reformers want to limit the ability of interest groups to employ them? On what basis might an interest group argue that such limits are unconstitutional?
.
ABC sells 400 shares of its $23 par common stock for $27. The entry .docxmehek4
ABC sells 400 shares of its $23 par common stock for $27. The entry would entail credit(s. to __________.
A. Cash for $9,200
B. Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par-Common for $800; Common Stock for $10,800
C. Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par-Common for $1,600; Common Stock for $9,200
D. Common Stock for $10,800
.
ABC company is increasing its equity by selling additional shares to.docxmehek4
ABC company is increasing its equity by selling additional shares to the public and also by converting its retained earnings. The total amount to be raised is $1,000. Given that the size of retained earnings is $300, how much should be raised externally (by issuing new shares)?
a) $700 b) $705 c) $1,000 d) $1,005 e) $300
.
A.The unification of previously fractious and divided Arab tribes.docxmehek4
A.
The unification of previously fractious and divided Arab tribes
B.
The capitulation of Jewish and Christian leaders
C.
Direct military assistance from the Sasanid state
D.
The exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire after Pyrrhic victories over the Ostrogoths and Vandals
.
A.Escribe la forma correcta del verbo en españolNosotros siem.docxmehek4
A. Escribe la forma correcta del verbo en español
Nosotros siempre_____________coca cola con la pizza. (drink)
Tú ________________________________ en Buenos Aires. (live)
Ellos ______________________________el pastel. (divide)
Yo _________________________la comida mexicana. (eat)
Paco ________________________el dinero en la caja. (hides)
Vosotros __________________________estudiar. (should)
Ramón y Carlos _______________________en el parque. (run)
La maestra __________________________ la puerta. (opens)
Yo _______________________el cuatro de Pedro. (describe)
Él _________________________el carro. (sells)
Tú ___________________un regalo para tu cumpleaños. (receive)
Los estudiantes______________________el libro. (read)
Vosotros ________________________a la clase de arte. (attend)
Ella ___________________________hacer la tarea. (promises)
Alejandra y yo ___________________a hablar español. (learn)
El hombre ____________________descubre el tesoro. (discovers)
Uds. ________________________las escaleras. (go up, climb)
Ud. ________________________el examen. (cover)
El niño _________________________la ventana. (breaks)
Las mujeres_________________________en Dios. (believe)
Escribe en español
We drink milk. _________________________________________
He breaks the window.____________________________________
They open the door.______________________________________
You (pl. Spain) promise to write.____________________________
I learn to speak Spanish.___________________________________
Contesta las preguntas
¿Dónde vives?____________________________________________
¿Lees muchos libros?______________________________________
¿Comes mucha comida mexicana?____________________________
¿Debes estudiar todos los días?_______________________________
¿Recibes buenas notas en todas tus clases?______________________
.
A.Both countries fought for independence from Great Britain, b.docxmehek4
A
.
Both countries fought for independence from Great Britain, but the United States won, and China did not.
B
.
Both countries were colonized, but the United States went on to become a major imperial power, and China did not.
C
.
Both countries established colonies in India, but the United States established commercial control, and China did not.
D
.
Both countries established colonies in the Caribbean, but the United States’ colonies rebelled, and China’s did not.
.
a.A patent purchased from J. Miller on January 1, 2010, for a ca.docxmehek4
a.
A patent purchased from J. Miller on January 1, 2010, for a cash cost of $5,640. When purchased, the patent had an estimated life of fifteen years.
b.
A trademark was registered with the federal government for $10,000. Management estimated that the trademark could be worth as much as $200,000 because it has an indefinite life.
c.
Computer licensing rights were purchased on January 1, 2010, for $60,000. The rights are expected to have a four-year useful life to the company.
Compute the acquisition cost of each intangible asset.
patent
trademark
licensing rights
.
A.) Imagine that astronomers have discovered intelligent life in a n.docxmehek4
A.) Imagine that astronomers have discovered intelligent life in a nearby star system. Imagine you are part of a group submitting a proposal for who on Earth should speak for the planet and what 50-word message should be conveyed. Be sure to answer all three questions below, if you choose this option.
(A) Who should speak for Earth and why?
(B) What should this person say in 50 words?
(C) Why is this message the most important compared to other things that could be said?
Instructions: should be at least 200 words.
B.) Observing Jupiter’s Moons
Big Idea: Sky objects have properties, locations, and predictable patterns of movements that can be observed and described.
Goal: Students will conduct a series of inquiries about the position and motion of Jupiter’s moons using prescribed Internet simulations.
Computer Setup:
Access http://space.jpl.nasa.gov/ and
a) Select THE MOON in the “Show me _______ “ drop down menu
b) Select THE SUN in the “as seen from _______ “ drop down menu
c) Select the radio button “I want a field of view of ____ degrees” and set the drop down menu to 0.5
d) Select the check box for EXTRA BRIGHTNESS and then Select “Run Simulator”
Phase I: Exploration
1) The resulting image shows what one would see looking through a special telescope. In this picture, where is the observer with the special telescope located?
2) How does the image change if you INCREASE the field of view?
3) What is the exact date of the image?
4) Astronomers typically mark images based on the time it currently is in Greenwich, England, called UTC. What is the precise time of the image?
5) Using a ruler to measure the distance on the screen between the middle of Earth and the middle of the Moon, what is the measured distance? You do NOT need to know the exact number of kilometers, but simply a ruler-measurement you can compare other measurements you make later. Alternately, you can use the edge of a blank piece of paper held in the landscape orientation and mark the positions of Earth and Moon or the Squidgit ruler found on the last page.
6) Use the browser’s BACK button to return to the Solar System Simulator homepage. Now, advance the time by 1 hour and determine the new distance between the Earth and Moon.
7) Use the browser’s BACK button to return to the Solar System Simulator homepage. Now, advance the time by one day from when you started and determine the new distance between the Earth and Moon.
8) Use the browser’s BACK button to return to the Solar System Simulator homepage. Now, advance the time by three days from when you started and determine the new distance between the Earth and Moon.
9) Use the browser’s BACK button to return to the Solar System Simulator homepage. Now, advance the time by five days from when you started and determine the new distance between the Earth and Moon.
10) Use the browser’s BACK button to return to the Solar System Simulator homepage. Now, advance the time by 10 days from when you s.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
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The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th CenturyStev.docx
1. The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century
Steven J. Haggbloom
Western Kentucky University
Renee Warnick, Jason E. Warnick,
Vinessa K. Jones, Gary L. Yarbrough,
Tenea M. Russell, Chris M. Borecky,
Reagan McGahhey, John L. Powell III,
Jamie Beavers, and Emmanuelle Monte
Arkansas State University
A rank-ordered list was constructed that reports the first 99 of
the 100 most eminent
psychologists of the 20th century. Eminence was measured by
scores on 3 quantitative
variables and 3 qualitative variables. The quantitative variables
were journal citation
frequency, introductory psychology textbook citation frequency,
and survey response
frequency. The qualitative variables were National Academy of
Sciences membership,
election as American Psychological Association (APA)
president or receipt of the APA
Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and surname
used as an eponym. The
qualitative variables were quantified and combined with the
other 3 quantitative
variables to produce a composite score that was then used to
construct a rank-ordered
2. list of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.
The discipline of psychology underwent a
remarkable transformation during the 20th cen-
tury, a transformation that included a shift away
from the European-influenced philosophical
psychology of the late 19th century to the
empirical, research-based, American-dominated
psychology of today (Simonton, 1992). On the
eve of the 21st century, the APA Monitor (“A
Century of Psychology,” 1999) published brief
biographical sketches of some of the more em-
inent contributors to that transformation. Mile-
stones such as a new year, a new decade, or, in
this case, a new century seem inevitably to
prompt such retrospective appraisals of the
most notable events or people of an era. With-
out question, the psychologists mentioned in the
APA Monitor retrospective qualify as eminent.
Nevertheless, they represent a very small subset
of the substantial number of 20th-century psy-
chologists who might be so regarded. More-
over, such retrospectives tend to omit highly
eminent, and still very productive, contempo-
rary psychologists.
The purpose of the present study was to pro-
duce a more inclusive, rank-ordered list of the
100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th
century. To produce any such list is a daunting
task fraught with a variety of difficulties, not the
least of which is to operationalize “eminence.”
Moreover, any procedure for creating such a list
will invite methodological criticism. Because
these difficulties will probably not be addressed
3. to everyone’s satisfaction, and because our list
is certain to have omitted the names of many
great psychologists for whom one could make a
compelling case for inclusion, we took a cue
from Eugene Garfield (1977) and report only 99
names. Hence, the reader’s best case for a psy-
Steven J. Haggbloom, Department of Psychology, West-
ern Kentucky University; Renee Warnick, Jason E. War-
nick, Vinessa K. Jones, Gary L. Yarbrough, Tenea M.
Russell, Chris M. Borecky, Reagan McGahhey, John L.
Powell III, Jamie Beavers, and Emmanuelle Monte, De-
partment of Psychology and Counseling, Arkansas State
University.
Renee Warnick is now at the Department of Neuro-
science, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario,
Canada; Gary L. Yarbrough is now at the Department of
Psychology, University of Louisville; Tenea M. Russell is
now at the Forrest School of Professional Psychology; Chris
M. Borecky is now at the Department of Psychology, Uni-
versity of Illinois—Chicago.
We thank the following individuals for their assistance
with this project: Amanda L. Bulger, Robyn P. Burch, Jane
C. Cullins, Kyla Emerson, Jason L. Houston, Lindsey K.
Scarborough, Casey C. Schultz, Mariah J. Seydel, and Mat-
thew N. Yount. We also appreciate the insightful comments
on a manuscript draft provided by David Saarnio, Lynn
Howerton, and Dan Perlman.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Steven J. Haggbloom, Department of Psychol-
ogy, 276 Tate Page Hall, Western Kentucky University, 1
Big Red Way, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101. E-mail:
[email protected]
4. Review of General Psychology Copyright 2002 by the
Educational Publishing Foundation
2002, Vol. 6, No. 2, 139 –152 1089-2680/02/$5.00 DOI:
10.1037//1089-2680.6.2.139
139
T
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8. e
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.
chologist who should have made the list just
might be that last, 100th name that we have not
reported.
We think the most eminent list reported here
will be inherently interesting to many psychol-
ogists. Beyond that, knowing who is eminent in
a discipline can serve a number of useful pur-
poses. James McKeen Cattell recognized nearly
a century ago that the understanding of both
science and creativity would be advanced by the
study of who is eminent in science and why
(e.g., Cattell, 1910). Exploring the contribution
of psychological variables to scientific behav-
ior, especially exemplary and eminent cases, is
9. now the province of the psychology of science,
an emerging companion discipline to the more
familiar and well-established disciplines that
study science, such as history of science and
philosophy of science (see Feist & Gorman,
1998, for a detailed overview of the psychology
of science). For example, Simonton (1992),
working from a list of 69 eminent American
psychologists, created a profile of the “typical”
eminent American psychologist. Simonton (2000)
investigated the contribution of 54 eminent psy-
chologists’ methodological and theoretical ori-
entations to the durability of their influence. It is
our hope that the most eminent list reported here
will be a useful starting point for similar studies
in the psychology of science. Our list also has
potential uses for research in the history of
psychology and in the psychology classroom.
Some of those applications are discussed at the
end of this article.
Our procedures, and the resulting most emi-
nent list, differed from those of other studies of
eminence in psychology in some important re-
spects. Foremost among these differences is the
fact that no other study has attempted to com-
pile a rank-ordered list of the most eminent
psychologists that spans the entire 20th century.
Another important difference is that most emi-
nence studies have employed a single measure
of eminence. Eminence, however, is a complex,
multidimensional concept not likely to be well
reflected in any one measure. Therefore, we
used a combination of three quantitative and
three qualitative variables.
10. The use of multiple criteria to measure emi-
nence should accomplish the equivalent of what
statistician–magician Persi Diaconis (1978)
called the “bundle of sticks” phenomenon in
magic. A magician may perform several varia-
tions on the same trick, each having, like a
single stick, a weak point. The entire perfor-
mance, however, like a bundle of sticks, is
much stronger than the individual tricks it com-
prises. To adapt an aphorism from psychology,
the whole is stronger than its parts. The use of
multiple criteria yields a better measure of em-
inence to the extent that the strength of the
“bundle” of measures compensates for the
weaknesses of its components.
The variables that have been used to measure
eminence in psychology include frequency of
citation in the professional journal literature
(e.g., Endler, Rushton, & Roediger, 1978; Gar-
field, 1978, 1992; Myers, 1970), frequency of
citation in introduction to psychology textbooks
(e.g., Gorenflo & McConnell, 1991; Kaess &
Bousfield, 1954; Knapp, 1985; Perlman, 1980;
Roeckelein, 1995), and surveys of professional
opinion (e.g., Annin, Boring, & Watson, 1968;
Coan & Zagona, 1962; Korn, Davis, & Davis,
1991). These measures yield quantitative or or-
dinal-level data that have been used to construct
rank-ordered lists.
Studies of eminence in psychology have also
employed qualitative measures such as whether
a psychologist’s surname has come to be used
as an eponym (i.e., a psychological term such as
11. Pavlovian conditioning or Skinner box) to rep-
resent, for example, a theory, procedure, test, or
apparatus (Roeckelein, 1972, 1996),1 and re-
ceipt of awards or other forms of honorary
recognition. The latter include election to mem-
bership in the National Academy of Sciences
(NAS), receipt of the American Psychological
Association (APA) Distinguished Scientific
Contributions Award, and election to the APA
presidency (e.g., Over, 1981; Simonton, 1992).
In the present study, we used all six of the
quantitative and qualitative variables just men-
tioned. Our operational definition of eminence
was a composite score on these variables. What
follows is a description of how each variable
was measured and how scores were combined
to yield a composite index that was then used to
construct a rank-ordered list of the 100 most
eminent psychologists of the 20th century. We
then describe some of the characteristics of our
1 One can also count frequency of eponym usage to
obtain quantitative data from this measure (Roeckelein,
1996).
140 HAGGBLOOM ET AL.
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list and how it relates to other measures of
eminence in psychology.
The terms psychologist and 20th century also
require definition. For present purposes, psy-
chologist was not defined according to aca-
demic degree (e.g., the PhD in psychology,
PsyD, or a comparable degree). Rather, it was
defined in terms of an individual’s contributions
to the discipline of psychology, as indicated by
his or her score on the various measures of
eminence we used. This approach permitted
consideration of individuals who, without ques-
tion (e.g., Freud and Pavlov), have made very
significant contributions to psychology but who
might be excluded from consideration if an ac-
ademic degree criterion were used. By 20th-
century psychologist, we simply meant that at
least one of the individual’s published contri-
butions to psychology occurred in the 20th
century.
Journal Citation Frequency
We constructed a list of the 100 psychologists
most frequently cited in the professional psy-
chological journal literature, the journal citation
list (JCL). The JCL was constructed by adding
citation frequencies across four previously pub-
lished lists. The lists we used (along with time
17. periods covered and number of names reported)
were published by Myers (1970; 1962 to
1967, 62 names), Endler et al. (1978; 1975, 100
names), Garfield (1978; 1969 to 1977, 100
names), and Garfield (1992; 1986 to 1990, 50
names). The JCL sampled four (mostly) non-
overlapping time periods and combined lists
produced by different methodologies. The meth-
odologies included manual searches (Endler et
al., 1978; Myers, 1970), computerized database
searches (Garfield, 1978, 1992), searches of se-
lected journals deemed “prestigious” (Myers,
1970), searches of all Social Science Citation
Index (SSCI)–indexed psychology journals
(Endler et al., 1978; Garfield, 1978), and a
search of SSCI-indexed psychology journals
that included only those authors who had pub-
lished at least 10 articles in SSCI-indexed jour-
nals during the period covered by the search
(Garfield, 1992). The Garfield (1992) list gives
considerable weight to currently active, contem-
porary psychologists, whereas the other three
lists give more weight to historically older psy-
chologists without necessarily excluding more
contemporary psychologists.
It is our view that the JCL represents a rea-
sonable approach to achieving a degree of bal-
ance between an emphasis on historically estab-
lished authorities and contemporarily active
psychologists. Moreover, the JCL sampled four
somewhat disparate time periods and thus pre-
sents a more comprehensive picture of journal
citation frequencies than the individual lists it
comprises. Table 1 presents the first 25 names
18. on the JCL.2 In this and all of the other tables,
we attempted to identify psychologists the way
they identified themselves in the professional
literature.
Introductory Psychology Textbook
Citation Frequency
We constructed a list of the 102 psychologists
most frequently cited in introductory psychol-
ogy textbooks, the textbook citation list (TCL).
(The list contained 102 rather than 100 names as
a result of tied ranks at the end of the list.) The
TCL was constructed by adding citation fre-
quencies together for two previously published
lists and a list that we created. The published
lists that we used were those of Perlman (1980)
and Gorenflo and McConnell (1991). Perlman
(1980) listed the 50 psychologists most fre-
quently cited in 10 textbooks with copyright
dates of 1975 to 1978. Gorenflo and McConnell
(1991) listed the 64 psychologists most fre-
quently cited in a sample of 24 textbooks with
copyright dates from 1985 to 1989. We con-
structed a list of the 100 psychologists most
frequently cited in five textbooks with copyright
dates of 1998 to 2000.3 Our procedure was
essentially that used by Perlman, except that we
did not adjust for self-citations and bibliography
pages. Working from the author indexes, we
determined the number of textbook pages on
which each psychologist was cited. Individuals
not cited in at least four of the five textbooks
were not considered. For the remaining eligi-
2 The JCL can be seen in its entirety (both rank-ordered
19. and alphabetical versions) at http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/
�shaggblo/jcl.htm.
3 A list of the five textbooks used is available from Steven
J. Haggbloom and on the World Wide Web at http://
edtech.tph.wku.edu/�shaggblo/tcl.htm.
141THE 100 MOST EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS
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ble names, citation frequencies were summed
across the textbooks in which they were cited.
The TCL was constructed by summing cita-
tion frequencies across our newly created list
and the lists published by Perlman (1980) and
Gorenflo and McConnell (1991). As was the
case with the JCL, the TCL sampled different
time periods and methodologies and represents
a more comprehensive list than the lists it com-
prises. Table 2 presents the first 25 names on the
TCL.4
24. Survey
We surveyed, by e-mail, approximately 1,725
members of the American Psychological Soci-
ety (APS). Working from the APS membership
directory, each of 20 individuals who assisted
on this research project sent the survey to ap-
proximately 80 APS members. The appropriate
pages of the directory were divided into 20
equal segments. The survey was then sent to
every 10th name, or the next available name, for
which an e-mail address was listed. In cases in
which a return message indicated that the e-mail
was not successfully delivered, additional
names were sampled.
Respondents were asked three questions: (a)
“What is your specialization in psychology
(e.g., developmental, social, cognitive, learn-
ing)?” (b) “In your opinion, who are the three
greatest psychologists of the 20th century in
your specialization?” and (c) “In your opinion,
who are the greatest psychologists of the 20th
century in the overall field of psychology? (List
as many names as you like in order of im-
portance).” Respondents were informed that
4 The TCL can be seen in its entirety (both rank-ordered
and alphabetical versions) at http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/
�shaggblo/tcl.htm.
Table 1
The 25 Psychologists Most Frequently Cited in the
Professional Psychological Journal Literature
25. Rank Name Citation frequency
1 Freud, Sigmund 13,890
2 Piaget, Jean 8,821
3 Eysenck, H. J. 6,212
4 Winer, B. J. 6,206
5 Bandura, Albert 5,831
6 Siegel, S. 4,861
7 Cattell, Raymond B. 4,828
8 Skinner, B. F. 4,339
9 Osgood, Charles E. 4,061
10 Guilford, J. P. 4,006
11 Campbell, Donald T. 3,969
12 Festinger, Leon 3,536
13 Miller, George A. 3,394
14 Bruner, Jerome S. 3,279
15 Cronbach, Lee J. 3,253
16 Erikson, Erik H. 3,060
17 Edwards, A. L. 3,007
18 Rotter, Julian B. 3,001
19 Byrne, Donn 2,904
20 Kagan, Jerome 2,901
21 Wolpe, Joseph 2,879
22 Rosenthal, Robert 2,739
23 Underwood, Benton J. 2,686
24 Paivio, Allan 2,678
25 Rokeach, Milton 2,676
Note. The entire list of the 100 psychologists most fre-
quently cited in the professional journal literature can be
accessed on the World Wide Web at http://edtech.tph.wku.
edu/�shaggblo/jcl.htm.
Table 2
The 25 Psychologists Most Frequently Cited in
26. Introductory Psychology Textbooks
Rank Name Citation frequency
1 Freud, Sigmund 560
2 Skinner, B. F. 310
3 Bandura, Albert 303
4 Piaget, Jean 240
5 Rogers, Carl 202
6 Schachter, Stanley 200
7 Harlow, Harry F. 175
8 Brown, Roger 162
9 Miller, Neal E. 154
10 McClelland, D. C. 153
11 Erikson, Erik H. 151
12 Milgram, Stanley 146
13 Seligman, Martin E. P. 143
14 Maslow, Abraham 142
15 Bower, Gordon H. 138
16 Kohlberg, Lawrence 128
17 Watson, John B. 127
18 Allport, Gordon W. 124
19 Festinger, Leon 121
20 Loftus, Elizabeth F. 120
21 Zajonc, R. B. 118
22 Pavlov, Ivan P. 117
23 Kagan, Jerome 116
24.5 Sternberg, Robert J. 114
24.5 Mischel, Walter 114
Note. The entire list of 100 psychologists most frequently
cited in introductory psychology textbooks can be accessed
on the World Wide Web at http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/
�shaggblo/tcl.htm.
27. 142 HAGGBLOOM ET AL.
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“greatest” was intentionally unexplicated to al-
low for their individual interpretation.
The survey response rate was a disappointing
and inexplicably low 5.6%. Using only the re-
sponses to the third question, we constructed a
rank-ordered list of the 117 psychologists most
frequently mentioned, the survey list (SL). (The
list contained 117 rather than 100 names as a
result of tied ranks at the end of the list.) The
ordinal information contained in those re-
sponses was not used because not all respon-
dents presented an ordered list, and we doubted
the validity of the ordinal information for espe-
cially long lists.
Given the low response rate, is the SL a valid
measure of eminence? We saw no reason to
discount the survey results despite the low re-
sponse rate. In the first place, the SL has con-
32. siderable face validity; we think most of the
names on the SL will be quite familiar to most
psychologists, and many of those named will
probably be recognized as eminent. More im-
portant, 43 (37%) of the names on the SL are
also on the JCL, and 47 (40%) of the names on
the SL are also on the TCL. The commonality
of names between the SL and the two citation
frequency lists is essentially the same as the 40
(40%) names shared by the JCL and TCL.
Moreover, there was a tendency for the
names on the SL that were also on the JCL and
TCL to be in the same rank order. The 43 names
common to the SL and JCL were assigned ranks
of 1 to 43 based on their ordinal position within
their respective lists. The 47 names common to
the SL and TCL were similarly assigned ranks
from 1 to 47. Spearman rank-order correlation
coefficients revealed significant ( p � .05) pos-
itive correlations between both sets of ranks,
rs(41) � .34 and rs(45) � .47, for names on the
SL that were also on the JCL and TCL, respec-
tively. These correlations were comparable to
the rank-order correlation for the 40 names
common to the JCL and TCL, rs(38) � .40, p �
.05. Thus, the SL not only identified many of
the same psychologists identified by the JCL
and TCL but tended to identify them in the same
order as well. We also think it is noteworthy
that 20 of the psychologists who made the most
eminent list reported here would have been ex-
cluded from consideration under our procedures
had we not used the survey data. As shown
subsequently, 18 of those 20 had scores on
33. either two or all three of the qualitative
variables.
We do not expect the foregoing analyses to
obviate all concerns about the validity of the
SL. We would emphasize, however, that the SL
is not presented as a stand-alone measure of
eminence; rather, it is one of six measures con-
tributing to a composite index. Legitimate con-
cerns about validity could just as well be raised
about the other measures we used, but, as shown
subsequently, the resulting composite index is
quite robust. Table 3 presents the first 26 names
on the SL.5
Comparisons Among the JCL,
TCL, and SL
A master list of 219 psychologists comprised
all of the different names on the JCL, TCL, and
SL. Of these names, only 28 (13%) were com-
mon to all three lists. The numbers of names
unique to each list were as follows: JCL, 47
(47% of 100); TCL, 44 (43% of 102); and
SL, 56 (48% of 117). Thus, these three variables
each made substantial, but comparable, contri-
butions to the measurement of eminence. We
found some selected comparisons among the
three lists to be both interesting and instructive
about the differences among the three measures.
Consider the cases of Pavlov, Watson, and
Milgram. All three appear in the top one third of
the TCL (with ranks of 22, 17, and 12, respec-
tively), and all three also appear on the SL (with
ranks of 6.5, 4, and 67, respectively), but none
34. of them appear on the JCL. Thus, textbook
citation frequency and survey measures of em-
inence clearly place Pavlov, Watson, and Mil-
gram among the most eminent of 20th-century
psychologists, but they are not among the top
100 psychologists in journal citation frequency
and so, by that measure, are not among the most
eminent.
Pavlov and Watson appear on the TCL but
fail to appear on the JCL for essentially the
same reason. Both men made contributions to
psychology that are of unarguably great histor-
ical significance. The study of learning inaugu-
rated by Pavlov, and for which his name is used
5 The SL can be seen in its entirety (both rank-ordered
and alphabetical versions) at http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/
�shaggblo/sl.htm.
143THE 100 MOST EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS
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39. as an eponym, remains a very dynamic and
important part of empirical and theoretical re-
search in contemporary psychology. However,
the terminology and general methodology of
Pavlovian conditioning are so integral to the
nomenclature of the discipline that contempo-
rary researchers would often have little cause to
cite Pavlov in a journal article. Essentially the
same can be said of Watson. One can hardly
overstate the magnitude of the historical signif-
icance and continuing pervasive influence of
Watson’s classic 1913 paper expounding the
behaviorist viewpoint. On the other hand, ex-
cept for historical, philosophical, or method-
ological articles about behaviorism, most psy-
chologists would probably have little occasion
to cite Watson in a journal article. Because of
their historical significance and continuing in-
fluence, however, authors of introductory psy-
chology textbooks can hardly not cite Pavlov
and Watson. Milgram, although not among the
100 most cited in the journal literature, is prob-
ably so extensively cited in introductory psy-
chology textbooks primarily because his work
on obedience to authority makes such good
copy (i.e., students find it highly interesting)
and because it had such important implications
for protection of human research participants. In
these and similar cases, the JCL and TCL are
disparate measures of eminence, but used in
conjunction they provide a more balanced
picture.
There are also psychologists identified as
highly eminent by the JCL but not by the TCL.
40. In some cases, the high frequency of journal
citations is due to authors referencing statistical
procedures, instrumentation, or methodology.
Thus, for example, Winer, Siegel (both statisti-
cians), and Rotter (locus of control instrument)
have ranks of 4, 6, and 18, respectively, on the
JCL but, not surprisingly, do not appear on the
TCL or SL. On the other hand, consider Herb
Simon. Simon’s contributions to psychology are
held in such high regard that he is among the
most frequently cited in the professional journal
literature (a rank of 32.5 on the JCL), and he
was also judged to be among the most eminent
psychologists by respondents to our survey (a
rank of 24 on the SL), yet he is not cited
frequently enough in introduction to psychol-
ogy textbooks to have made the TCL and is thus
not eminent by that measure.
Why would a Nobel Prize–winning psychol-
ogist not be extensively cited in introduction to
psychology textbooks when his work is among
the most highly regarded and cited in the pro-
fessional literature? Should not introductory
psychology textbooks, for many people the
principal and only exposition of psychology,
present the most highly regarded work the dis-
cipline has to offer? That this is largely the case
has been an explicit assumption of previous
analyses of who is cited in introductory psy-
chology textbooks (e.g., Kaess & Bousfield,
1954; Knapp, 1985; Perlman, 1980). However,
as noted by Perlman (1980), introductory psy-
chology textbooks likely often eschew presen-
tation of highly technical and complicated re-
search. Simon’s research on human decision
41. making very likely falls into that too-technical
category.
One might suspect that a survey would tend
to identify as eminent the same psychologists
whose work is most often cited in journals
Table 3
The 26 Psychologists Most Frequently Named
in the Survey
Rank Name Frequency
1 Skinner, B. F. 58
2 Piaget, Jean 33
3 Freud, Sigmund 28
4 Watson, John B. 24
5 Bandura, Albert 23
6.5 James, William 21
6.5 Pavlov, Ivan P. 21
8 Lewin, Kurt 17
9.5 Rogers, Carl 14
9.5 Thorndike, Edward 14
11.5 Festinger, Leon 13
11.5 Hebb, D. O. 13
14.5 Allport, Gordon 11
14.5 Hull, Clark 11
14.5 Miller, Neal E. 11
14.5 Tolman, Edward C. 11
17 Erikson, Erik H. 10
19 Köhler, Wolfgang 9
19 Maslow, Abraham 9
19 Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich 9
21 Ainsworth, Mary D. 8
24 Eysenck, H. J. 7
42. 24 Luria, Alexander R. 7
24 Schachter, Stanley 7
24 Simon, Herbert 7
24 Sperry, Roger W. 7
Note. The entire list of 100 psychologists most frequently
named in the survey can be accessed on the World Wide
Web at http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/�shaggblo/sl.htm.
144 HAGGBLOOM ET AL.
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and introduction to psychology textbooks and
whose names are therefore relatively familiar.
Although this may indeed be true to some ex-
tent, it is perhaps noteworthy that the SL also
uniquely identified many individuals as emi-
nent; 48% of the names on the SL are unique to
that list. As examples, Tolman, Vygotsky, and
Köhler had ranks on the SL of 14.5, 19, and 19,
respectively, but none of them appeared on ei-
ther the JCL or the TCL. Thus, these three
psychologists are among the most eminent as
47. measured by our survey, but not as measured by
journal citations or introductory textbook cita-
tions. Their presence in the top 20% of the SL
strongly indicates they merit some consider-
ation for the most eminent list, consideration
that, as stated earlier, would not be forthcoming
without use of the survey measure.
The foregoing, albeit selected, comparisons
among the JCL, TCL, and SL illustrate some of
the limitations inherent in any single-criterion
measure of eminence. Also, they strengthen the
rationale for our multiple-criterion approach.
Qualitative Measures of Eminence
The JCL, TCL, and SL, as described earlier,
are quantitative measures. We also used three
qualitative measures of eminence that were ap-
plied to the 219 different names that appear on
the JCL, TCL, and SL. The qualitative variables
we used were whether or not a given psychol-
ogist (a) was elected to the NAS; (b) was a
recipient of the APA Distinguished Scientific
Contributions Award or elected APA president
(as of 1999), or both; and (c) has his or her
surname in use as an eponym. We refer to these
qualitative variables as, respectively, NAS,
APA, and EP. We combined APA award and
APA presidency into a single APA variable on
the assumption that, in many cases, the very
scientific contributions that led to receipt of the
award were also instrumental in an individual’s
election as APA president. (In fact, roughly one
quarter [24%] of the psychologists in this study
who received credit on the APA variable served
48. as APA president and received the Outstanding
Scientific Contributions Award.) Our source for
eponyms was an unpublished list referenced by
Roeckelein (1995) that included eponyms iden-
tified by Zusne (1987).
Calculation of Composite Scores
Because frequency scores on the JCL, TCL,
and SL were positively skewed, they were
transformed to logarithms. For each list, the
log-transformed scores were then converted to z
scores. The three qualitative variables were con-
verted to a single quantitative variable by as-
signing each of the 219 names on the master list
a score of 0, 1, 2, or 3 corresponding to the
number of qualitative variables for which an
individual received credit. These scores were
converted to z scores without being subjected to
a logarithmic transformation. For each name,
we then calculated a composite score represent-
ing the mean z score across all four variables
(JCL, TCL, SL, and the quantified qualitative
variables).
For names that do not have a score on one or
more of the four variables, calculating a com-
posite score as the mean z score across all four
variables is problematic. These names must be
assigned some score in place of the missing
value(s); otherwise, the composite score will be
inflated rather than reflecting the adverse con-
sequences of not being on a list. The solution
that we used for names not on the JCL or TCL
represents a sort of compromise. In the first
place, we think it is highly unlikely that for
49. names on the master list that do not appear on
the JCL or TCL, the actual number of citations
is zero. Because the actual number of citations
is somewhere between zero and one less than
the smallest frequency required to make the list,
we replaced missing values with the z score of
the logarithm of the frequency score midway
between those two values. The situation is more
straightforward for names that were not on the
SL or did not receive credit for any of the
qualitative variables. In these cases, the real
frequency was zero. For names not on the SL,
we replaced missing values with the z score for
a logarithmic score of zero, and for names with
no qualitative variable credit, we used the z
score for a frequency score of zero.
The results of these calculations are presented
in Table 4 as a rank-ordered list of the 100 (99
actually presented) most eminent psychologists
of the 20th century. For each name, Table 4 also
shows the rank on each quantitative variable
and the qualitative variables for which credit
was given by indicating the relevant date and
eponym. In cases of multiple eponyms associ-
145THE 100 MOST EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS
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ated with the same name, only one is presented.
Dashes or empty cells indicate that no credit
was given for the corresponding variable.6
The logarithmic transformations applied to
frequency scores and the quantification of the
qualitative variables were procedures not used
in the originally submitted manuscript. These
procedures were recommended by a reviewer
and the editor. In the original manuscript, fre-
6 Table 4, including an alphabetical version, is available
on the World Wide Web at http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/
�shaggblo/Table4.htm.
Table 4 (continued)
Rank Name
JCL
rank
TCL
rank
62. SL
rank NAS
APA award/
president Eponym
56 Posner, Michael I. 61 — 97 1981 1980/—
57 Newcomb, Theodore M. 76 81.5 — 1974 1976/1956
Newcomb’s attraction studies
58 Loftus, Elizabeth F. — 20 51 — —/—
59 Ekman, Paul — 26 97 — 1991/—
60 Sternberg, Robert J. — 24.5 51 — —/—
61 Lashley, Karl S. — — 39.5 1930 —/1929 Lashley’s jumping
stand
62 Spence, Kenneth 66 — 51 1955 1956/—
63 Deutsch, Morton 38 — — — 1987/— Deutsch illusion
64 Rotter, Julian B. 18 — — — 1988/— Rotter locus of control
scale
65 Lorenz, Konrad — 39 97 1966 —/—
66 Underwood, Benton J. 23 — — 1970 1973/—
67 Adler, Alfred — 55 67 — —/— Adlerian
68 Rutter, Michael 44 — 97 — 1995/—
69 Luria, Alexander R. — — 24 1968 —/— Luria–Nebraska
Neuropsychological Battery
70 Maccoby, Eleanor E. 68 — 67 1993 1988/—
71 Plomin, Robert 86 70.5 51 — —/—
72.5 Hall, G. Stanley — — 67 1915 —/1924 Hall’s theory of
interpersonal zones
72.5 Terman, Lewis M. — — 67 1928 —/1923 Terman–
McNemar Test of Mental Ability
74.5 Gibson, Eleanor J. — — 31 1971 1968/—
74.5 Meehl, Paul E. — — 31 1987 1958/1962
76 Berkowitz, Leonard 42 75 — — —/—
77 Estes, William K. 64 — 97 1963 1962/—
78 Aronson, Eliot — 32 — — 1999/—
79 Janis, Irving L. — 33 — — 1981/—
63. 80 Lazarus, Richard S. — 34 — — 1989/—
81 Cannon, W. Gary — 68 — 1914 —/— Cannon–Bard theory
of emotion
82 Edwards, A. L. 17 — — — —/— Edwards’s personal
preference schedule
83 Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich — — 19 — —/— Vygotsky test
84 Rosenthal, Robert 22 — — — —/— Rosenthal effect
85 Rokeach, Milton 25 — — — —/— Rokeach value survey
88.5 Garcia, John — — 97 1983 1979/— Garcia effect
88.5 Gibson, James J. — — 97 1967 1961/— Gibson theory of
space perception
88.5 Rumelhart, David — — 97 1991 1996/— Rumelhart–
Lindsay–Norman process model
88.5 Thurston, L. L. — — 97 1938 —/1933 Thurston Attitude
Scale
88.5 Washburn, Margarete — — 97 1931 —/1921 Cannon–
Washburn experiment
88.5 Woodworth, Robert — — 97 1921 —/1914 Woodworth
personal data sheet
93.5 Boring, Edwin G. — — 51 1932 —/1928
93.5 Dewey, John — — 51 1910 —/1899
93.5 Tversky, Amos — — 51 1985 1982/—
93.5 Wundt, Wilhelm — — 51 1909 —/— Wundt’s emotional
laws
96 Witkin, Herman A. 31 — — — —/— Witkin field
independence
97 Ainsworth, Mary D. — — 21 — 1989/—
98 Mowrer, O. Hobart 77 — 51 — —/1954
99 Freud, Anna 45 — 97 — —/—
Note. JCL � journal citation list; TCL � textbook citation list;
SL � survey list; NAS � National Academy of Sciences;
APA � American Psychological Association.
147THE 100 MOST EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS
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quency scores (rather than logarithms) on the
JCL, TCL, and SL were converted to z scores
that were then averaged across the three lists to
produce a rank-ordered list of 219 names. The
qualitative variables were then used to “adjust”
the position of names upward or downward on
the list. We think it reflects favorably on the
present use of six separate measures of emi-
nence that the logarithmic transformation and
quantification of the qualitative variables, a sub-
stantial change in the treatment of the data, had
almost no effect on who made the final list.
Only 10 names from the original list were re-
placed by new names, and 9 of those changes
occurred in positions 76 to 100. Of the original
top 25, only 5 were replaced by new names, but
those names all came from relatively high po-
sitions (26 to 44) in the original list, and only 2
of the top 10 changed. For the entire list, the
mean change in ordinal position due to the
revised analysis was 2.05 positions (SD �
16.79). This is a testament to the robust nature
69. of the combined measures.7
Predictors of Eminence
For the 219 different psychologists on the
master list (which comprised the JCL, TCL, and
SL), the best predictors of eminence were the
qualitative variables. Of the 100 most eminent
psychologists, 28 received credit for all three
qualitative variables, and 59 received credit for
at least two qualitative variables. Only 8 made
the final list without credit for a qualitative
variable (Jensen, Wolpe, E. Loftus, Sternberg,
Plomin, Berkowitz, A. Freud, and No. 100). In
general, these individuals all had relatively high
scores on two of the three quantitative variables.
The NAS and APA variables were equally pre-
dictive, followed closely by the EP variable.
The master list contained 67 NAS members. Of
those, 53 made the most eminent list. Thus,
given that an individual on the master list was a
member of NAS, the probability of that individ-
ual being on the most eminent list was .79. That
NAS membership should be such a strong pre-
dictor of eminence is not surprising. Over
(1981) reported data suggesting that less than
one tenth of 1% of all American psychologists
are likely to be honored by election to NAS.
Having been APA president or a recipient of
the APA Distinguished Scientific Contributions
Award was an equally good predictor of emi-
nence. A total of 89 psychologists on the master
list received credit for the APA variable. Of
those, 70 made the most eminent list, a proba-
70. bility of .79. Simonton (1992), in presenting a
profile of the typical eminent American psy-
chologist, noted that he or she would have al-
most a .50 probability of being honored by
election to the APA presidency. Although
only 32 of the 100 psychologists on our most
eminent list were elected APA president, Sim-
onton (1992) studied eminent psychologists
who were deceased by 1967. The present most
eminent list included many contemporary psy-
chologists who, because of the growth in num-
ber of psychologists and outstanding presiden-
tial candidates and the decreasing trend of elect-
ing academic psychologists, very likely had
much less of a chance of being elected APA
president (Simonton, 1992).
We found eponyms associated with 77 of the
219 names on the master list. Of those 77, 52
made the most eminent list, representing a pre-
dictive probability of .74. The eponym variable
is somewhat problematic because there seems
intuitively to be quite a difference between ep-
onyms such as “Skinnerian,” “Freudian,” or
“Pavlovian,” on the one hand, and eponyms
such as “Festinger’s cognitive dissonance the-
ory” or “Newcomb’s attraction studies,” on the
other hand. Then, too, there are eponyms that
seem to be somewhere in between those ex-
tremes, for example, “Maslow’s hierarchy” and
“James–Lange theory of emotion.” As one re-
viewer asked, “Why don’t we say ‘Miller’s
magical number seven’ or ‘Sperry’s split-brain
studies’?”
Actually, we suspect we do use these expres-
71. sions in print. However, our source for eponyms
was a list referenced by Roeckelein (1995) that
included eponyms reported by Zusne (1987).
Roeckelein constructed his list of eponyms
from the entries in 7 different dictionaries of
psychology, entries in the subject index from 30
specialty area textbooks published from 1953 to
1994, and Zusne’s book. That is a reasonably
wide net, and the eponyms listed in Table 4 are
evidently in sufficiently widespread use to have
been caught by it. Of the 52 eponyms listed in
7 A description of the original data analysis and resulting
most eminent list is available on the World Wide Web at
http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/�shaggblo/greatestold.htm.
148 HAGGBLOOM ET AL.
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76. in Table 4 were evidently below the threshold of
detection of the Roeckelein (1995) study. This
is simply on a par with the fact that 37 names on
the most eminent list were not on the JCL. As
noted earlier, it is unlikely they have citation
frequencies of zero; they were simply below the
threshold of detection for the JCL.
Among the quantitative variables, the best
predictors of eminence were journal citations
and the survey. The JCL contributed 63 names
to the most eminent list ( p � .63), and the SL
contributed 76 (of a total of 117; p � .65).
Introductory textbook citations turned out to be
the weakest predictor of eminence. The TCL
contributed only 55 (of 102) names to the most
eminent list ( p � .54). We remain undecided as
to whether this informs us about the value of
textbook citation frequency as a measure of
eminence or informs us about the quality of
introductory psychology textbooks.
Bias
It was suggested to us that the measures of
eminence used in this study might have favored
American psychologists. Some measures might
also have favored those whose significant con-
tributions occurred more toward the latter part
of the 20th century. Consider first the possibility
of temporal bias. We suggest that the qualitative
variables NAS, APA, and EP are largely free of
temporal bias. The NAS and APA variables
span the century. The NAS was established in
1863, and the first psychologist elected to NAS
membership was James McKeen Cattell in 1901
77. (Over, 1981). The APA Distinguished Scientific
Contributions Award dates only to 1956 and
might somewhat favor psychologists who were
most productive in the latter part of the 20th
century, but the APA presidency dates to 1892.
Moreover, some of the earliest recipients of the
APA award made significant contributions to
psychology relatively early in the century (e.g.,
Köhler, K. Spence, and Tolman). Finally, al-
though it might sometimes take time for an
eponym to become established and used, and
over time some eponyms will fall into disuse,
the EP variable is not time dependent in any
systematic way. For the most part, it seems
likely that the qualitative variables would work
to partially mitigate any temporal bias that
might arise from the quantitative variables.
The JCL, TCL, and SL were based on data
collected mostly in the latter part of the century.
Prima facie, we think the JCL, despite the fact
that Freud ranked first on that list, would tend to
favor more contemporary psychologists be-
cause journal articles usually cite relatively con-
temporaneous works.8 On the other hand,
whereas introductory psychology textbooks do
cite contemporarily important psychologists,
they give considerable emphasis to historically
older, well-established authorities. Gorenflo and
McConnell (1991) reported that it takes about
20 years for an article to acquire the status of
a “classic” work and become consistently cited
in introductory psychology textbooks. Thus,
whereas the JCL might involve a recency bias,
the TCL might involve an offsetting historically
78. older bias even though it was based on rela-
tively recent textbooks. Finally, because survey
respondents were free to name psychologists
from any part of the century, we would not
expect the SL to have a systematic temporal
bias.
One might attempt an empirical evaluation of
the JCL, TCL, and SL to determine whether any
one of them contains a disproportionate number
of names from the early, middle, or late part of
the century. However, it is not clear what the
correct proportions should be. There were rela-
tively few “psychologists” at the beginning of
the century; today there are more than 159,000
who are members of APA and a very sizable
number more who are not members of APA. In
our view, approximately 25% of the most emi-
nent psychologists listed in Table 4 might rea-
sonably be said to have made their significant
research contributions during the first half of the
century. Given the growth in the number of
psychologists during the century, that figure
does not strike us as obviously disproportionate.
8 We were not aware of any empirical data to support this
assertion, so we examined the reference list of one quasi-
randomly selected article from each of eight different psy-
chology journals published between 1969 and 1994. The
age of a reference was calculated by subtracting the publi-
cation year of the reference from the publication year of
the article in which it was cited. The mean age of the
141 references listed in these articles was 8.38 years
(SD � 9.19). The modal age was 4 years.
149THE 100 MOST EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS
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Much more problematic is the extent to
which the most eminent list has an American
and English-language bias. This is difficult to
evaluate because contemporary psychology is
so dominated by Americans (Simonton, 1992).
Nevertheless, our sources were all essentially
American sources. Although the NAS variable
included foreign associates (e.g., Broadbent,
Milner, and Piaget), and non-American psy-
chologists have received the APA Distin-
guished Scientific Contributions Award, it
seems likely that such recognition would be
disproportionately conferred upon American
psychologists. Moreover, we used American
journals and textbooks, and we essentially sur-
veyed American psychologists. Although all of
these sources contributed non-American names,
and non-American names do appear in the most
eminent list, the variables we used are never-
theless likely to have favored American psy-
chologists. Only the eponym variable seems
84. somewhat neutral with respect to nationality,
but even there our sources were American prod-
ucts. Thus, the most eminent list reported here is
probably somewhat biased in favor of American
psychologists.
Comparisons With Other Studies and
Measures of Eminence
The most eminent list reported here, for the
most part, included the names of psychologists
other studies and measures have identified as
among the most eminent. Annin et al. (1968),
for example, assembled a list of names of
some 1,040 people they judged to be important
to the history of psychology from 1600 to 1967.
Excluded from the list were any psychologists
still living in 1967. Nine psychologists then
rated each name on a scale of 1 to 3. A score
of 1 indicated that the juror recognized the name
but could not specify the person’s contribution
to psychology. A score of 2 meant that the juror
was at least somewhat familiar with the per-
son’s contribution. A score of 3 was given if, in
the juror’s opinion, the person was “of such
distinction that his name should surely be in-
cluded in a list of the 500 most important psy-
chologists since 1600 and not living” (Annin et
al., 1968, p. 304). A total score for each name
was calculated by summing scores across ju-
rors. The total scores were used to construct a
list of 538 important contributors to psychology
arranged into rank-ordered categories. Names in
the highest category all received a total score
of 27 (i.e., 3 points from each of the nine
85. jurors). Names in the next category received 26
points, and so on.
Of the names on the Annin et al. (1968)
list, 21 appear on the most eminent list reported
here, and 17 of those 21 were in the top cate-
gory of the Annin et al. list, a category with a
total of 53 names. If one removes from the top
category of the Annin et al. list the names of
individuals not generally considered to be psy-
chologists (e.g., Charles Darwin, René Des-
cartes, and David Hume) and the names of
psychologists whose contributions were not
made in the 20th century (e.g., Gustav Fechner
and Johann Herbart), roughly one half of the
remaining names appear on the most eminent
list reported here.
Coan and Zagona (1962) asked experts
(mostly teachers of history of psychology) to
rate 142 candidate psychologists according to
“importance of contributions to psychological
theory” (p. 316). They reported a list of the 75
most highly rated. They also reported a list
of 54 that comprised the top 50 overall and the
top 10 in each of nine decades from 1880 –1889
to 1950 –1959. After removal of non-20th-cen-
tury psychologists, our list captured 47% of
their top 75 and 58% of the list of 54.
We think this degree of agreement between
our 100 most eminent list (Table 4) and (a) the
top category of 53 names in the Annin et al.
(1968) list and (b) the two lists reported by
Coan and Zagona (1962) is actually quite good.
All three lists were based on a single measure of
86. eminence, expert ratings, and were compiled in
the 1960s. The proportion of 20th-century psy-
chologists in each of these three lists appearing
in Table 4 is about the same as the proportion of
names in Table 4 contributed by any one of the
variables used here. Moreover, there has been a
third of a century of psychology since those lists
were compiled.
Korn et al. (1991) surveyed historians of psy-
chology and psychology department chairs, ask-
ing both groups to list the most important psy-
chologists of all time and the most important
contemporary psychologists. They reported four
short (9 to 11 names) rank-ordered lists of the
most important psychologists: historian all time,
historian contemporary, department chair all
time, and department chair contemporary. Only
150 HAGGBLOOM ET AL.
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91. al. lists are not on the most eminent list reported
in Table 4 here. The least agreement was with
the historian all time list, which included Binet
and Ebbinghaus, neither of whom appear
among the names in Table 4 (both, however, did
appear in the SL). All of the 20th-century psy-
chologists’ names on the historian contempo-
rary and department chair all time lists appear in
Table 4, and only one name (Rescorla) on the
department chair contemporary list is not in-
cluded in Table 4. Thus, we identified as among
the most eminent virtually all of the psycholo-
gists identified by Korn et al.
Moore and Seberhagen (cited in Myers,
1970) asked department chairs to name, in rank
order, the 10 most influential contemporary psy-
chologists and the 10 most influential from any
time period. Myers (1970) presented the result-
ing two lists of the top 10 names. All but one
20th-century psychologist (Binet) on those lists
appeared in our most eminent list. To the best of
our knowledge, nine psychologists have been
awarded the National Medal of Science: Anne
Anastasi, William Estes, Eleanor Gibson,
George Miller, Neal Miller, Herbert Simon,
Roger Shepard, B. F. Skinner, and Roger
Sperry. All except Anastasi (who made the SL)
appear in Table 4 here.
The preceding comparisons with other stud-
ies and measures of eminence are not intended
to be exhaustive. Rather, they show that our
approach to measuring eminence in psychol-
ogy resulted in a most eminent list that very
likely includes the vast majority of psychol-
92. ogists who should be on such a list. Bear in
mind that, in relation to the very large number
of 20th-century psychologists, our most emi-
nent list is a very short list and necessarily
omits many truly eminent psychologists. We
would argue, for example, that psychologists
who meet our NAS or APA criteria but do not
appear in our most eminent list are neverthe-
less very eminent psychologists, but they may
not be among the 100 most eminent (or, of
course, a psychologist may be No. 100 and
not reported here). Does our most eminent list
include some false positives? We think it very
likely does, but because a specific case is far
from obvious, we are reluctant to speculate on
this point.
Applications
As stated earlier, we believe that the most
eminent list reported here will be of consider-
able interest to the psychological community.
Beyond that, the list has much potential for use
in studies in the psychology of science, in his-
torical studies of 20th-century psychology, and
in the psychology classroom. Just a few of the
possibilities are described subsequently.
Simonton (1992) described characteristics of
the typical eminent American psychologist.
How general is that characterization of emi-
nence? Would a similar characterization emerge
from an analysis of the present most eminent
list? What distinguishes the roughly one half of
the psychologists in NAS who are on the most
eminent list from the remainder who are not? It
93. would be informative to know whether these
two groups can be distinguished on the basis of
the dimensions of theoretical orientation used
by Simonton (2000).
The psychology of science review article by
Feist and Gorman (1998) is also a rich source of
questions that could be asked about the psychol-
ogists on the most eminent list. Perhaps histo-
rians of psychology will find the most eminent
list useful for purposes such as evaluating how
psychology evolved over the century and how
different schools of thought are represented or
may have shaped the list.
Finally, teaching applications, especially for
introductory psychology and history of psychol-
ogy classes, are practically limitless. For exam-
ple, one could have students (a) identify the
seminal contribution(s) of one or more of the
psychologists on the list, (b) debate the relative
rankings of two psychologists, (c) develop an
argument for why a particular psychologist who
is not on the most eminent list should be (or vice
versa), or (d) write one or more biographies of
eminent psychologists. Moreover, a book of
readings comprising the seminal works of the
psychologists on the most eminent list would
make a tremendous overview of 20th-century
psychology.
References
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151THE 100 MOST EMINENT PSYCHOLOGISTS
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Received March 16, 2001
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Accepted September 7, 2001 �
152 HAGGBLOOM ET AL.
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109. Cognitivism
Humanism
Sociocultural Perspective
Biological/Physiological/Psychological
Approaches
1.4 Psychology as a Science
1.5 Sources of Psychological
Information
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
Experiments
Ex Post Facto Studies
1.6 Interpreting Psychological Research
Experimenter Bias
Subject Bias
Sampling Bias
The Correlation Fallacy
Other Problems of Psychological
Research
1.7 Philosophical Issues and
Psychological Controversy
1.8 The Relevance of Psychology
1.9 This Book
The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely
different idea of the things we know best.
—Paul Valéry, Tel Quel, 1943
My grandmother was convinced she knew best. “Not true,” she
110. would declare when I tried to
tell her what I was learning as a novice psychology student.
And then, her needles clacking,
she would go on to inform me that boys who mature early are
always messed up later. She also
believed that people use only 10 percent of their brain because
that is what she had read some-
where. And she knew that those suffering from mental disorders
are like night and day from her
and other sane people. Nor did she trust psychologists: “They
have sneaky ways of looking into
people’s minds,” she informed me. “Except they have no power
over people who have ESP.”
“And mark my word,” she said one time, “most geniuses are
crazy.” “But you don’t have to worry,”
she added.
1.1 What Is Psychology?
These and a wide range of similar beliefs make up what is
sometimes called bubba psychol-
ogy (bubba or bubbe—or sometimes bubbie—means
grandmother in some Eastern European
languages). Bubba psychology is also labeled naïve psychology
or folk psychology. It is made
up of our unexamined, intuitive beliefs about people and human
behavior, and should not be
confused with pop psychology. Pop—or popular—psychology is
made up of concepts and
theories about human behavior that are purported to be founded
on academic psychology
but that are instead based on simplistic and superficial
interpretations that are popularized
in magazine articles and by radio and television personalities.
Pop psychology has prolifer-
ated in online self-help sites, talk shows, advice columns, and
112. sions (APA, 2014a). These divisions reflect different
interests and specializations such as the study of
aging or the application of psychological knowledge
and principles in clinical settings. Almost 58 per-
cent of APA members are women.
What different psychologists do varies a
great deal. As Figure 1.1 shows, the vast
majority of psychologists are involved in the
practical application of psychological
knowledge. Nearly 40 percent of all psy-
chologists are clinical psychologists. These
are typically psychologists working in a
hospital or clinical setting. They specialize
in helping people with psychological prob-
lems such as anxiety, depression, addiction,
or relationship problems.
Although clinical psychologists and psychi-
atrists often treat similar sorts of problems,
the training and expertise of each is quite
different. Psychiatrists are medical doctors
with specialized training in identifying and
Photos.com/Thinkstock
ሁ Psychology, like most sciences,
occasionally changes its mind. We no
longer believe that the bumps and
lumps on our skulls are roadmaps to our
personalities, although early in the 19th
century, we were pretty certain that was
the case.
Pamela Moore/Getty Images
ሁ Nearly half of all psychologists are clinical
114. Health 1.3%
Developmental 1.8%
Experimental 0.8%
Social 1.5%
Other 42.9%
Clinical 39.1%
f01.01
Source: Based on a survey of the American Psychological
Association’s 80,067 members in 2014. Data from APA Member
Profiles,
2014, Table 3. Retrieved March 10, 2015, from
http://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/14-
member/index.aspx?tab=2.
Published by American Psychologizl Association. Reprinted
with permission.
A significant number of psychologists are counseling
psychologists who sometimes treat
problems related to emotional and mental disorders or who
specialize in issues such as those
having to do with vocational choices, learning problems,
relationships, and related concerns.
Industrial/organizational psychologists are concerned mainly
with work-related issues
such as determining how to hire the right person for a job,
improving job satisfaction, increas-
ing motivation in the workplace, reducing stress, and managing
goals.
116. information that is the basis for
other specializations (such as clinical, social, or cognitive
psychology) is based on the findings
of experimental psychologists.
Psychology also has a large number of other specializations:
Sports psychologists use psycho-
logical research to improve athletic performance; forensic
psychologists are usually experts in
criminal law as well as in psychology and might be called upon
to assist in jury selection or
as expert witnesses for assessing the state of mind of the
accused at the time of the offense or
the defendant’s competency to stand trial; personality
psychologists specialize in studying the
characteristics that distinguish one person from another; social
psychologists are concerned
with the importance of membership in groups; cognitive
psychologists study mental processes
such as thinking, imagining, and problem solving; and
environmental psychologists look at the
relationship between humans and their surroundings, and
specifically at the effects of the
environment on our well-being (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: What psychologists do
Some major divisions Primary focus Example of possible
activities
Clinical Diagnosing and treating emotional
illnesses and disorders
Conducting patient evaluations,
frequently in a hospital or clinical
setting
117. Counseling Evaluating and assisting with
behavioral, emotional, and other
problems not serious enough
to require hospital, clinical, or
psychiatric treatment
Assisting with important decisions
such as those having to do with
careers, relationships, adjustment,
and stress
Industrial/organizational Applying psychology in business and
industry
Developing and administering
tests to evaluate aptitudes; dealing
with motivational, management,
and interpersonal issues in the
workplace
School Identifying individual aptitudes and
skills among learners in a school
setting
Developing and administering
tests pertinent to school-related
abilities; diagnosing and remediating
behavioral and learning problems
Educational Researching the application
of psychological principles for
improving teaching and learning
Carrying out an investigation of two
specific approaches to teaching
119. 1.2 Early Origins of Psychology
The history of psychology goes back at least as far as ancient
Greece, when the discipline of
philosophy embraced almost all other disciplines including what
is now known as psychol-
ogy. In fact, the term psychology derives from the Greek words
psyche, which means “soul,”
and logos, which means “the study or discussion of.”
Philosophy is now concerned mainly
with the nature of reality, knowledge, and values, and with
systems of logical reasoning. Psy-
chology, as we saw, studies human behavior and mental
processes.
More recently in the history of psychology, discoveries in
medicine have had a dramatic influ-
ence on our conception of the human being. When William
Harvey discovered that the heart
pumps blood into tubes throughout the body, many thinkers
became convinced that people
were nothing more than elaborate pumping machines. Some very
wise people suspected that
the ability to think originates in the blood. Aristotle did not
merely suspect this—he was
convinced of it. If a person’s blood were entirely removed, he
argued, no evidence of thinking
would remain!
Early physics, too, contributed to the development of
psychology. The psychological impor-
tance of Sir Isaac Newton’s observation that apples invariably
fall earthward lies in the fact
that it illustrates a different way of looking at natural
phenomena. The ancient Greek phi-
losophers undoubtedly knew that apples fall earthward. And had
they wanted to know why
120. apples fall, they might have thought long and hard about the
problem and held learned dis-
courses with colleagues. But their approach would have made
little use of the methods of
science as we now know them—methods whose hallmark is
objectivity and replicability.
Unlike the early Greeks, Newton felt compelled to demonstrate
and verify the phenomena he
observed and to investigate them by means of controlled
experimentation. We are products
of Newton’s generation: Psychology, anthropology, sociology,
and other related fields are sel-
dom referred to as the social studies; they are the social
sciences.
Scientific psychology is not quite a century and a half old. Its
founder is generally consid-
ered to be Wilhelm Wundt, who set up the first psychological
laboratory in Leipzig, Germany,
in 1879. Many of Wundt’s students later established
laboratories of their own throughout
Europe and North America. Soon after that, psychology
departments opened at all major uni-
versities. Typically these began as branches of departments of
philosophy, but in time the
discipline became totally separate. Departments of psychology
now claim far more students
than do departments of philosophy.
Structuralism
The early history of psychology is marked by the rise—and
fall—of a number of different
“schools” of thought. The first dates back to Wilhelm Wundt
and his followers, whose search
for pieces of the human puzzle relied on introspection.
Introspection involves looking inside
122. American psychology, thought it
a waste of time to try to explain the mind by looking at its
structure. Heavily influenced by
Charles Darwin’s new theories, James argued that it would be
far better to try to determine
the purposes that drive behavior—that is, its functions: hence,
the label functionalism.
James’s 1,000-page book, The Principles of Psychology (1890),
did a great deal to establish
what psychology would become. It is James, for example, who
first wrote of the “stream of
consciousness” and of the baby’s world as “one great blooming,
buzzing confusion.” Among
the topics in his book are will, interest, emotions, sensation, the
brain, and, of course, the
stream of consciousness. He asked questions such as “How can
people strengthen habits?”
“How does intention motivate action?” and “What is memory
and how does it work?”
1.3 Current Approaches to Psychology
More recent approaches to psychology take a variety of forms,
most of which have their roots
in earlier movements and emphases—but with a number of
important differences. For exam-
ple, although James’s functionalism profoundly influenced the
subsequent development of
psychology, by the early 1900s, many psychologists, especially
in the United States, had begun
to reject difficult and subjective topics such as mind and
thinking.
Behaviorism
Led by John Broadus Watson, a group of psychologists moved
away from trying to answer
124. very tip, which represents the conscious mind; the bulk of it is
hidden, unconscious. Much of
our behavior is driven by unconscious forces: They lie beneath
the visible iceberg, beyond our
conscious awareness. Freud believed that many of our emotional
disorders stem from these
unconscious psychodynamic forces. There are
methods of analysis, of psychoanalysis, explained
Freud, that can uncover these hidden motives and
forces. As we see in Chapter 10, Freudian therapy is
based squarely on the notion that consciously rec-
ognizing and talking about hidden motives and
deep-seated conflicts can lead to the alleviation of
mental disorders.
Cognitivism
Other psychologists rejected the narrow emphases
of a behaviorism that limited itself to observable
events, but relatively few embraced Freud’s psycho-
analysis. Many can be described as belonging to the
school labeled cognitivism. These are psycholo-
gists whose main concerns are with intellectual
(cognitive) events such as problem solving, think-
ing, information processing, and imagining. Cog-
nitivism provides explanations for behavior based
on our ability to symbolize, to uncover cause-and-
effect relationships, to determine what goes with
what, and to anticipate the consequences of our
actions.
Humanism
Some psychologists object to what they see as the overly
limited, mechanistic, and dehu-
manizing emphases of behavioristic approaches to psychology.
Too, they reject the Freudian
126. a rigorous scientific approach to the study of psychology.
Sociocultural Perspective
Human behavior is highly influenced by membership in cultural
and social groups. For exam-
ple, as we see in Chapter 4, your gender is very closely related
to your beliefs, values, and
behaviors. Similarly, your ethnicity, religion, social class, and
peer groups exercise profound
influences on who you are and how you act. Chapter 8, which
deals with social psychology,
explores the power of social groups and influences and looks at
how these can affect your
attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. Concern with the influences
of cultural and social groups
and subgroups defines the sociocultural perspective in
psychology.
Biological/Physiological/Psychological Approaches
There are a number of other important orientations in the study
of psychology. Evolution-
ary psychology is marked by an emphasis on biology and
genetics as a source of explana-
tions for human learning and behavior. Evolutionary
psychologists look at the evolution of
human behavior and try to explain human characteristics in
terms of historical pressures of
adaptation.
Neuroscience is another important and highly current,
biologically based orientation. Using
powerful new brain-imaging techniques, neuroscientists look to
the nervous system, espe-
cially the brain, for explanations of consciousness and of mental
processes like thinking,
imagining, problem solving, and remembering. Both
128. Emphasized an exploration of the purposes (functions) of
behavior
(William James)
Behaviorism
Concentrates on observable behavior (responses), its causes
(stimuli), and the forces that shape it (such as its consequences)
(John Watson; Fred Skinner)
Psychodynamic
theory
Looks at the interplay of unconscious, instinct-based forces,
especially
as they relate to mental disorders (Sigmund Freud)
Cognitivism
Focuses on intellectual (cognitive) events, such as thinking,
problem
solving, imagining, symbolizing, and anticipating (Jean Piaget;
Albert Bandura)
Humanism
Rejects the dehumanizing emphases of more “scienti�c”
approaches;
stresses the uniqueness and the positive characteristics of the
individual
(Abraham Maslow; Carl Rogers)
Sociocultural
perspective
Tries to understand human behavior by looking at the in�uence
of the social
and cultural groups to which the individual belongs
130. precision, and consistency.
As a result, science stands in sharp contrast to ways of knowing
that are based principally on
subjective analysis or introspection.
Attempts to explain and organize the observations of science
take the form of theories. Theo-
ries are collections of related statements that clarify
observations and permit predictions
(hypotheses). Put another way, hypotheses are preliminary
attempts to answer questions;
they are tentative predictions that are made before extensive and
thorough investigation.
Theories, by contrast, are the result of careful research; they
summarize and organize the
findings of science.
In spite of science’s preoccupation with matters that are
objective, many topics of interest to
psychology cannot be observed and measured directly, but can
only be inferred from behav-
ior or from highly subjective self-reports. Emotions and
thoughts, for example, are subjective
rather than objective. And even though these might lead to
behavior from which an observer
might guess the underlying emotion or thought, this is not
always so. For example, I might be
very angry or very sad because I now know for sure that my dog
does not much like me; but
you would not necessarily know my emotion from my behavior
because I can easily pretend
I do not care.
One of the tasks of psychology is to devise ways of examining
nonobjective events and states,
and of studying them as objectively and scientifically as
131. possible.
Studying phenomena objectively and scientifically means using
what is often labeled the sci-
entific method—an approach designed to ensure that
observations are as accurate and valid
as possible and that they can be replicated by other
investigators. The sciences have now
been using the scientific method for more than a hundred years
to find and assemble pieces
of the human puzzle. It can be described in terms of five
systematic steps (Figure 1.3):
1. Ask a question. (For example: Would after-school detention
be effective in stopping a
group of boys from stealing iPods and smartphones?)
2. Develop a hypothesis. On the basis of observation and a
careful examination of
relevant investigations and theory, make a prediction—a
hypothesis. By definition,
a scientific hypothesis is unproven and can be falsified (proven
incorrect). Hence,
the outcome of a scientific investigation can lead to the
rejection of the hypothesis.
(Hypothesis: After-school detention will be effective in
curtailing thefts of electronic
devices.)
3. Collect relevant observations. As we see in the next section,
science suggests many
different ways to collect observations. The nature of the
question being asked, as
well as constraints related to money, time, instrumentation, and
the availability of
suitable participants, usually determine which method is best.
133. Detention is not an effective
deterrent in this case.) Following this, the conclusions of the
research need to be
shared. This means communicating the findings to others so
they can apply them, and
so they can continue the research and learning process.
Figure 1.3: Five common steps of the scientific method
ሁ Science insists on precision, objectivity, and replicability.
These five steps increase the likelihood
of meeting these conditions.
f01.03
Ask a question.
Develop a hypothesis.
Collect relevant observations.
Analyze observations
to test the hypothesis.
Reach and share conclusions.
Is after-school detention
effective in stopping a group
of boys from stealing electronics?
After-school detention will curtail
thefts of electronic devices.
Detain the group of boys
after school; monitor