The document discusses effective teaching practices including using clear instructional objectives, employing different teaching formats appropriately, demonstrating characteristics of effective teachers, avoiding negative effects of expectations, and understanding the teacher's varying roles in direct instruction versus constructivist approaches. Specifically, it recommends using objectives to guide lessons and assessments, using lectures for content delivery while seatwork and homework provide practice, employing questioning and discussion to develop higher-order thinking, and adapting instruction based on an understanding of how expectations can influence student learning and performance.

1. CHAPTER 12:
Teaching for
Academic Learning

2. Instructional Objectives – Norman Gronlund (2000) defines
instructional objectives as “intended learning outcomes, the types of
performance students are expected to demonstrate at the end of instruction
to show that they have learned what was expected of them”.
 Behavioral Objectives – use terms such as list, define, add, or
calculate.
 Cognitive Objectives – emphasize thinking and comprehension, so they
are more likely to include words such as understand, recognize, create,
or apply.

3. Mager’s Three-Part System
Robert Mager believes that a good learning objective has three parts: the student’s behavior, the conditions
under which the behavior will be performed, and the criteria for judging a performance.
Part Central Question Example
Student behavior Do what? Mark statements with an F for fact
or an O for opinion
Conditions of performance Under what conditions? Given an article from a newspaper
Performance criteria How well? 75% of the statements are
correctly marked

4. Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge – Remembering or recognizing something without necessarily
understanding, using or changing it.
2. Comprehension – Understanding the material being communicated without
necessarily relating it to anything else.
3. Application – Using a general concept to solve a particular problem.
4. Analysis – Breaking something down into its parts.
5. Synthesis – Creating something new by combining different ideas
6. Evaluation – Judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a
particular situation.
Bloom’s Taxonomy

5. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Affective Domain
1. Receiving – Being aware of or attending to something in the environment.
2. Responding – Showing some new behavior as a result of experience.
3. Valuing – Showing some definite involvement or commitment.
4. Organization – Integrating a new value into one’s general set of values, giving it some
ranking among one’s general priorities.
5. Characterization by value – Acting consistently with the new value.

6. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Psychomotor Domain - James Cangelosi (1990) provides a useful
way to think about objectives in the psychomotor domain as either
voluntary muscle capabilities that require endurance, strength,
flexibility, agility, or speed or the ability to perform specific skill.
- Objectives in the psychomotor domain should be
of interest to a wide range of educators, including those in fine arts,
vocational-technical education, and special education.

7. Avoid “word magic”—phrases that sound noble and important but say very little, such as “ Students will become deep
thinkers”
Examples
1. Keep the focus on specific changes that will take place in the student’s knowledge of skills.
2. Ask students to explain the meaning of the objectives. If they can’t give specific examples of what you mean, the
objectives are not communicating your intentions to your students.
Suit the activities to the objectives
Examples
1. If the goal is the memorization of vocabulary, give the students memory aids and practice exercises.
2. If the goal is the ability to develop well-thought-out positions, consider position papers, debates, projects, or mock
trials.
3. If you want students to become better writers, give many opportunities for writing and rewriting.
Make sure your tests are related to your objectives
Examples
1. write objectives and rough drafts for tests at the same time- revise these drafts of tests as the units unfold and
objectives change.
2. Weight the tests according to the importance of the various objectives and the time spent on each.
GUIDELINES: USING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

8. Characteristics of Effective Teachers
 Teachers’ Knowledge – Teachers who know more facts about their subject do not necessarily have
students who learn more. But teachers who know more may make clearer presentations and
recognize student difficulties more readily. They are ready for any student questions and do not have
to be evasive of vague in their answers.
 Clarity and Organization – Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have
students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively (Hines, Cruickshank, & Kennedy,
1985). Teachers with more knowledge of the subject tend to be less vague in their explanations to the
class. The less vague the teacher, the more the students learn.
 Warmth and Enthusiasm– Warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the teacher traits
most strongly related to student attitudes. In other words, teachers who are warm and friendly tend
to have students who like them and the class in general. Teachers trained to demonstrate their
enthusiasm have students who are more attentive and involved, but not necessarily more successful
on tests of content (Gillet & Gall, 1982)

9. Organize your lessons carefully
Examples
1. Provide objectives that help students focus on the purpose of the lesson
2. Begin lessons by writing a brief outline on the board, or work on an outline with the class as part of the lesson.
3. If possible, break the presentation into clear steps or stages.
4. Review periodically
Anticipate and plan for difficult parts in the lesson
Examples
1. Plan a clear introduction to the lesson that tells students what they are going to learn and how they are going to learn it.
2. Do the exercises and anticipate student problems – consult the teachers’ manual for ideas.
3. Have definitions ready for new terms, and prepare several relevant examples for concepts.
4. Think of analogies that will make ideas easier to understand.
5. Organize the lesson in a logical sequence; include check-points that incorporate oral or written questions or problems to make sure
the students are following the explanations
Strive for clear explanations
Examples
1. Avoid vague words and ambiguous phrases: Steer clear of “the somes”– something, someone, sometime, somehow;
“the not verys”—not very much, not very well, not very hard, not very often; and other unspecific fillers, such as most, not all, sort of, and
so on, of course, as you know, I guess, in fact, or whatever, and more or less.
2. Use specific ( and, if possible, colorful) names instead of it, them, and thing.
GUIDELINES: TEACHING EFFECTIVELY

10. 3. Refrain from using pet phrases such as you know, like, and Okay? Another idea is to record a lesson on tape to check yourself for
clarity.
4. Give explanations at several levels so all students, not just the brightest, will understand.
Make clear connections by using explanatory links such as because, if . . . Then, or therefore.
Examples
1. “The North had an advantage in the Civil War because its economy was based on manufacturing.”
2. Explanatory links are also helpful in labeling visual material such as graphs, concept maps, or illustrations.
Signal transitions from one major topic to another with phrases.
Examples
1. “The next area . . . “ “Now we will turn to . . . “ or “The second step is . . . “
2. Outline topics, listing key points, drawing concept maps on the board, or using an overhead projector.
GUIDELINES: TEACHING EFFECTIVELY
Communicate an enthusiasm for your subject and the day’s lesson.
Examples
1. Tell students why the lesson is important. Have a better reason than “This will be on the test” or “You will need to know it nect year.”
Emphasize the value of the learning itself.
2. Be sure to make eye contact with the students.
3. Vary your pace and volume in speaking. Use silence for emphasis.

11. Direct Instruction– applies best to the teaching of basic skills—clearly structured knowledge and essential skills,
such as science facts, mathematics computations, reading vocabulary, and grammar rules (Rosenshine & Stevens,
1986).
Weinert (1995) described direct instruction as having the following features:
a. the teacher’s classroom management is especially effective and the rate of student interruptive behaviors is very
low;
b. the teacher maintains a strong academic focus and uses available instructional time intensively to initiate and
facilitate student’s learning activities;
c. the teacher ensures that as many students as possible achieve good learning progress by carefully choosing
appropriate tasks, clearly presenting subject-matter information and solution strategies, continuously diagnosing each
student’s learning progress and learning difficulties, and providing effective help through remedial instruction.
Constructivist approach– planning is shared and negotiated. The teacher and students together make
decisions about content, activities, and approaches.

12. Many constructivist practices can be incorporated into any class.
1. Constructivist teachers encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.
2. Constructivist teachers use raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative.
3. When framing tasks, constructivist teachers use cognitive terminology such as “classify”, “analyze”, “predict”, and
“create”.
4. Constructivist teachers allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter content.
5. Constructivist teachers inquire about student’s understanding of concepts before sharing their own understanding of
those concepts.
6. Constructivist teachers encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one another.
7. Constructivist teachers encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and encouraging
students to ask questions of each other.
8. Constructivist teachers seek elaboration of students’ initial responses.
9. Constructivist teachers engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial hypothesis
and then encourage discussion.
10,. Constructivist teachers allow wait-time after posing questions.
11. Constructivist teachers provide time for students to discover relationships and create metaphors.
CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING PRACTICES

13. SEATWORK AND HOMEWORK
Seatwork – should follow up a lesson and give students supervised practice. It should not be the main mode of instruction.
Before you assign work, ask yourself, “Does doing this work help students learn anything that matters?”
Homework – an assignment given to a student to be completed outside the regular class period
Steps toward involvement:
1. Getting students started correctly by making sure they understand the assignment.
2. Hold them accountable for completing the work correctly, not just for filling in the page.
QUESTIONING AND RECITATION
Recitation – Teachers pose questions, students answer. The teacher’s questions develop a framework for the subject matter
involved. The pattern from the teacher’s point of view consists of initiation (teacher asks questions), response (student
answers), and reaction (praising, correcting, probing, or expanding).
Kinds of Questions:
1. Convergent Questions – only one right answer
Example: “Who ruled England in 1540?”, “Who wrote the original Peter Pan?”
2. Divergent Questions – many possible answers
Example: “In this story, which character is most like you and why?”, “In 100 years, which of the past five presidents will
be most admired?”

14. Classroom Questions for Objectives in the Cognitive Domain
Questions can be posed that encourage thinking at every level of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Of course, the thinking required depends on
what has gone before in the discussion.
Category Type of Thinking Expected Example
Knowledge
(Remembering)
Recalling or recognizing information as learned Define . . . .?
What is the capital of . . . .?
What did the text say about . . . .?
Comprehension
(Understanding
Demonstrating understanding of the materials;
Transforming, reorganizing, or interpreting
Explain in your own words . . .
Compare . . . .
What is the main idea of . . . .?
Describe what you saw . . . .
Application
(Applying)
Using information to solve a problem with a single correct
answer
Which principle is demonstrated in . . . .?
Calculate the area of . . . .
Apply the rule of . . . to solve . . . .
Analysis
(Analyzing)
Critical thinking; identifying reasons and motives; making
inferences based on specific data; analyzing conclusions to
see if supported by evidence
What influenced the writings of . . . .?
Why was Washinton, D.C. chosen . . . ?
Which of the following are facts and which are opinions . . .
?
Based on your experiment, what is the chemical . ?
Synthesis
(Creating)
Divergent, original thinking; original plan, proposal, design,
or story
What’s a good name for . . . .?
How could we raise money for . . . ?
What would the United States be like if the South had
won . . . ?
Evaluation
(Evaluating)
Judging the merits of ideas, offering opinions,
applying standards
Which U.S. senator is the most effective?
Which painting do you believe to be better? Why?
Why would you favor . . . ?

15. GROUP DISCUSSION
Group Discussion – is in some ways similar to the recitation strategy, but should be more like the instructional
conversations
- a teacher may pose questions, listen to student answers, react, and probe for more information, but
in a true group dialogue, the teacher does not have a dominant role. Students asks questions,
answer each other’s questions, and respond to each other’s answers.
Advantages:
1. Students are directly involved and have the chance to participate
2. It helps the students learn to express themselves clearly, to justify opinions, and to tolerate different views.
3. Gives a student a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and
assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group.
Disadvantages:
1. Class discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance.
2. Some members of the group may have great difficulty participating and may become anxious if forced to
speak.
3. In many cases, a few students will dominate the discussion while others daydream.

16. Invite shy children to participate.
Direct student comments and questions back to another student.
Make sure that you understand what a student has said.
Probe for more information
Bring the discussion back to the subject.
Give time for thought before asking for responses.
When a student finishes speaking, look around the room to judge reactions.
GUIDELINES: PRODUCTIVE GROUP DISCUSSIONS

17. Two (2) Kinds of Expectation Effects
 Pygmalion Effect or Self-fulfilling Prophecy– The teacher’s beliefs about the student’s abilities have
no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation.
 Sustaining Expectation Effect– occurs when teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of
student’s abilities and respond to students appropriately.
Sources of Teacher Expectations
1. Intelligence test scores
2. Sex
3. Notes from previous teachers and the medical or psychological reports found in cumulative
folders (permanent record files
4. Knowledge of ethnic background
5. Physical appearance
6. Previous achievement
7. Socio-economic class
8. Actual behaviors of the student

18. Use information about students from tests, cumulative folders, and other teachers very carefully.
Be flexible in your use of grouping strategies.
Make sure all the students are challenged.
Be especially careful about how you respond to low-achieving students during class discussions.
Use material that show a wide range of ethnic groups.
Make sure that your teaching does not reflect racial, ethnic, or sexual stereotypes or prejudice.
Be fair in evaluation and disciplinary procedures.
Communicate to all students that you believe they can learn – and mean it.
Involve all students in learning tasks and in privileges.
Monitor your nonverbal behavior.
GUIDELINES: AVOIDING THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF
TEACHER EXPECTATIONS

19. Guide Questions::
 When and how should teachers use instructional objectives?
 In what situations would each of the following formats be most appropriate: lecture,
seatwork, and homework, questioning, and group discussion?
 What are the characteristics of effective teachers?
 How can teacher’s expectations affect student learning?
 How does the teacher’s role vary in direct and constructivist teaching approaches?

20. Thank you for
listening!!!