This document discusses gender roles in traditional African cultures compared to modern Western societies. It provides examples of cultures in Africa that had terms or roles beyond a strict gender binary, such as the Luba people of Congo who use the term "tatu-mukaji" meaning "female father" to refer to an aunt. The document argues that traditional African cultures had a more fluid understanding of gender that recognized dual or overlapping roles, in contrast to the rigid gender divisions of modern Western thinking. It aims to highlight the important leadership positions once held by women in African history and culture.
This chapter provides a literature review of previous research on Hijra communities. One study used ethnographic research to show that Hijras in Bangladesh live in extreme social exclusion without recognition as a separate gender beyond the male-female binary. This social exclusion damages their self-esteem and prevents effective safer sex interventions. Another study examined how Hijras are excluded from schools, families, work and social institutions their whole lives, putting them at risk for risky sexual behaviors due to limited access to information and resources. The literature recommends addressing structural exclusion of Hijras and working with mainstream society, policymakers and civil society to create an environment where Hijras can live fulfilling lives on equal footing with men and women.
Gender roles are largely culturally defined rather than biological. Children learn appropriate gender roles from their environment and society. While gender roles have changed significantly in recent decades as more women enter the workforce, traditional views of gender still influence society. Feminists advocate for expanding options and challenging stereotypes to achieve greater equality and fairness between men and women.
To Ethnic--New Identity Formations in BelizeMyrtle Palacio
1. The document discusses the ethnic identities of mixed race individuals in Belize City, specifically those with Creole and Garifuna ancestry.
2. It explores how offspring from unions between Creole and Garifuna identify ethnically, finding that they identify with one group or the other rather than both, contrary to assumptions.
3. Their ethnic identification is influenced by personal experiences like discrimination, social values, and community influences rather than necessarily identifying with their mother's ethnicity.
This essay supports a few posts in the Reimagined Mahabharata blog (http://reimaginedmahabharata.blogspot.com/) in which I assert that South Asia had three matriarchal cultures in 4000 BCE that participated in a great revolution around 2000BCE that is the source of the Mahabharata.
This document discusses the biological and cultural foundations of gender and kinship. It begins by defining sex as physical attributes and gender as cultural attributes derived from sex. It then covers primary and secondary sex characteristics of males and females. The document also discusses gender roles and restrictions on sexual behavior such as incest taboos. It examines explanations for gender divisions of labor, including differences in physical strength and compatibility with childcare responsibilities.
Prof.dr. halit hami öz sociology-chapter 12-gender, sex, and sexualityProf. Dr. Halit Hami Öz
This document discusses gender, sex, and sexuality. It begins by differentiating between sex, which refers to biological characteristics, and gender, which refers to social or cultural distinctions between masculine and feminine. It then discusses gender identity and the concepts of transgender, transsexual, and homosexual identities. It provides examples of gender roles and socialization in American culture. It also discusses the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation.
The document discusses three proposed explanations for the development of patriarchal societies:
1. Childcare and investment in offspring - Historically, women have invested far more time and resources in pregnancy, lactation, and childcare than men. This created a tendency toward maternal parenting and male control over female sexuality.
2. Sexual exchange theory - Humans have hidden ovulation and use sex for social bonding, not just reproduction. Men generally have a higher sex drive than women. This created an environment where women could use sexual access as a bargaining chip to gain resources from men for childcare.
3. Interrelation of factors - All of these explanations are interrelated and reinforce each other. No single factor fully
Sex and gender a cross cultural perspectivedwessler
This document discusses sex and gender from a cross-cultural perspective. It begins by outlining some key questions about the influence of biology on gender and similarities/differences in gender roles across cultures. It then discusses how anthropology and feminism have influenced each other, with feminism shifting the focus to androcentrism and studying areas from a gender perspective. Key topics covered include the cultural construction of gender, concepts of multiple genders, the sexual division of labor, and gender stratification across societies.
This chapter provides a literature review of previous research on Hijra communities. One study used ethnographic research to show that Hijras in Bangladesh live in extreme social exclusion without recognition as a separate gender beyond the male-female binary. This social exclusion damages their self-esteem and prevents effective safer sex interventions. Another study examined how Hijras are excluded from schools, families, work and social institutions their whole lives, putting them at risk for risky sexual behaviors due to limited access to information and resources. The literature recommends addressing structural exclusion of Hijras and working with mainstream society, policymakers and civil society to create an environment where Hijras can live fulfilling lives on equal footing with men and women.
Gender roles are largely culturally defined rather than biological. Children learn appropriate gender roles from their environment and society. While gender roles have changed significantly in recent decades as more women enter the workforce, traditional views of gender still influence society. Feminists advocate for expanding options and challenging stereotypes to achieve greater equality and fairness between men and women.
To Ethnic--New Identity Formations in BelizeMyrtle Palacio
1. The document discusses the ethnic identities of mixed race individuals in Belize City, specifically those with Creole and Garifuna ancestry.
2. It explores how offspring from unions between Creole and Garifuna identify ethnically, finding that they identify with one group or the other rather than both, contrary to assumptions.
3. Their ethnic identification is influenced by personal experiences like discrimination, social values, and community influences rather than necessarily identifying with their mother's ethnicity.
This essay supports a few posts in the Reimagined Mahabharata blog (http://reimaginedmahabharata.blogspot.com/) in which I assert that South Asia had three matriarchal cultures in 4000 BCE that participated in a great revolution around 2000BCE that is the source of the Mahabharata.
This document discusses the biological and cultural foundations of gender and kinship. It begins by defining sex as physical attributes and gender as cultural attributes derived from sex. It then covers primary and secondary sex characteristics of males and females. The document also discusses gender roles and restrictions on sexual behavior such as incest taboos. It examines explanations for gender divisions of labor, including differences in physical strength and compatibility with childcare responsibilities.
Prof.dr. halit hami öz sociology-chapter 12-gender, sex, and sexualityProf. Dr. Halit Hami Öz
This document discusses gender, sex, and sexuality. It begins by differentiating between sex, which refers to biological characteristics, and gender, which refers to social or cultural distinctions between masculine and feminine. It then discusses gender identity and the concepts of transgender, transsexual, and homosexual identities. It provides examples of gender roles and socialization in American culture. It also discusses the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation.
The document discusses three proposed explanations for the development of patriarchal societies:
1. Childcare and investment in offspring - Historically, women have invested far more time and resources in pregnancy, lactation, and childcare than men. This created a tendency toward maternal parenting and male control over female sexuality.
2. Sexual exchange theory - Humans have hidden ovulation and use sex for social bonding, not just reproduction. Men generally have a higher sex drive than women. This created an environment where women could use sexual access as a bargaining chip to gain resources from men for childcare.
3. Interrelation of factors - All of these explanations are interrelated and reinforce each other. No single factor fully
Sex and gender a cross cultural perspectivedwessler
This document discusses sex and gender from a cross-cultural perspective. It begins by outlining some key questions about the influence of biology on gender and similarities/differences in gender roles across cultures. It then discusses how anthropology and feminism have influenced each other, with feminism shifting the focus to androcentrism and studying areas from a gender perspective. Key topics covered include the cultural construction of gender, concepts of multiple genders, the sexual division of labor, and gender stratification across societies.
Throughout history, women have fought for equal treatment and rights. In Egypt, significant progress has been made, with women now commonly attending university. However, traditional views still persist in some communities, where women face harassment and the expectation that their primary roles are in the home. Overall though, Egyptian women today are well-educated and participate fully in the workforce across many fields, with equal pay and opportunities, demonstrating that women have rightfully earned their place in society.
The document discusses different types of marriage including monogamy, serial monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, polyandry, and group marriage. Monogamy allows one spouse at a time while serial monogamy involves multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time through divorce and remarriage. Polygamy allows multiple spouses and can take the form of polygyny where a man has multiple wives or polyandry where a woman has multiple husbands. Group marriage involves all members of the group being married to each other. Factors like agriculture, religion, and social norms influence which types of marriages are commonly practiced in different cultures and societies.
The document discusses sex, gender, and culture. It defines sex as biological differences between males and females, such as physical characteristics. Gender is defined as socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that are seen as masculine or feminine. The document examines differences in male and female physiology and possible evolutionary explanations. It also discusses gender roles versus sex roles, and how gender roles are learned behaviors that can vary across cultures, while sex roles are based on biological functions. The roles of males and females in subsistence activities and political leadership are also analyzed.
The document discusses the differences between sex and gender. Sex refers to biological attributes that distinguish males and females, such as reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics. Gender refers to cultural attributes that arise from biological sex differences, such as gender roles, behaviors, and styles of dress. The document then examines gender differences in various societies, including divisions of labor between males and females, as well as cultural rules around sexual behavior and taboos such as incest. Possible explanations for gender norms, such as compatibility with childcare responsibilities, are also explored.
The document discusses the patriarchal tendency in human societies and various theories about its origins. It defines key terms like patriarchy, matriarchy, patrilineal and matrilineal. Common explanations for patriarchy like physical strength differences or capitalism are criticized for not accounting for variations in gender relations across societies or how power is socially constructed. The tendency towards patriarchy is presented as a complex issue requiring further discussion to understand its causes.
The document discusses gender roles and the division of labor across cultures. It defines sex as biological attributes and gender as cultural attributes derived from biological differences. While male dominance was once widely assumed, recent research finds this is problematic and more statistical than absolute. The document examines cases where women have significant influence, such as the !Kung and Iroquois, and considers explanations for gendered divisions of labor including compatibility with childcare and male expendability, noting no single explanation applies universally.
This document discusses gender and sex differences from multiple perspectives. It defines gender and sex, and notes there is a difference between the two. Gender roles are learned behaviors influenced by both nature and nurture. Studies show atypical gender roles in males are influenced more by environment, while atypical roles in females show more heritability. Children are rewarded for gender-typical behaviors starting at a young age. Homosexuality may be linked to left-handedness, older siblings, and gender atypical behaviors as a child. Treatment for gender identity disorder in children aims to address psychological issues without changing sexual identity.
This document discusses cultural relativism and defines it as the descriptive claim that ethical practices differ between cultures and what is considered right in one may be wrong in another. It provides examples of differences in practices around premarital relationships, contraceptives, and gender roles. The document explores debates around whether culture determines what is morally right or wrong. It notes challenges in reconciling cultural relativism with universal ethics.
This document discusses various topics related to human sexuality. It defines key terms like sex, gender, sexual orientation. It explores topics like sexual practices across societies, the sexual revolution, premarital sex, pornography, and rape. It examines perspectives on the social construction of sexuality and theories of sexuality related to social inequality and challenging heterosexual bias.
The document discusses an interview with Ramona Scott, a former member of the Growing Circle Food Co-operative on Salt Spring Island, BC. The co-op links local consumers with producers through an organic food store and promotes local food security. Scott discusses issues of gender, leadership, and masculinity in agriculture during the interview.
Towards The Social Categorisation Of Sexualitiesrichienyhus
This document discusses how viewing sexuality through the lens of natural categories versus social construction can have negative consequences. Viewing sexuality as naturally occurring categories promotes stereotypes, marginalizes some groups, and can justify oppressive social norms. In contrast, understanding sexuality as socially constructed allows for greater cultural understanding, reduces stigma and stereotyping, and promotes safer sexual practices and equitable treatment of all groups.
Sex, gender, and sexuality are distinct but related concepts. Sex refers to biological traits, gender includes identity, presentation and roles, and sexuality is about attraction and expression. Gender is determined by both biology and culture through socialization. Transgender people identify with a gender not associated with their sex assigned at birth. Some societies recognize third genders in addition to men and women. Sexual orientation refers to patterns of attraction, and thinking of it as heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual is a recent concept from the late 19th century.
1Critical analysis of two argumentsAfrican women and culture.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
Critical analysis of two arguments
African women and culture
Paper A: A culture of stigma: Black Women Author:Alaxandria Okeke
Paper B: African Culture and Status Of women Author: O.o familiusi
Paper B: African Culture and Status Of women:
Familiusi is quite an analyst on afro-cultural scenario. In this article she has done a very critical review of how black women emerged and became the biggest transition from slavery to free human ideology
This is always been on the fact that women are always at the receiving end. This however has been discovered not to be true in its entirety as women in every society enjoy some absoluterights. She therefore discusses the position of traditional African women from a universal perspective, with importance on how culture has impacted negatively on their well-being, although there are benefits derive from their status in society which is so called. She has concluded in a very experimental way that those practices which serve as taboo practices and not good for the health of those women should be removed from the society and all those privilege’s that are being provided to women in rest of the world ,African women have a cent percent right on them . Culture and feudal system cannot be the decider of their fates. In one of her quotation’s she cites that people like every girl in Africa has right to be a tennis star, a famous scientist and a political personnel. Some tribe leader whose mental capability can’t see the future shouldn’t confine their fates.
From the article it’s quite clear that she has done her study on the history and ancient perspective of afro-culture. When she talks about inheritance, it’s quite clear that the African women inherit the slavery and consider themselves as a burden.
Inheritance as a cultural training among the African women is not women friendly. Conventionally the issue of will was not present. Thus after the burial of the deceased, the oracle was consulted to fix a time for the sharing of the property. Part to emphasize here is the property covers up their women too. Sharing of workplaces is male centered as women cannot be made the big of the family. No matter how young a male child is, he is superior to female children in this regard no matter how old they may be. However, it is not impossibility for female children to inherit property especially when they are single, but this is not always the case for married women because of the belief that they in their entirety belong to their husbands. Of course, it is not distinguishing for a married woman to claim any right regarding inheriting her family’s belongings. What obtains in Igbo land in Africa is more hostile to women as they do not have any right to inherit anything from their fathers. If a man dies without having a son, his belongings go to his brother or uncle, and his name is believed to have been lost. This is why having a male child in the area is sacrosanct and the relevance of the name Ahamefula(shameful).
The document discusses various cultures that recognize third gender identities that differ from the male and female genders. It provides examples of the Inuit "cross-gendered" individuals, Samoa's fa'afafine, South Asia's hijra, and Native North Americans' "two-spirit" people. For each group, it discusses their social roles, how their gender identities fit into their cultures, and how their cultures understand sexuality as separate from gender.
This editorial provides an overview of the themes explored in the issue of the journal BUWA! related to feminism and culture. It discusses how culture is often used to dismiss feminist arguments that challenge the status quo. The issue includes articles that critically examine the positive and negative impacts of culture on women's lives. It explores topics like masculinity, marriage, religion, the arts, and how cultures influence women's bodies. While cultures evolve over time, the underlying perception and treatment of women has often not fundamentally changed. The editorial argues more dialogue is needed across generations of feminists to foster real change in replacing harmful practices with respect for women's rights and freedoms.
This document discusses sex and gender from a cross-cultural anthropological perspective. It explores how gender roles vary across cultures and how biology interacts with cultural constructions of gender. Key topics covered include the cultural construction of gender, multiple gender identities in some native cultures, the gendered division of labor, and factors that influence gender stratification like gender ideologies. Examples from cultures such as the US, Mbuti, and Minangkabau are provided.
1) I do not believe that there is a third sex in society. However,.docxmonicafrancis71118
1) I do not believe that there is a third sex in society. However, I am fully supportive of transgender people, as well as all other members apart of the LGBT community. I believe that there are two genders, which are male and female. However, I believe that if a male wishes to transition into a girl, or if a girl wishes to transition into a boy, they should be allowed to do so. I would support their change and refer to them as their new gender identity. I would still consider them either a boy or a girl. Even though they are transgender, I would still refer to them as being either male or female, depending on what they transitioned into. For example, I consider the men in the video who transitioned into women to be female. I do not believe that transgender is a gender itself, which is why I do not believe that there is a third sex in society.
Along with this, I also believe that neither men nor women should have to live up to gender stereotypes. If a person who identifies as a male wishes to act feminine, whether he is or isn't straight, he should be allowed to do so without being insulted. I would still refer to him as being a male. This is also the case with people who identify as women, yet are very masculine. I believe that your gender does not limit you on how you must act or how you sexually identify yourself. Straight males can be feminine just like straight women can be masculine. My reason for mentioning this is from the part in the video where it showed the men who transitioned to women cleaning the house and doing many of the chores that they believe only women should do. I feel that it is perfectly acceptable for a male to do "female" chores, while still identifying as a male.
Lastly, I would like to point out that there are many differences in definitions involving the terms "gender" and "sex." Most people view the term "sex" in a biological sense, meaning to be male or female depending on your genitalia. However, this creates an argument for those who do not identify as male or female, despite what they were biologically born as. The question asked if I believe that there is a "third sex." This would mean that there is a third way a child could be born, as in, they could be male, female, or something else. Obviously, this is impossible, which is why I do not believe that there is a third sex. I feel it is important to mention that my post is simply my opinion. I accept everyone for who they are, no matter how they identify themselves!
2) I do not believe there is a third sex in a society based off of what the word “sex” means. Our book defines sex as “a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females”. Therefore, this has nothing to do with what someone perceives themselves to be and is determined by biology. Now, human anatomy has always said that there are two sexes, male and female (You either have an XX or an XY on your chromosomes). This suffices to show that it is not eve.
Gender and Age10CHAPTERIn Tunis, the capital of Tunisi.docxhanneloremccaffery
Gender and Age10CHAPTER
In Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, on Africa’s north-
ern coast, I met some U.S. college students and spent a couple
of days with them. They wanted to see the city’s red light
district, but I wondered whether it would be worth the trip. I
already had seen other red light districts, including the unusual
one in Amsterdam where a bronze statue of a female prostitute
lets you know you’ve entered the area; the state licenses the
women and men, requiring that they have medical checkups
(certificates must be posted); and the prostitutes add sales tax
to the receipts they give customers. The prostitutes sit behind
lighted picture windows while customers stroll along the nar-
row canal side streets and do “window shopping” from the out-
side. Tucked among the brothels are day care centers, bakeries,
and clothing stores. Amsterdam itself is an unusual place—in
cafes, you can smoke marijuana but not tobacco.
I decided to go with
them. We ended up on a
wharf that extended into the
Mediterranean. Each side was
lined with a row of one-room
wooden shacks, crowded one
against the next. In front
of each open door stood a
young woman. Peering from
outside into the dark inte-
riors, I could see that each
door led to a tiny room with
an old, well-worn bed.
The wharf was crowded
with men who were eyeing the
women. Many of the men wore sailor uniforms from countries
that I couldn’t identify.
As I looked more closely, I could see that some of the
women had runny sores on their legs. Incredibly, with such vis-
ible evidence of their disease, customers still sought them out.
With a sick feeling in my stomach and the desire to vomit,
I kept a good distance between the beckoning women and
myself. One tour of the two-block area was more than
sufficient.
Somewhere nearby, out of sight, I knew that there were
men whose wealth derived from exploiting these women who
were condemned to live short lives punctuated by fear and
misery.
The prostitutes sit
behind lighted picture
windows while cus-
tomers stroll along
the narrow canal side
streets and do “win-
dow shopping” from
the outside.
Afghanistan
276 CHAPTER 10 Gender and Age
Differences in how we display gender
often lie below our awareness. How
males and females use social space
is an example. In this unposed
photo from Grand Central Station
in New York City, you can see how
males tend to sprawl out, females
to enclose themselves. Why do you
think this difference exists? Biology?
Socialization? Both?
In the previous chapter, we considered how race–ethnicity affects people’s well-being
and their position in society. In this chapter, we examine gender stratification—males’
and females’ unequal access to property, power, and prestige.
We also explore the prejudice and discrimination directed to people because of their
age. Gender and age are especially significant because, like race–ethnicity, they are master
statuses; that is, they cut ...
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How Culture Constructs Gender DifferenceBiological models PazSilviapm
How Culture Constructs Gender Difference
Biological models assume that biological sex determines gender,
That biological differences lead to behavior differences, which lead to social arrangements.
By this account, social inequalities are encoded into our physiological composition.
That biological anomalies alone account for variation.
Biological researchers always assumed that gender difference implied gender inequality because western notions of difference do usually lead to and justify inequality.
However, some anthropologists argue that biological models projected their western values onto other cultures.
That these models ignore the role of colonialism and the roles of women in establishing gender differences in traditional cultures.
Anthropological evidence offers a world of amazing diversity of the cultural constructions of gender.
Yet some themes remain constant:
Virtually all societies manifest some amount of difference between men and women.
Virtually all cultures exhibit some form of male domination, despite variations in gender definitions.
Variations in Gender Definitions
Anthropologists have found far more variability in the definitions of masculinity and femininity than any biologist would have predicted.
Men possessed of similar levels of testosterone, with similar brain structure and lateralization, seem to exhibit dramatically different levels of aggression, violence, and, especially, violence toward women.
Women with similar brains, hormones, and evolutionary imperatives have widely different experiences of passivity, PMS, and spatial coordination.
Margaret Meade’s Work
Meade examined three very different cultures in New Guinea.
In the Arapesh culture, all members were passive, gentle, and emotionally warm.
Males and females were equally happy, trustful, and confident.
Men and women shared child rearing, both were “maternal” and both discouraged aggression in boys and girls.
Both men and women were thought to be relatively equally sexual.
In the Mundugamor culture (a tribe of head hunters and cannibals), citizens viewed men and women as similar but expected persons of both sexes to be violent and aggressive.
Women showed little “maternal instinct,” detested pregnancy and nursing and could hardly wait to return to the serious business of work.
There was violent rivalry between fathers and sons.
All people feared that they were being wronged by others.
In the Tchambuli culture (as in the US) men and women were seen as very different.
It was a patrilineal culture and polygyny was accepted.
One sex was comprised primarily of nurturing and gossipy consumers who spent their days dressing up and going shopping.
These were the men
The women were dominant, energetic, economic providers.
They fished (activity on which the entire culture depended).
They had real positions of power in the society.
Completely unadorned, they were business- like, controlled all commerce and diplomacy of the culture, and were the initiators of ...
This document discusses gender roles and how they are influenced from a young age. It states that males are typically socialized to take on more aggressive and dominant roles, while females are socialized to be more nurturing and submissive. It also mentions that failing to conform to typical gender roles can result in labels like "feminist", "not masculine/feminine enough", or accusations of being gay/lesbian. Additionally, it discusses how gender roles influence behaviors, career choices, appearance expectations, and the labeling of those who don't strictly adhere to traditional roles.
A first blush, it probably seems easy to define what we're talking about when we talk about gender. It's just men and women, and the differences between them, right? But things are not so simple, and explaining what actually constitutes gender is surprisingly difficult.
Throughout history, women have fought for equal treatment and rights. In Egypt, significant progress has been made, with women now commonly attending university. However, traditional views still persist in some communities, where women face harassment and the expectation that their primary roles are in the home. Overall though, Egyptian women today are well-educated and participate fully in the workforce across many fields, with equal pay and opportunities, demonstrating that women have rightfully earned their place in society.
The document discusses different types of marriage including monogamy, serial monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, polyandry, and group marriage. Monogamy allows one spouse at a time while serial monogamy involves multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time through divorce and remarriage. Polygamy allows multiple spouses and can take the form of polygyny where a man has multiple wives or polyandry where a woman has multiple husbands. Group marriage involves all members of the group being married to each other. Factors like agriculture, religion, and social norms influence which types of marriages are commonly practiced in different cultures and societies.
The document discusses sex, gender, and culture. It defines sex as biological differences between males and females, such as physical characteristics. Gender is defined as socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that are seen as masculine or feminine. The document examines differences in male and female physiology and possible evolutionary explanations. It also discusses gender roles versus sex roles, and how gender roles are learned behaviors that can vary across cultures, while sex roles are based on biological functions. The roles of males and females in subsistence activities and political leadership are also analyzed.
The document discusses the differences between sex and gender. Sex refers to biological attributes that distinguish males and females, such as reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics. Gender refers to cultural attributes that arise from biological sex differences, such as gender roles, behaviors, and styles of dress. The document then examines gender differences in various societies, including divisions of labor between males and females, as well as cultural rules around sexual behavior and taboos such as incest. Possible explanations for gender norms, such as compatibility with childcare responsibilities, are also explored.
The document discusses the patriarchal tendency in human societies and various theories about its origins. It defines key terms like patriarchy, matriarchy, patrilineal and matrilineal. Common explanations for patriarchy like physical strength differences or capitalism are criticized for not accounting for variations in gender relations across societies or how power is socially constructed. The tendency towards patriarchy is presented as a complex issue requiring further discussion to understand its causes.
The document discusses gender roles and the division of labor across cultures. It defines sex as biological attributes and gender as cultural attributes derived from biological differences. While male dominance was once widely assumed, recent research finds this is problematic and more statistical than absolute. The document examines cases where women have significant influence, such as the !Kung and Iroquois, and considers explanations for gendered divisions of labor including compatibility with childcare and male expendability, noting no single explanation applies universally.
This document discusses gender and sex differences from multiple perspectives. It defines gender and sex, and notes there is a difference between the two. Gender roles are learned behaviors influenced by both nature and nurture. Studies show atypical gender roles in males are influenced more by environment, while atypical roles in females show more heritability. Children are rewarded for gender-typical behaviors starting at a young age. Homosexuality may be linked to left-handedness, older siblings, and gender atypical behaviors as a child. Treatment for gender identity disorder in children aims to address psychological issues without changing sexual identity.
This document discusses cultural relativism and defines it as the descriptive claim that ethical practices differ between cultures and what is considered right in one may be wrong in another. It provides examples of differences in practices around premarital relationships, contraceptives, and gender roles. The document explores debates around whether culture determines what is morally right or wrong. It notes challenges in reconciling cultural relativism with universal ethics.
This document discusses various topics related to human sexuality. It defines key terms like sex, gender, sexual orientation. It explores topics like sexual practices across societies, the sexual revolution, premarital sex, pornography, and rape. It examines perspectives on the social construction of sexuality and theories of sexuality related to social inequality and challenging heterosexual bias.
The document discusses an interview with Ramona Scott, a former member of the Growing Circle Food Co-operative on Salt Spring Island, BC. The co-op links local consumers with producers through an organic food store and promotes local food security. Scott discusses issues of gender, leadership, and masculinity in agriculture during the interview.
Towards The Social Categorisation Of Sexualitiesrichienyhus
This document discusses how viewing sexuality through the lens of natural categories versus social construction can have negative consequences. Viewing sexuality as naturally occurring categories promotes stereotypes, marginalizes some groups, and can justify oppressive social norms. In contrast, understanding sexuality as socially constructed allows for greater cultural understanding, reduces stigma and stereotyping, and promotes safer sexual practices and equitable treatment of all groups.
Sex, gender, and sexuality are distinct but related concepts. Sex refers to biological traits, gender includes identity, presentation and roles, and sexuality is about attraction and expression. Gender is determined by both biology and culture through socialization. Transgender people identify with a gender not associated with their sex assigned at birth. Some societies recognize third genders in addition to men and women. Sexual orientation refers to patterns of attraction, and thinking of it as heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual is a recent concept from the late 19th century.
1Critical analysis of two argumentsAfrican women and culture.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
Critical analysis of two arguments
African women and culture
Paper A: A culture of stigma: Black Women Author:Alaxandria Okeke
Paper B: African Culture and Status Of women Author: O.o familiusi
Paper B: African Culture and Status Of women:
Familiusi is quite an analyst on afro-cultural scenario. In this article she has done a very critical review of how black women emerged and became the biggest transition from slavery to free human ideology
This is always been on the fact that women are always at the receiving end. This however has been discovered not to be true in its entirety as women in every society enjoy some absoluterights. She therefore discusses the position of traditional African women from a universal perspective, with importance on how culture has impacted negatively on their well-being, although there are benefits derive from their status in society which is so called. She has concluded in a very experimental way that those practices which serve as taboo practices and not good for the health of those women should be removed from the society and all those privilege’s that are being provided to women in rest of the world ,African women have a cent percent right on them . Culture and feudal system cannot be the decider of their fates. In one of her quotation’s she cites that people like every girl in Africa has right to be a tennis star, a famous scientist and a political personnel. Some tribe leader whose mental capability can’t see the future shouldn’t confine their fates.
From the article it’s quite clear that she has done her study on the history and ancient perspective of afro-culture. When she talks about inheritance, it’s quite clear that the African women inherit the slavery and consider themselves as a burden.
Inheritance as a cultural training among the African women is not women friendly. Conventionally the issue of will was not present. Thus after the burial of the deceased, the oracle was consulted to fix a time for the sharing of the property. Part to emphasize here is the property covers up their women too. Sharing of workplaces is male centered as women cannot be made the big of the family. No matter how young a male child is, he is superior to female children in this regard no matter how old they may be. However, it is not impossibility for female children to inherit property especially when they are single, but this is not always the case for married women because of the belief that they in their entirety belong to their husbands. Of course, it is not distinguishing for a married woman to claim any right regarding inheriting her family’s belongings. What obtains in Igbo land in Africa is more hostile to women as they do not have any right to inherit anything from their fathers. If a man dies without having a son, his belongings go to his brother or uncle, and his name is believed to have been lost. This is why having a male child in the area is sacrosanct and the relevance of the name Ahamefula(shameful).
The document discusses various cultures that recognize third gender identities that differ from the male and female genders. It provides examples of the Inuit "cross-gendered" individuals, Samoa's fa'afafine, South Asia's hijra, and Native North Americans' "two-spirit" people. For each group, it discusses their social roles, how their gender identities fit into their cultures, and how their cultures understand sexuality as separate from gender.
This editorial provides an overview of the themes explored in the issue of the journal BUWA! related to feminism and culture. It discusses how culture is often used to dismiss feminist arguments that challenge the status quo. The issue includes articles that critically examine the positive and negative impacts of culture on women's lives. It explores topics like masculinity, marriage, religion, the arts, and how cultures influence women's bodies. While cultures evolve over time, the underlying perception and treatment of women has often not fundamentally changed. The editorial argues more dialogue is needed across generations of feminists to foster real change in replacing harmful practices with respect for women's rights and freedoms.
This document discusses sex and gender from a cross-cultural anthropological perspective. It explores how gender roles vary across cultures and how biology interacts with cultural constructions of gender. Key topics covered include the cultural construction of gender, multiple gender identities in some native cultures, the gendered division of labor, and factors that influence gender stratification like gender ideologies. Examples from cultures such as the US, Mbuti, and Minangkabau are provided.
1) I do not believe that there is a third sex in society. However,.docxmonicafrancis71118
1) I do not believe that there is a third sex in society. However, I am fully supportive of transgender people, as well as all other members apart of the LGBT community. I believe that there are two genders, which are male and female. However, I believe that if a male wishes to transition into a girl, or if a girl wishes to transition into a boy, they should be allowed to do so. I would support their change and refer to them as their new gender identity. I would still consider them either a boy or a girl. Even though they are transgender, I would still refer to them as being either male or female, depending on what they transitioned into. For example, I consider the men in the video who transitioned into women to be female. I do not believe that transgender is a gender itself, which is why I do not believe that there is a third sex in society.
Along with this, I also believe that neither men nor women should have to live up to gender stereotypes. If a person who identifies as a male wishes to act feminine, whether he is or isn't straight, he should be allowed to do so without being insulted. I would still refer to him as being a male. This is also the case with people who identify as women, yet are very masculine. I believe that your gender does not limit you on how you must act or how you sexually identify yourself. Straight males can be feminine just like straight women can be masculine. My reason for mentioning this is from the part in the video where it showed the men who transitioned to women cleaning the house and doing many of the chores that they believe only women should do. I feel that it is perfectly acceptable for a male to do "female" chores, while still identifying as a male.
Lastly, I would like to point out that there are many differences in definitions involving the terms "gender" and "sex." Most people view the term "sex" in a biological sense, meaning to be male or female depending on your genitalia. However, this creates an argument for those who do not identify as male or female, despite what they were biologically born as. The question asked if I believe that there is a "third sex." This would mean that there is a third way a child could be born, as in, they could be male, female, or something else. Obviously, this is impossible, which is why I do not believe that there is a third sex. I feel it is important to mention that my post is simply my opinion. I accept everyone for who they are, no matter how they identify themselves!
2) I do not believe there is a third sex in a society based off of what the word “sex” means. Our book defines sex as “a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females”. Therefore, this has nothing to do with what someone perceives themselves to be and is determined by biology. Now, human anatomy has always said that there are two sexes, male and female (You either have an XX or an XY on your chromosomes). This suffices to show that it is not eve.
Gender and Age10CHAPTERIn Tunis, the capital of Tunisi.docxhanneloremccaffery
Gender and Age10CHAPTER
In Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, on Africa’s north-
ern coast, I met some U.S. college students and spent a couple
of days with them. They wanted to see the city’s red light
district, but I wondered whether it would be worth the trip. I
already had seen other red light districts, including the unusual
one in Amsterdam where a bronze statue of a female prostitute
lets you know you’ve entered the area; the state licenses the
women and men, requiring that they have medical checkups
(certificates must be posted); and the prostitutes add sales tax
to the receipts they give customers. The prostitutes sit behind
lighted picture windows while customers stroll along the nar-
row canal side streets and do “window shopping” from the out-
side. Tucked among the brothels are day care centers, bakeries,
and clothing stores. Amsterdam itself is an unusual place—in
cafes, you can smoke marijuana but not tobacco.
I decided to go with
them. We ended up on a
wharf that extended into the
Mediterranean. Each side was
lined with a row of one-room
wooden shacks, crowded one
against the next. In front
of each open door stood a
young woman. Peering from
outside into the dark inte-
riors, I could see that each
door led to a tiny room with
an old, well-worn bed.
The wharf was crowded
with men who were eyeing the
women. Many of the men wore sailor uniforms from countries
that I couldn’t identify.
As I looked more closely, I could see that some of the
women had runny sores on their legs. Incredibly, with such vis-
ible evidence of their disease, customers still sought them out.
With a sick feeling in my stomach and the desire to vomit,
I kept a good distance between the beckoning women and
myself. One tour of the two-block area was more than
sufficient.
Somewhere nearby, out of sight, I knew that there were
men whose wealth derived from exploiting these women who
were condemned to live short lives punctuated by fear and
misery.
The prostitutes sit
behind lighted picture
windows while cus-
tomers stroll along
the narrow canal side
streets and do “win-
dow shopping” from
the outside.
Afghanistan
276 CHAPTER 10 Gender and Age
Differences in how we display gender
often lie below our awareness. How
males and females use social space
is an example. In this unposed
photo from Grand Central Station
in New York City, you can see how
males tend to sprawl out, females
to enclose themselves. Why do you
think this difference exists? Biology?
Socialization? Both?
In the previous chapter, we considered how race–ethnicity affects people’s well-being
and their position in society. In this chapter, we examine gender stratification—males’
and females’ unequal access to property, power, and prestige.
We also explore the prejudice and discrimination directed to people because of their
age. Gender and age are especially significant because, like race–ethnicity, they are master
statuses; that is, they cut ...
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How Culture Constructs Gender DifferenceBiological models PazSilviapm
How Culture Constructs Gender Difference
Biological models assume that biological sex determines gender,
That biological differences lead to behavior differences, which lead to social arrangements.
By this account, social inequalities are encoded into our physiological composition.
That biological anomalies alone account for variation.
Biological researchers always assumed that gender difference implied gender inequality because western notions of difference do usually lead to and justify inequality.
However, some anthropologists argue that biological models projected their western values onto other cultures.
That these models ignore the role of colonialism and the roles of women in establishing gender differences in traditional cultures.
Anthropological evidence offers a world of amazing diversity of the cultural constructions of gender.
Yet some themes remain constant:
Virtually all societies manifest some amount of difference between men and women.
Virtually all cultures exhibit some form of male domination, despite variations in gender definitions.
Variations in Gender Definitions
Anthropologists have found far more variability in the definitions of masculinity and femininity than any biologist would have predicted.
Men possessed of similar levels of testosterone, with similar brain structure and lateralization, seem to exhibit dramatically different levels of aggression, violence, and, especially, violence toward women.
Women with similar brains, hormones, and evolutionary imperatives have widely different experiences of passivity, PMS, and spatial coordination.
Margaret Meade’s Work
Meade examined three very different cultures in New Guinea.
In the Arapesh culture, all members were passive, gentle, and emotionally warm.
Males and females were equally happy, trustful, and confident.
Men and women shared child rearing, both were “maternal” and both discouraged aggression in boys and girls.
Both men and women were thought to be relatively equally sexual.
In the Mundugamor culture (a tribe of head hunters and cannibals), citizens viewed men and women as similar but expected persons of both sexes to be violent and aggressive.
Women showed little “maternal instinct,” detested pregnancy and nursing and could hardly wait to return to the serious business of work.
There was violent rivalry between fathers and sons.
All people feared that they were being wronged by others.
In the Tchambuli culture (as in the US) men and women were seen as very different.
It was a patrilineal culture and polygyny was accepted.
One sex was comprised primarily of nurturing and gossipy consumers who spent their days dressing up and going shopping.
These were the men
The women were dominant, energetic, economic providers.
They fished (activity on which the entire culture depended).
They had real positions of power in the society.
Completely unadorned, they were business- like, controlled all commerce and diplomacy of the culture, and were the initiators of ...
This document discusses gender roles and how they are influenced from a young age. It states that males are typically socialized to take on more aggressive and dominant roles, while females are socialized to be more nurturing and submissive. It also mentions that failing to conform to typical gender roles can result in labels like "feminist", "not masculine/feminine enough", or accusations of being gay/lesbian. Additionally, it discusses how gender roles influence behaviors, career choices, appearance expectations, and the labeling of those who don't strictly adhere to traditional roles.
A first blush, it probably seems easy to define what we're talking about when we talk about gender. It's just men and women, and the differences between them, right? But things are not so simple, and explaining what actually constitutes gender is surprisingly difficult.
The Role of Class and Culture in Shaping Nnu Ego's Experiences in The Joys of...Dhruvita1
"The Joys of Motherhood" is a novel written by Buchi Emecheta, a Nigerian author. The book was first published in 1979 and explores the experiences of Nnu Ego, a Nigerian woman who struggles to find happiness and fulfillment in her roles as wife and mother.
One of the major themes of the book is the role of class and culture in shaping Nnu Ego's experiences. As a woman from a lower-class background, Nnu Ego faces significant challenges in achieving her goals and aspirations. Her struggles are compounded by the cultural expectations placed upon her as a wife and mother in a patriarchal society.
The novel also explores the tension between traditional and modern values in Nigerian society. Nnu Ego must navigate the expectations of her family and community while also grappling with her own desires and ambitions.
Overall, "The Joys of Motherhood" is a complex and nuanced portrayal of Nigerian society and the challenges faced by women like Nnu Ego. Some possible tags related to the role of class and culture in shaping Nnu Ego's experiences include:
Nigerian literature
Postcolonialism
Feminism and gender roles
Motherhood and family
Tradition and modernity
Patriarchy and power dynamics.
Similar to Supposing that there were Female Fathers (12)
STUDY ON THE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF HUZHOU TOURISMAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Huzhou has rich tourism resources, as early as a considerable development since the reform and
opening up, especially in recent years, Huzhou tourism has ushered in a new period of development
opportunities. At present, Huzhou tourism has become one of the most characteristic tourist cities on the East
China tourism line. With the development of Huzhou City, the tourism industry has been further improved, and
the tourism degree of the whole city has further increased the transformation and upgrading of the tourism
industry. However, the development of tourism in Huzhou City still lags far behind the tourism development of
major cities in East China. This round of research mainly analyzes the current development of tourism in
Huzhou City, on the basis of analyzing the specific situation, pointed out that the current development of
Huzhou tourism problems, and then analyzes these problems one by one, and put forward some specific
solutions, so as to promote the further rapid development of tourism in Huzhou City.
KEYWORDS:Huzhou; Travel; Development
Enhancing Losari Beach Exploration: Augmented Reality for Immersive Visualiza...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: South Sulawesi, commonly known as Makassar, boasts rich cultural heritage and customs,
making it a prominent destination for tourism. Among its attractions, Losari beach stands out as a focal point for
visitors seeking to explore the city's natural beauty and cultural offerings. In this context, leveraging modern
technology such as augmented reality presents an innovative approach to showcasing Losari beach to potential
tourists. This research endeavors to introduce tourism assets in a more visually captivating manner through the
use of augmented reality. Utilizing software tools like Unity and Adobe Illustrator, the study focuses on creating
an immersive experience where tourists can interact with virtual representations of Losari beach. By simply
pointing their mobile phone cameras at designated markers or using barcode scanners, tourists can access
augmented reality features embedded within the application. The findings of this research aim to provide
valuable information, particularly for foreign tourists, about Losari beach, positioning it as a compelling
destination within South Sulawesi's diverse array of tourist attractions. Through this technological innovation,
the study seeks to enhance the visibility and appeal of Makassar city's tourism offerings on a global scale.
KEYWORDS: Visualizing, Losari Beach, Augmented Reality
DEVELOPMENT STATUS AND COUNTERMEASURES OF TMALL DURING THE COVID-19 EPIDEMICAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:China's e-commerce enterprises have developed rapidly, among which Tmall has become one of
the largest retail shopping websites in China.But in the past year, the Covid-19 epidemic has brought a huge
impact to Chinese e-commerce enterprises, and Tmall is no exception.Therefore, the development status of
Tmall in the new crown epidemic situation was analyzed, and the viewpoint was put forward :Tmall1 stabilized
the situation in the face of the epidemic situation and made a very correct countermeasures.The influence of this
epidemic on Tmall was deeply analyzed, and the conclusion was made: the new crown epidemic is both a
challenge and an opportunity forTmall.
KEYWORDS:Tmall; COVID - 19 outbreak ; The electronic commerce
Factors affecting undergraduate students’ motivation at a university in Tra VinhAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Motivation plays an important role in foreign language learning process. This study aimed to
investigate student’s motivation patterns towards English language learning at a University in Tra Vinh, and factors
affecting their motivation change toward English language learning of non-English-major students in the semester.
The researcher used semi-structured interview at the first phase of choosing the participants and writing reflection
through the instrument called “My English Learning Motivation History” adapted from Sawyer (2007) to collect
qualitative data within 15 weeks. The participants consisted of nine first year non-English-major students who learning
General English at pre-intermediate level. They were chosen and divided into three groups of three members each
(high motivation group; average motivation group; and low motivation group). The results of the present study
identified six visual motivation patterns of three groups of students with different motivation fluctuation, through the
use of cluster analysis. The study also indicated a diversity of factors affecting students’ motivation involving internal
factors as influencing factors (cognitive, psychology, and emotion) and external factors as social factors (instructor,
peers, family, and learning environment) during English language learning in a period of 15 weeks. The findings of
the study helped teacher understand relationship of motivation change and its influential factors. Furthermore, the
findings also inspired next research about motivation development in learning English process.
KEY WORDS: language learning motivation, motivation change, motivation patterns, influential factors, students’
motivation.
The Impact of Work Stress and Digital Literacy on Employee Performance at PT ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research aims to analyze the correlation between employee work stress and digital literacy
with employee performance at PT Telkom Akses Area Cirebon, both concurrently and partially. Employing a
quantitative approach, the study's objectives are descriptive and causal, adopting a positivist paradigm with a
deductive approach to theory development and a survey research strategy. Findings reveal that work stress
negatively and significantly impacts employee performance, while digital literacy positively and significantly
affects it. Simultaneously, work stress and digital literacy have a positive and significant influence on employee
performance. It is anticipated that company management will devise workload management strategies to
alleviate work stress and assess the implementation of more efficient digital technology to enhance employee
performance.
KEYWORDS -digital literacy, employee performance,job stress, multiple regression analysis, workload
management
The Settlement of Construction Disputes Through Dispute Councils From the Per...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This research differs from the practice of business activity in the construction services industry,
which may lead to construction disputes. The settlement of construction disputes is a consensus based on the
basic principle of debate. If the discussions between the parties do not reach an agreement, the parties may take
measures to resolve the dispute through the dispute council. Because the standard governing the disputes
committee was not fully regulated, they did not comply with the principle of legal certainty. Therefore, further
research was needed to establish a theoretical basis for regulating the disputes committee in settling construction
disputes. This research is a standard legal research using a legal regulatory, conceptual, and comparative
approach. The research results show that the ideal concept of resolving construction disputes through a dispute
council based on the value of legal certainty is to establish that the position of the dispute council is a special
court that has the authority to resolve construction disputes under construction services agreements. To realize
the position of the Court of Disputation as a special court, it must be based on the creation of philosophical
values, the creationof legislative regulations, and the creation of the institutional structure of the Court of
Disputation.
KEYWORDS-Construction Disputes, Dispute Council, Special Court
VALUES OF ORAL LITERATURE IN THE SOCIETY: A STUDY OF FOLKTALES OFOGBA IN RIVE...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : Oral literature is a creative work of art that portends high merit and has the creative use of
imagination in preliterate societies. It adopts the genres of literature: drama, prose and poetry in the oral milieu,
using performance as its hallmark. It thrives on the use of oral data because of its orality. This paper focuses on
the moral values or oral literature in the society using Ogba as a spring board. The study was carried out in
communities ofOgba. The population of the study consists of ten towns and village, in Ogba. The theoretical
framework used is Dell Hyme’s ethno-poetics because the works of oral literature relate to the society. This
paper concludes that oral literature serves to against all odds; communicate ideas, emotions, beliefs and
appreciation of life. The folktales in Ogba for instance, serve similar purpose through their
rendition/performance. Through the stories, the younger generation in Ogba society is familiarised with the
customs, traditions, and rituals prevalent in the society. This paper therefore recommends the use of oral
literature in all its genres to inculcate moral values and lessons to the teenagers and youths. Against this
background, Ogba (African) themselves must cease to regard oral literature as primitive and fetish.
KEYWORDS: Values, Oral Literature, Society, Ogba, Folktales
Pormalistikong Pagdalumat sa mga Tula ni Ron CanimoAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Nilayon ng pag-aaral na ito na masuri ang dalawampung (20) tula ni Ron Canimo gamit ang
pormalistikong dulog batay sa mga sumusunod na elemento: (a) Sukat at Tugma, (b) Talinghaga at
Simbolismo, (c) Imahen, (d) Tema, at (e) Diksiyon. Layunin din nitong mataya ang antas ng pagtanggap ng
ginawang pagsusuri gamit ang nabuong instrumento sa pagtataya nito. Sinunod dito ang Input-Process-Output
na balangkas ng pag-aaral at ginamitan ng kwantitatib-deskriptib-ebalwatib na pamamaraan. Sa pamamagitan
ng talatanungang ibinatay sa ginamit ni Morales (2014) na naimodipika ayon sa kahingian ng kasalukuyang
pag-aaral, tatlong (3) gurong eksperto ang nagsilbing tagataya dito na siyang tumiyak sa kahusayan ng nabuong
pagsusuri ng mananaliksik. Gamit ang Content Analysis, natuklasan na makabagong pamamaraan ang istilo na
ginamit ni Ron Canimo sa pagsulat ng mga tula. Lahat ng kanyang mga tula ay walang sinusunod na sukat at
tugma, may iba‟t ibang tayutay at simbolismong ginamit, magkaibang pandama ang pinagana dahil sa mga
imahe at paglalarawang ginawa, iba‟t ibang uri ng pag-ibig ang tinalakay at gumamit ng pormal, impormal o
kumbersasyonal na wika at makabagong istilo sa pagsulat ng tula. Gamit ang mean at standard deviation,
lumabas na “Mataas” ang antas ng pagtanggap sa kabuuan ng mga gurong eksperto na tumaya sa nabuong
pagsusuri. Lumabas din na “Mataas” ang antas ng kanilang pagtanggap sa nabuong pagsusuri batay sa mga
sumusunod na elemento: (a) Sukat at Tugma, (b) Talinghaga at Simbolismo, (c) Imahen, (d) Tema, at (e)
Diksiyon. Mula sa natayang pagsusuri at kinalabasan ng antas ng pagtanggap dito, naitala ang mga paksa sa
Junior High School Filipino na maaaring lapatan at gamitan ng nabuong pagsusuri.
KEYWORDS: Kumbensyunal, Pagdalumat, Pormalistiko, Ron Canimo, Tula
SCHOOL CULTURE ADAPTATION AMONG INDIGENOUS PEOPLES COLLEGE STUDENTS AT A PRIV...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This qualitative study investigates the adaption experiences of indigenous college students at the
University of Mindanao, Matina-main campus. Eight major themes emerged, including difficulties with language
proficiency, online learning, classroom interaction, examination systems, grading procedures, school regulations,
resource accessibility, coping mechanisms, and future goals. Implications include the requirement for targeted
language proficiency and technology use support, an understanding of adaption processes, interventions to
improve resource accessibility, and equitable public administration policies. The study underlines the importance
of adaptation in various educational contexts, as well as the role of educators and legislators in creating inclusive
learning environments.
KEYWORDS: indigenous college students, adaptation, educational challenges, coping strategies
The effect of Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth and Profitability on Tax ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research aims to test, analyze and obtain empirical evidence about the influence of
institutional ownership, sales growth and profitability on tax avoidance. The object of this research is
manufacturing companies in the consumer goods industry sector listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI)
in 2018-2022. This research used quantitative research methods and causal research design. The sampling
technique in this research used non-probability sampling with purposive sampling as the basis for determining
the sample so that a sample of 55 samples was obtained. The data used is secondary data obtained from the
official website of the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI) during the 2018-2022 period. The data analysis method
used was multiple linear regression analysis with several tests such as descriptive statistical tests, classical
assumption tests, and hypothesis testing using SPSS version 26 statistical software. The results showed that the
institutional ownership variable has no effect on tax avoidance, while the sales growth and profitability has a
negative and significant effect on tax avoidance.
KEYWORDS: Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth, Profitability, Tax Avoidance
MGA ESTRATEHIYA SA PAGTUTURO KAUGNAY SA PASALITANG PARTISIPASYON NG MGA MAG-A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRAK: Ang mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ay mahalagang kasangkapan sa paghahatid ng mabisang
pagtuturo sa loob ng silid. Tinukoy sa pag-aaral na ito ang antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa pagsasadula,
pangkatang talakayan at paggawa ng mga koneksyon sa tunay na karanasan sa buhay bilang mga estratehiya sa
pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino at pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Baitang 7 ng Misamis
University Junior High School, Ozamiz City. Ang ginamit na disenyo sa pananaliksik na ito ay deskriptivcorrelational. Ang mga datos sa pag-aaral ay nagmula sa kabuuang populasyon na 120 na mag-aaral at tatlong
mga guro na tagamasid sa pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral. Ang Talatanungan sa Kagamitan sa
Pagtuturo ng Panitikan at Checklist batay sa Obserbasyon sa Pasalita na Partisipasyon ay ang instrumentong
ginamit sa pagkalap ng datos. Mean, standard deviation, Analysis of Variance at Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient ang mga ginamit na estatistiko na sangkap. Inihayag sa naging resulta na ang tatlong piling
estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino ay may pinakamataas na antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral.
Ang antas ng pakilahok ng mga mag-aaral sa paggamit ng tatlong estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan ay
pinakamataas na nagpapahiwatig na aktibong nakilahok ang mga mag-aaral sa mga gawain. Inihayag din na
walang makabuluhang kaibahan sa antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng
panitikan sa Filipino. Ito ay nangahulugan na gustong-gusto ng mga mag-aaral ang pagkakaroon ng mga
estratehiya sa pagtuturo. Walang makabuluhang kaugnayan ang kagustuhan sa mga estratehiya at antas ng
pakikilahok ng mga mag-aaral. Hindi nakaapekto sa kanilang pakikilahok ang anumang estratehiyang ginamit ng
guro.
KEYWORDS : estratehiya, karanasan, pagsasadula, pagtuturo, pangkatang talakayan
The Role of the Instruction of Reading Comprehension Strategies in Enhancing ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :Throughout my studies and teaching English in different language centers and higher studies
institutions, I have come to conclude that students consider Reading comprehension as a nightmare that
frightens them and hinders their language acquisition in the Moroccan EFL Context. This may cause them to
develop an internal psychological obstacle that grows as their lack of the necessary instruments or tools to
overcome are not equipped with. They become lost and unaware about or unfamiliar with the necessary reading
comprehension strategies that could help them to face the problem of misunderstanding or non-understanding
of English texts. Respectively, this article which is only one part of my whole study aims at showing the effect
of teaching reading strategies in enhancing the S1 students‟ familiarity with reading strategies and raising their
frequency use. A sample of 283 University students in EFL context have been chosen randomly and have
attended the usual academic reading classes, yet only 76 are subject to this survey. 38 of them constitute the
experimental group who have attended the treatment regularly in one of the language centers and the other 38
participants are chosen randomly from the whole population to constitute the Control group. They all have
Psychosocial Factors and Deviant Behaviors of Children in Conflict with the L...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This study aims to determine the relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant
behaviors among children in conflict with the law (CICL) inDavao Region. The researchers want to discover the
prevalent factors thatdrive these children to their behaviors. Further, the study sought to determinethe
manifestation of psychosocial factors in terms of life satisfaction, emotionalsupport, self-esteem, and personality
traits. The study's data came from N-83children in conflict with the law (CICL) at the Regional Rehabilitation
Center forYouth (RRCY) in Bago Oshiro, Davao City; all respondents are male. This studyused a total
enumeration sampling technique due to the relatively smallpopulation size. The researchers adapted the
Psychosocial surveyquestionnaires by Zabriskie & Ward (2013) and by John and Srivastava (1999)as well as the
Deviant Behavior Variety Scale (DBVS) by Sanches et al. (2016).Through the use of a validated questionnaire,
the mean and standard deviationare determined. The researchers modified this questionnaire and translated itinto
the respondents' mother tongue (Cebuano) for them to comprehend itbetter. The study discovered no significant
relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant behaviors of children in conflict with the law (CICL) in
theDavao Region
KEYWORDS :Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL), deviant behaviors, psychosocial factors
Entropy: A Join between Science and Mind-SocietyAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Entropy is join, intersection and interaction between natural science and human mind-society.
We proposed that if internal interactions exist in isolated systems, entropy decrease will be possible for this
system. Management in system is a typical internal interaction within the isolated system. The purpose of
management is to use regulating the internal interactions within the system, and to decrease the increasing
entropy spontaneously. We propose the principle of social civilization and the developing direction is: freedom
of thought, rule of action. Both combinations should be a peaceful revision and improvement of social rules and
laws. Different countries and nations, different religions and beliefs should coexist peacefully and compete
peacefully. The evolution of human society must be coevolution. Its foundation is the evolution of the human
heart and the human nature.
KEYWORDS: entropy, science, society, management, mind, evolution.
A Model of Disaster Resilience Among Colleges and Universities: A Mixed Metho...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research paper aimed to create a comprehensive framework for measuring disaster
resilience in colleges and universities. The study used a mixed method through Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA), which involved analyzing data from a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed based on
in-depth interviews with 12 selected participants from the University of Mindanao, as well as relevant literature
and studies. It was reviewed and validated by 10 experts using a method called Content Validity Ratio (CVR).
This questionnaire was then administered to 400 students from 10 different colleges in University of Mindanao.
After conducting the Exploratory Factor Analysis and performing rotations and iterations, the researchers
identified five main constructs that characterize disaster resilience among colleges (1) disaster preparedness, (2)
disaster awareness, (3) community readiness, and (4) disaster management, (5) disaster resilience. The
researchers aimed to create an organization called “Council of College Disaster Volunteers (CCDV)” which
consist of student volunteers. These factors can be used to develop effective management strategies and
strengthen efforts in preventing and managing disasters and accidents.
KEYWORDS:content validity ratio, criminology, disaster resilience, disaster management, exploratory factor
analysis, and Philippines.
Environmental Struggles and Justice Among Lumad Farmers of Davao CityAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study described the various environmental struggles experienced among the participants
and their status in accessing justice. The study followed a qualitative multiple-case study approach; the
participants are the Lumad farmers of Marilog, Davao City selected through a Critical sampling method and
aims to present the environmental violations experienced by the Lumad farmers in Davao City and how it
affected their families and sustenance further, their status in accessing justice is also explored. The study
concluded that the most common struggles the participant experience are Illegal logging and improper waste
disposal, which affect their farms, family, health, and income. Their preferred means to accessing justice is
through barangay settlement; the rigors of accessing courts, such as distance, expenses, fear of ruling, and the
hassle of being called to be present in court, are the most prevalent barriers that hinder the lead farmers from
accessing justice or seeking legal action. Nevertheless, the participants believed that the government would help
them in accessing justice.
KEYWORDS :access to justice, criminology,environmental justice, environmental struggles, lumadfarmers
CYBERBULLYING EXPERIENCES OF UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO CRIMINOLOGY STUDENTSAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This paper explores the cyberbullying experiences among Criminology students at the
University of Mindanao. A simple random sampling method was used to distribute the study's online
questionnaire to the respondents and to survey the target population. This study has four hundred (400)
respondents, and the respondents are Criminology students at the University of Mindanao. The findings of this
study revealed that the level of cyberbullying experiences is sometimes manifested. On the other hand, the
cyberbullying experiences of the students indicate a moderate level, which indicates that the cyberbullying
experiences of the respondents are sometimes manifested. Also, the computations showed that among the
indicators presented, the highest mean is obtained in the psychological effect, which implies that there is a
significant effect of cyberbullying experiences of the respondents in terms of the Gender level of the
respondents. Therefore, respondents with a low level of cyberbullying experiences tend to have a moderate level
of cyberbullying experience. However, there is no significant effect in terms of age and year level of the
respondents according to the results regarding the psychological, emotional, and physical impact of
cyberbullying.
KEYWORDS :cyberbullying, emotional, experiences, psychological,physical effect, and simple random
sampling method.
A philosophical ontogenetic standpoint on superego role in human mind formationAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: One of the most significant contributions of psychoanalysis to understand the human being is the
elaboration of a model about the mind from a topical and dynamic perspective. Freud explains the mind by the
constitution of the preconscious, conscious, and subconscious. Later, by three dynamic components: the id, the
ego and the superego. Such an organization of the psychic apparatus supposes not only individual elements, but
social influences along the process of hominization. In this paper, we recover the findings of the renowned
anthropologist Lewis Morgan, trying to link some of them to the psychoanalytic theory. Especially highlighting
the importance of superego in Haidt’s social intuitionism.
Keywords: evolutionism, intuitionism, psychoanalysis, Freud, Haidt, Morgan
Improving Workplace Safety Performance in Malaysian SMEs: The Role of Safety ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: In the Malaysian context, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) experience a significant
burden of workplace accidents. A consensus among scholars attributes a substantial portion of these incidents to
human factors, particularly unsafe behaviors. This study, conducted in Malaysia's northern region, specifically
targeted Safety and Health/Human Resource professionals within the manufacturing sector of SMEs. We
gathered a robust dataset comprising 107 responses through a meticulously designed self-administered
questionnaire. Employing advanced partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) techniques
with SmartPLS 3.2.9, we rigorously analyzed the data to scrutinize the intricate relationship between safety
behavior and safety performance. The research findings unequivocally underscore the palpable and
consequential impact of safety behavior variables, namely safety compliance and safety participation, on
improving safety performance indicators such as accidents, injuries, and property damages. These results
strongly validate research hypotheses. Consequently, this study highlights the pivotal significance of cultivating
safety behavior among employees, particularly in resource-constrained SME settings, as an essential step toward
enhancing workplace safety performance.
KEYWORDS :Safety compliance, safety participation, safety performance, SME
Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of ForgivenessAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of Forgiveness.
The two variables are regarded to have influence on the decision one makes to forgive another. The study aimed
at examining the relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness, empathy and forgiveness
and to identify which one of the two,Psychological Empowerment or Empathy, is the more powerful predictor of
forgiveness. The study took a survey design with a sample of 350 drawn from a population of university students
using a self-administered questionnaire with four sections: Personal information, Psychological empowerment
scale, Toronto Empathy questionnaire, and the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). Data analysis employed
Pearson’s product moment correlation and regression analysis to test hypotheses. The results show significant
relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness as well as empathy and forgiveness.
Empathy was found to be the more powerful predictor of forgiveness.
KEY WORDS: Psychological empowerment, empathy, forgiveness
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
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American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR)
e-ISSN :2378-703X
Volume-3, Issue-1, pp-122-129
www.ajhssr.com
Research Paper OpenAccess
Supposing that there were Female Fathers
Joseph Minga and Joanah Gadzikwa
ABSTRACT: The paper highlights how African female self-images have changed over generations. In the
ancient African culture, a female child occupied a significant position in the community. However, due to
culture contact and change and the domestic violence in our postmodern society, it appears as if the role of the
woman in public life is no longer recognised. The paper unearths the sisters or aunts in Shona culture in
Zimbabwe, Luba culture in the Democratic of Congo, as well as the Venda of South Africa, which we believe
are relevant in reviewing gender practices in postmodern Africa. The point of departure in this paper is to draw
from patriarchy the problem solving roles that women once played or continue to play in this system. Although
the women‟s roles were not always similar to those of their male counterparts, however, their leadership roles
went beyond ordinary familial and matrilineal duties. The paper argues that a fuller understanding of the role of
female fathers in these cultures is vital to resisting the perceptions that the violence attacking the heart of our
society today emerges from patriarchal areas of barbarity.
KEYWORDS: Africa, culture, gender, female fathers, and human being
I. INTRODUCTION: HALF OF EACH SEX/GENDER
The idea of double gender is a controversial issue in the contemporary world. One does not need to
examine this statement further to know that it is a false supposition: fathers are males and not females.
Femininity and masculinity are the primary organising principles in most cultures, because gender is often
perceived the same as sex.Whenever the female sex is mentioned, people usually associate it with women, and
vice versa. Even children as young as two, born in our homes, know that „This is Mom‟ and „This is Dad‟.
Part of this cultural gender comprehension is facilitated by the symbolic interactionism, as manifested in
the dressing code which visually distinguishes mom from dad, or gender roles that make one a housekeeper and
another a breadwinner – factors that reinforce gender disparity in our society. We all knowthe old joke that
„Boys will be boys‟. We think of boys as leaders and glorify maleness over femaleness.
One must not wonder why girls react as they did hundred years ago. They secretly envyboys and wish
they were boys. But one of them, we assume a small girl, realised the beauty of being a woman when she said:
“Depuis que j‟aidécouvert que l‟hommeest descendant du singe, je suisheureuse d‟être femme” (“Since I
discovered that man is the offspring of monkey, I delight in being woman”). Most people will agree that gender
binary is a big problem in society. This example is used to show the dangers of this stereotype and how quickly
the young girl widens the gap between genders and even eliminates a possibility of her being a descendant of
apes. It could be a main concern of our contemporary society to help those whosemental constitutions do not
allow themto counter the illeffects of sexist attitudes.
Meanwhile, harsh gender binaries abound. To state the obvious, some cultures are fundamentally
patriarchal and have created environmentswhere girls find no place to grow to their full potential as human
beings. While jokes such as the examplesabove exist in many cultures, perpetuatingthe lower status of the
female child,they surely do not applyto most African cultures in which girls are givenleadership rolesand
initiation guidance to stretch the boundariesof their roles in society?
It is easier for most people to see gender and sex in binary male-versus-female terms than potentially
coexisting, as in the term „female father‟ suggested in the title of this article. This illustrates that the issue has
not been given enough attention. An interesting example is the case of a Venezuelan transgender couple whose
names will not be mentioned here. The one who is biologically a man but identifies as a woman impregnated the
other, who has female genital organs but identifies as a male. Their child is thus born from a female father and
male mother.
Since gender relates to identity, and identityis an internal matter, it is therefore natural that a person with
masculine physical traits may claim to be a woman, and vice versa. The revelation of our gender that comes
from outside or from other people only confirms or denieswhat one isnot. We respect lesbians, gays, bisexuals,
transgenders and queers (LGBTQs) for fighting for acceptance. But their claim of having a specific gender
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(whether gay, lesbian or straight) is in contrast with our argument, which is not for gender identity or equality,
but for the duality of gender personality. Most existing gender identitieshave their limitations, lacking the
framework and implications of broader perspectives. In other words, these gender identities refrain from
attempting that kind of analysis,precluding a perspective from which we can view the duality within the female
gender in African culture. In a sense, the purpose of our discussion is to show the concrete reality of female
gender and the levels of its underlying male gender features and implications.
All of us are combinations of male and female gender characteristics, but most of us do not want to
considerthat our masculinity is tainted with some femininity or our femininity is soiled with some masculinity.
Unfortunately, many insist on believing in pure gender,even when it is scientifically proven that we have in us
both the oestrogens and progesterone hormones inherited from both our parents.
We may carry this argument one step further, with examples from the wonder of nature. The brush-
footed butterfly of Southeast Asia (Malaysia) is half male and half female, a combination of two sexes (genders)
detected mostly from itswings (each of the two wingsisa different colour).According to James Borell who has
done research on these creatures, these unusual cases are not hermaphrodites;rather,they are literallyhalf of each
sex.Like these butterflies, clownfish, Borell(2016) says, are also sex changers. They are born male, and in any
community there will be at least one female. But if this female dies, the largest of the males will be obliged to
change sex and take her place. This process is a massive change in hormone levels, and it seems that the
transformation is completed in the space of a week. The long list of sex changers includes slugs, corals, frogs,
snakes and birds.
Nature thus gives us examples to prove that genders can get different classifications including half male
and half female.Learning from nature puts our discussion of female father back on the right track. The argument
in this paper does so by focusing on the role of women in Shona culture of Zimbabwe, the Luba culture in the
Democratic Republic Congo, and to some extent the Venda culture of South Africa. Despite the title, the paper‟s
argument is not an exercise in supposition but rather a presentation of evidence.
II. BEYOND THE GENDER BINARY DIVIDE
The African culture goes beyond the gender binary divide. WhileWestern knowledge portrays the world in
dichotomies such as public versus private, right versus wrong, material versus spiritual and secular versus religious,
African people view the world not in terms of artificial divisions but rather as a continuous whole. To them, the
spiritual and material are intertwined, and there is not only black and white, but grey as well. Let us give an example
from the Tshiluba, one of the tribesin the Kasai province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Luba Bantu-
speaking people have the word tatu-mukaji which means „female father‟, or „a father who is a woman‟. In English,
this phrase would simply translated as „aunt‟. Tatu-mukaji is known to be the father‟s younger or elder sister who is
referred to as „male father‟ by his nieces and nephews. However, a careful reader will quickly notice that two genders
or titles are embedded in thecompound word tatu-mukaji. It is an acknowledgement of the fact that, though a woman,
a person can also be a father.
One could argue that some cultures perceiving gender in sex are not attuned to African philosophy. Gender
disparity or inequality and gender based violence are aspects of sexist or divergent thinking, the result of a focus on
the parts rather than the whole is encouraged by the new world. The African approach, on the contrary, followed
convergent thinking in which the ultimate goal was to unite rather than to separate things. In our sexist age, we have
perpetuated binary distinctions between genders and mental attitudes towards gender hierarchies that the old African
cultures sought to eradicate.
African culture has practiced gender dualism practice for ages. It is easy for contemporary African women to
think that they have been completely disempowered or made to be inferior beings compared to men. However, all
through the great ages of African history, women have always been well regarded in society by men. Despite men‟s
weaknesses and inconsistencies, they have always given women their space in things that divide us today. Except for
unknowncultures, nowhere have women found more difficulty inenjoying their rights than in what is known as
modern societies, with postcolonial Africaworst of all.
Understanding the role of the woman in postmodern society and the violence she is exposed to has proven
difficult. Most scholars have been tempted to describe women as victims, neglecting to show some of the strengths
women still hold in society today. We want to address this neglect by arguing for the irreplaceable role of the African
woman. Despite their noble intention to better the condition of the woman, gender researchershave often misled their
audiences into believing the patriarchal culture is the reason why men victimisewomen.
The question is: how are we to make sense of the glorious past African women once enjoyed in the face of this
modern disfigured society replete with all forms of violence towards the weak, the woman and her baby daughter?
Explanations are various, depending on where one positions oneself – as a feminist, gender critic, Africanist, and so
on.
African women today are unmindful of their own past, though few people in the world ever had such a past to
be proud of and thankful for. Africa saw queens, female soldiers and high priestesses for the past three thousand years,
teaching us how much women can do in society. We do not agree with the poor image that is created of an African
woman in society today. We acknowledge that women are vulnerable, but so are men. Women lose much from
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beginning thefeminist discourse at the wrong end, concerning themselves first and principally with the idea of how
society has forgotten them, without considering the converse: what they are able to give society. We reject theories
thatfind the origin of women‟s disempowerment in patriarchy, in the power of man, in the power of circumstances or
believe that this imbalance will be addressed by attacking men.
As this paper argues, African women draw upon a set of perceived notions of femininities in the postmodern
world they have been exposed to for some time. But the underlying thesis is that although these new conceptions have
created new gender identities that benefit women in some ways, depending on their expectations (modern, global,
alienated, emancipated from traditional cultures, and so on). While it is not entirely untrue that women as historical
subjects are complex interactions of sexual, ethnic, class, and even religious differences, we still believe that the
history of our matriarchal system in Africa is in itself a history of steadily enlarging understanding of the wealth of
civilisation that already passed the stage of sexual, ethnic, class, and religious differences.
However, in general the postmodern woman has not, we admit, made progress towards some of the crucial
questions: what in the period of history between indigenous pre-colonial Africa and the imposition of European-
dominated colonial system, was the thing which led to gender inequality? Why has matriarchy disappeared in some
societies which were predominantly matriarchal and given way to patriarchy? At what point do oppressed African
women decide that the oppression is embedded in cultural norms and not in the structures of modern society itself and
turn to the feminist ideology for their way out? In this way, it is worth asking how important it is to understand first,
the role of the African woman in the local culture and history.
Some examples from different parts of Africa can help in building our argument. While the theme of
conscription of female soldiers is only beginning to be given attention in the world as an emerging event, we find a
clear example of the use of women as soldiers and the king‟s secret police in Dahomean kingdom or state (in today‟s
Benin) under the rule of King Ghezo as early as the ninth century. During the war of conquest, the French army lost
several battles to them before they realised that they were being defeated by female warriors whose skill in battles was
the equal of every contemporary body of male elite soldiers from among the colonial powers. The7000 corps of
female soldiers under the rule of King Ghezo also called the ahosi„royal followers‟ or the Amazons fought in 32
bloody battles against the French. These young women, says Edgerton, “maintain[ed]their morale and enthusiasm for
close combat to the very end”before they were all killed tothe last woman soldier by the French troops with the help
of the tirailleurssénégalais(Edgerton (2000:154). The French Foreign Legionnaires and Marine Infantry who fought
against them in 1890s, acknowledged, observes Edgerton, that they were not only far superior to Dahomey‟s excellent
professional male soldiers, but every bit the equal of those proud French soldiers (Edgerton, 2000:2).
The religious practices associated with Vudu or Voodoo and its success among the slaves in Haiti, which
brought about the independence of the first black republic and is one of the best documented anti-slavery protests in
history, reminds us at the same time of the most highly developed religions in respect of the woman‟s role. While
Christianity is discriminatory against women, oral history has it that Hwanjile, a wife of Agaja and mother of
Tebesson brought the vodun to the kingdom of Dahomey. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu
having female characteristics and Lisa having male characteristics). Mawu-Lisa governs the sky and is the highest
pantheon of gods, but other gods also exist in the earth and in thunder. In short, religious practice organised different
priesthoods and shrines for each different god and women here made up a significant numberof the priest class.
There are very few female Muslim Imams and female Christian ministers. This means that not many know that
the place of female in religion is even a possibility. Instead, women must „sit down and listen‟. If feminism is fighting
the male-dominated structures in these religions today, it is because these religions are discriminatory. It is difficult
for one to read the Koran and the Bible through the lens of gender equality. Whether women were originally given
space in these religions‟ traditions and then change took place over time is difficult to determine, but what is certain is
that women in these religions are regarded as second-class Christians or Muslims.
Unlike Islam and Christianity, African traditional religion, as shown above, has had no need to put up a fight
against a huge weight of gender discrimination against women as the place of the priestesses has always been there for
her to connect with deities. Put simply, the feminism movement is only bringing new alternatives in these patriarchal
religions. In Zimbabwe, the African religion played a major role in the fight against colonialism. Infact, the first
Chimurenga („revolution‟) war was led by a woman spirit medium by the name of MbuyaNehanda under whose
command men were instructed to go to war against white settlers. Like priestess Kimba Vita in the Kingdom of
Kongo, Nehandafought against slavery. Both women were killed by the colonialists, in the belief that to kill them is to
kill the African revolution. In the same vein of thought, the mbonga, a female guardian whose celibacy protected the
Shona chief, and the chibanda, a caste of male divinerswas believed to be possessed by female spirits as referred to by
Marc Epprecht in his „Hungochani‟ reminds one of combined gender identities. Most members of the community,in
their inalienable inviolability as their "culture of discretion around sexual matters" allowed, reduced the
chibandahomosexual identity to inivisibility even though this attitude was not in itself homophobic.
The above evidence would seem to support the idea that Africa was a gender-free society. If we turn from
African to Western culture, we can find scores of examples of the use of women in in positions of power that provide
ideological support for a movement of resistance to European anthropological conclusions on gender in
IfiAmadiume‟s (1987) study, Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in African Society. The study
stresses the ambiguities in gender balance which, however, in African conception is not an ambiguity at all. The study
is revolutionary because in it there is a mixture of return to the past and control of the new.
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We must bear in mind that although this past is equally necessary for constructing an argument in our present
effort at tracing the origin of the evil that affects our gender practices today, the goal is not to list these facts but to
bring in focus the relevant issue: how African women were involved in roles and activities regarded as manly in other
parts of the world.
III. THE ROLE OF AFRICAN AUNTS
In the section below we want to show how the girl in the Shona family, regardless of her age, has the power
of settling palavers or sitting on an advisory board for her brothers‟ side of the family, a function none can perform
better thanshe. Before going into detail, let us start by stating that the reason why the girl child in Shona culture is
awarded such powers by culture between, for instance, her brother and sister-in-law derives from the importance the
Bantu people attach to the family structure. Marriage in that sense is an important social institution that is interrelated
with the social structure and organisation as well as other aspects of the culture of the particular society concerned. In
this manner, the family has influence on the ties of kinship and all other relationships constituting such ties (such as
the family-in-law) and regulating them.
Sisters, writes Stewart, “are highly respected authorities in their brother‟s marriage, they are acting as
advocates of their natal families vis-à-vis their brother‟s wives. Wives are expected to consult them in marital
disputes” (Stewart et al. 2000:61). Emphasising their role, Stewart (1998:223) writes the following:
The role of vatete (senior women in the family – aunts) in Shona societies was criticalat all stages of
inheritance decisions. Such women were often the source of family genealogies, and had the last word
if not the final decision when it came to howestates should be divided and allocated.
In a paper entitled „Sisters and Marriage in Shona Society (Zimbabwe)‟ by Andrea Mester (2008:2), a man‟s
sister‟s role is explained as follows:
…this atete is ranking higher than their husband in martial disputes. Although her duty was to back the
wife’s interests in marriage, she would demand her brother’s daughter to act as a good wife and
integrate into her marital family. She would try to sort out and repair broken personal relationships in
order to keep the marriage going… [She] was the one to speak the final word in marriage negotiations,
as she had to make sure that no marriage taboo would be broken.
Mester tells us that “for her brother‟s wife, she is amwene (owner of the wife). On the other hand “his children
call her atete, a term expressing authority and a close emotional bond (Holleman in Mester 2008:1).Weinrich(in
Mester 2008:1) also describes her bargaining position in the marriage process: “The father‟s sister has the final word
to say, and if she is against the proposed marriage it is unlikely that negotiations will be initiated”. What Weinrich
implies is that in Shona culture this woman is privy to these roles which have been, to some extent, filtered into the
postmodern Shona society. It is to that end that the lobola or dowry negotiation ceremony, for instance, cannot
proceed without the atetebeing there in the same way as sisters settle marital disputes of their brothers‟ marriages.
The responsibilities of aunts in the African family are almost the same across Bantu culture. Drawing from
„Traditonal Xhosa Marriage in the Rural Areas of the Ciskei‟ (1971:176-178) by E.J. De Jager, the following
expectations of the married son (man who is married) can be noted:
To be the economic support of his family
To educate his family
To make sure that he does not ill-treat his wife
To respect his family-in-law („The Luba of Kasai say the King has no greater than him, his bosses are his
in-laws‟).
The woman has the following responsibilities:
To restrict her sexual favours to her legal husband and not engage in affairs with other men
To observe the customs of her husband‟s home and lineage at all times, and must attend and show love
towards his family (this doesnot mean that she abandons her own people)
To perform most of the ordinary domestic duties
To wear dresses of ankle length (wearing shorter dresses is considered shameful and provocative
behaviour towards the other male members of her husband‟s family).
From the above, we see how two persons who once belonged to unrelatedkinship groups enter a marital
relationship. When problems arise between the couple, such as the ill-treatment of the wife and children by the
husband, he has an affair with another woman and does not have time for his wife and children, or he becomes a lazy
drunkard, the man‟s own family will bring pressure to bear on him to stop his cruelty. This is where the „female
father‟ sister‟s role as a negotiator and peace maker is needed by her sister-in-law. While all these are grounds for
divorce in our postmodern world, the dissolution of marriage in Shona traditional society was rare and there was no
need for such procedure because there weremechanisms to deal with internal issues.
When a problem such as those listed above occurs, the wifeinforms the husband‟s sister of his misconduct. She
listens carefully, and if her brother is found to deviate from the cultural norms or responsibilities which are expected
of him as a married man, she has the duty to address the issue. She will send for him to meet with her. The husband‟s
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sister is chosen by the complainant on account of her good relationship with her, long experience in these matters, but
preferably if she appears to be a person who can defend her. They need not necessarily be old, a 15-year-old girl can
redress her 50-year-old brother‟s misconduct, because the culture gives her power to do so.
In our experience, more often than not, the accused pleads guilty before this family court where the judge is his
own sister. He pleads for mercy without even daring to face his sister. The man‟s show of humble acceptance of guilt
is an essential feature of the feminine side of African masculinity in the traditional Shona culture. Even today, urban
and rural Shona men alike observe this cultural norm. It is certainly a show of manners that men still respect the
leadership of women. Very seldom will a Shona man quarrel with his wife for reporting him to his family or show
disrespect when asked to account for his misbehaviour.
This internal court, as we wish to call it, and one inwhich the female father presides in terms of traditional
values, almost amounts to a regulatory board. It is a social guarantee that the man will acknowledge his
wrongdoingandamend his behaviour. This man will show respect forhis sister even if he is wealthier, for in Shona
culture nobody is above culture. On such an occasion the husband, in the context of Luba from the Kasai ethnic group,
would bring gifts to settle the dispute with his wife he has wronged – a hen, rooster, a fabric or money. This
compensation is a sign of reconciliation as peace and security re-enter the home.
The aunt‟s role is multifarious: she is the person who gets the information about her niece‟s marriage proposal
to her before anybody else, including the girl‟s own father. She is the one who speaks with the prospective family-in-
law, and her role extends to lobola negotiations. The Venda people use the word makhadzifor aunt. In his The Role of
Makhadzi in Traditional Leadership Among the Venda (2013),Pfarelo Eva Matshidze addresses a very important
issue.The study shows that we live under the impression that women are subordinate to men; however, makhadzior
aunts play a crucial role in the community and are highly regarded as such. Matshidze states (2013):
… the makhadzi play critical roles in succession, resolution of disputes, regency, initiation of girls and
spiritual roles. While some of the cultural practises are repugnant to the notion of justice and morality
and would be of dubious legality given the constitution essentialisation of human rights and dignity, the
study has shown that the makhadzi has a place and role in the new democratic society.
One must also bear in mind that it is an important feature of African culture that brother-sister relationships are
always strong. Some even believe that their bond is stronger than that between man and his wife. This is illustrated by
the tradition among the Sotho peoplewhere it was common for “brothers and sisters to be paired off and the bogadi
(lobola or dowry) received for the girl is then used to acquire a wife for the linked brother” (De Jager, 1971:172).
According to De Jager, “this custom of linking brothers and sisters for the purpose of lobola creates a special
relationship between the children of a woman and her brother and this maternal uncle has considerable influence in
their lives” (172). Muvhango, a popular South Africa television series with almost six million viewers created and
produced by DuaKa-Ndlovu, is such an example. The role of themakhadzisufficiently is played out in order to show
the power the female figure in the African society.
In Shona culture, “the pairing of brother and sister in terms of bride wealth is known as chipanda-system
(Holleman 1952:169ff). Although we may find very little to support that since many customs have fallen in disuse, the
custom of lobola remains very important. Some of its values are that it controls the conduct of marriage partners,
legitimises children and makes divorce difficult to occur. Western critics fail to see it in its proper perspective and
claim wrongly that it the purchase of the woman. But to us,lobola brings a legal control over marriage, the wife and
her children. A married woman will not suffer as long as her sisters-in-law are there and can step in to defend her and
her children when violence visits the family unit. Her role as key family member and leader enables social integration.
While in the Shona society the word aunt (atete)is used interchangeably for paternal aunt and sister, depending
on what role the woman is playing, as an aunt, the Shona woman assumes her role of a protector of victims – women,
in this context. Like Simone de Beauvoir, these aunts know that the behaviours of men sometimes support their
strength: “”it is not in giving life but risking life that man is raised above the animal; that is why superiority has been
accorded in humanity not to the sex that brings forth but to that which kills” (De Beauvoir).
Similarly, if a child among the aunt‟s nieces and nephews misbehaves and faces punishment from her or his
parents, the aunt steps in to protect, mediate and devise restorative measures on behalf of the child. The aunt does this
not to coverup the child‟s misdeeds, and she does so only after establishing that the child is remorseful and ready to
accept correction and change its behaviour. The aunt, therefore, has a civic role to play in the family,as she does in the
community.
We acknowledge the fact that gender roles in African societies have always been complementary in nature,
and all directed for the greater good of the family, clan and ethnic grouping at large. Power is not a piece of cake to be
shared, so that when one takes there is a subtraction. Power is infinite, and is drawn in different circumstances by both
genders, to address matters arising. It does not matter whether the source of that power to be called for is from the
woman‟s or man‟s arsenal; what matters is that the problem is solved.
From the above it becomes clear that the role of a girl child as female father in Shona culture and the role of
the paternal aunt as female father among the Luba people of Congo will not be abolished as it is a deep-rooted and
significant customintegrated with legal and social aspects of our cultures. Our lifestyle from traditional to modern may
change outwardly,but such roles of women in the affairs of the family and society will always remain significant
ingredients of Bantu culture in our countries, where we can return and adjust our ill-gotten behaviours.
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It is difficult to address all the gender issues raised above in relation to our complex history, mingled as it is
with colonisation. It comes as no surprise to us in the lightness of touch in which gays and lesbians fight to officialise
and legally make the world recognise their sexual rights long suppressed in Europe. In a society where women or
menhave been diminished by their history of gender conflict, their stake in self-discovery and social change is to be
expected. In this sense, the movements to address the powerlessness of European minority groups are understandable.
It is therefore fitting that, when speaking of feminism, African women must either look at it with suspicion or caution,
because it is not patterned on African culture or history. We can reasonably argue that,it is the Western male society‟s
injustices towards its own subcultures that brought about a hip of radical solutions we are facing as displayed by
Western feminism and the LGBTQ movement. But the image of women, as discussed above, did not receive similar
treatment in Europe, as many critics have argued (Anta Diop, 1989, Amadiume 1987, Minga 2016). That is to say the
European women did not enjoy the privileges that their counterparts in Africa had enjoyed.
IV. THE POSTCOLONIAL WOMAN’S NERVOUS CONDITION
The Nervous Conditionsby the Zimbabwean female writer TsitsiDangarembgadeals with the theme of gender
in this novel.Dangarembga, who has not returned to fiction after the famous Nervous Conditions published in 1988,
gives theimpression that the different types of femininities she listed in her novel continue to reflect the condition of
the postmodern African woman to this day. Nervous conditionsis indeed a great book, a prose that draws attention to
the postcolonial African woman‟s psychologicalcondition. There remains something unresolved about the book. The
condition of the postcolonial woman as a perpetual existential crisis filtered through the pages of this book on
different levels: western cultural alienation, financial dependence, and stigma regarding sexual orientation as captured
by AbenaBusia of Rutgers University inDangarembga (1988:i) in the passage below:
In the story of one family, through its deft negotiation of race and class, gender and cultural change, it
dramatized with a sense of wit and clarity of purpose the ‘nervousness’ of the ‘post-colonial’
conditions that bedevil us still. In Tambu and women of her family we African women of the latter part
of the twentieth century can see ourselves, whether or displaced, doing daily battle with our changing
world with their mixture of tenacity, bewilderment and grace.
The book shows that the gender problem is a serious cultural and moral one. The protagonist, a local girl,
Tambuzai, is neither passive nor aggressive but resistant to male domination in an African respectful way. Nyasha,
unlike Tambu, is too liberal, identifies herself with the West and even has the audacity to slap her father. This is a type
of resistance nobody needs in Africa. In its stubbornness and identification with the West it becomes a threat to gender
balance, storing up anger that only explodes in a self-destructive manner. These are aspects of our society that have
made gender one of the grounds of fierce battle against man, race, normative sexuality and patriarchy, all of which
have put the woman in anervous condition.
The French Philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre‟s gift of observation in his “Introduction” to Frantz Fanon‟s
(1961)Les damnés de la terre(„The Wretched of the Earth‟) exposes the role colonialism played in shaping our
nervous condition:
Violence in the colonies does not only have for its aim the keeping of these enslaved men at arm’s
length; it seeks to dehumanise them. Everything will be done to wipe out their traditions, to substitute
our language for theirs and to destroy their culture without giving them ours ... The status of ‘native’ is
a nervous condition introduced and maintained by the settler among colonised people with their
consent.
Unlike Sartre who was a mere observer, Dangarembga felt this nervousness in her body. Shespeaks not by
imagining things, but by re-experiencing them. On the last page of the novel, one hears the author‟s voice as that of
the young urban African woman: “...but the story I have told here, is my own story, the story of four women whom I
loved, and our men, this story is how it all began” (Dangarembga 1988). What such language achieves is realism, too
exact, loaded with facts. Haenfler must be near the truth when he argued that feminist and queer movements “have
often been among the first to openly proclaim the virtues of sex for pure pleasure rather than procreation or marital
obligation” (Haenfler 2013:16). Nevertheless, anthropologists and cultural critics, historians and literary persons such
as Dangarembga, Chinua Achebe, and so on, continue to re-establish old truths and facts on sexuality and gender
relations. Some new insights are gained filling the gaps in the existing knowledge of particular ethnographic areas,
and how this knowledge has been twisted and changed under the circumstances of culture contact and change.
The main issue that has emerged from this debate is whether or not patriarchy is to blame. The African man
becomes the main suspect. Patriarchal ideologies are not usually thought of as a field where men accept a submissive
role to women. Yet our findings show exactly the opposite: Africa is predominantly matriarchal. Even in places where
patriarchy was practiced as shown among the Lubaof Congo and the Shona of Zimbabwe, we are uneasy if the role of
women in these communitiesis not only accepted but revered. And so most researchers mislead us in claiming that
gender problems in Africa have their source in rigid patriarchal rules that deny women space to free themselves. Yet
what most gender critics fail to do is to consider analysis in the kind of paradigm of dualism as suggested above.
Those who regard gender asbinary or a single identity have left themselves with one point of reference: to see gender
through a patriarchal lens. They forget that the latter was itself influenced by colonial violenceand that gender in
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Africa must not only be analysed through phenomenology, but also through the knowledge of African culture and its
practices.
When shall we have men or ideologies that come with interpretations and solutions, orthat lift up the woman to
her human dignity? They will be found giving themselves powers they do not have. Only whenthe African woman
remembers her role in history that is conveyed to her neither by the feminist movement, the post-constructivists nor
United Nations policies, but by her culture in which she is complete, lacking nothing feminine or masculine for her
balance, she will make an impression in her community and the world. Aslong as the African woman forgets to
recover her status in this culture, she forgets who she really is. She will, of course, make noise, she will have her little
day. But she will cease to be because she will become man and fail to bea tatu-mukaji, anatete, a female father, a
female husband, a male daughter. Why? Because the beauty of these roles has been diminished in the postmodern
world in which she lives.
It is true that our postmodern world does face many limitations which, in our humble view, arise from the
broader perspective of thinking. The distance between genders that permit the body of woman to be seen as an object
of man‟s pleasure has its own drawbacks, and a healthy society guards itself against the perception that compromises
gender balance. It has been wary of the kind of stereotypes discussed in our introduction, avoiding excessive reliance
on sexist thinking or assuming that one gender is better than the other.
Recently, the Italian physicist,Professor Alessandro Strumiamade publicly some sexist comments according to
which „physics was invented by men‟. One of the benefits ofsexism to the oppressor is a sense of superiority. Man, in
the position of power (physical, political or economic) consoles himself with the thought that he is not a „weak
woman‟ and exploits this pride to offer a job in exchange of sex, to use his physical strength to rape, to put himself in
a position wherewomen demand favours from him. Similarly, the African man is made to feel inferior to the white
man. The black man‟s status is reduced by all,including the white woman who feels superior to him. We still have a
long way to go before we can see men and women across races converse on the same footing of equality.
Realising the importance of a gender-free society, the French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir (1973) spent
years studying the condition of the European woman before producing her Second Sex. Her influence saw the
emergence of the feminist movement in the 1970s in Europe. They made their voice heard that social subordination
between sexes should not exist aswoman is equal to man. We agree that we should be suspicious of the arguments of
feminists whose controversial aim is said to deprive them of their real value, but “if the woman question seems trivial,
it is because masculine arrogance has made of it a quarrel; and when quarrelling one no longer reasons well” De
Beauvoir states(1970:26). Unlike De Beauvoir, post-structuralists maintain that “difference is one of the most
powerful tools that women possess in their struggle with patriarchal domination, and that to equate the feminist
movement only with equality is to deny women a plethora of options because equality is still defined from the
masculine or patriarchal perspective” (Irigaray,1999). The post-structuralists‟ view is understandable in the sense that
the world is enriched by our gender differences.
Effective analysis and thinking on gender issues, then, depends on the incorporation of views into a study that
penetrates beneath the surface of issues, a method that refutes representations that portray women as superior, inferior
or equal to man. Such notions have long corrupted our discussion of the subject of gender,but we want studies that
present women simply as human beings. What we need is to see a society where there is no females or males, but
„female males‟ or „male females‟ at once. As Judith Butler argues, “Binary gender has no ontological necessity”
(Butler 1986). In that way, the fact of being women or men will not affect our lives. The question, however, is: what
opportunities have been given us to recreate such a society? What future awaits our baby girls and baby boys, and
what paths have we created for them? So, what do we have we to do?
This is what we have to do: we have, as already said, to cleanse our minds of all false gender suppositions. It is
true that it is difficult to get the suppositions of modern culture that women are inferior to men out of our minds. It is
difficult because they have become part of our own prejudices or even culture. African women constantly complain
about what society has done to them,because they do not recognise the height of the role they have in thatvery society.
It cannot be denied that there are many disruptive forces from the urban man (sexual assaults, domestic violence) that
have destroyed the urban woman‟s life today and led to her own destructive conduct such as walking naked in the
streets and selling her body to the media and as a commodity for consumption.
The drama of the modern African woman lies in this conflict between the dream of material possession to
which we are all driven, and the compulsions of a society in which she is reduced to her body that gives pleasure to
men. The body, asexplainedby Simone de Beauvoir, has led to biological discriminations which, in turn, have
reinforced the binary gender system in modern world. Women‟s bodies connect them to sex for men who tend to think
of themin terms of sex and pleasure. For De Beauvoir, however, the body “is not a thing, it is a situation: it is our
grasp on the world and our sketch of our project” (De Beauvoir, 1970). De Beauvoir promotes the historicity of the
body of the woman because it cannot be reduced to sex; it is a situated body which has something to do in the
world.This situation will not be solved if we think that our destiny is determined by the pleasure that economic means
affords us. Woman must escape these limits ascribed to her by Hellenism, and find her liberty and happiness in higher
values.
Modern women “enter in aspects and spheres of life which under traditional circumstances would have been
taboo to her sex”, to borrow the phrase from De Jager (1971:182). But forces that can help us maintain the ideals of
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African manhood and womanhood still exist; we can unearth them. Traditionally, men and women underwent
initiations that were necessary to becoming responsible man and woman in society. To a large extent, these rites have
fallen into disuse. It is at this point that we must look for the facts which lead us towards a theory of duality in gender
practices our forefathers and mothers once enjoyed and fulfilled their dreams.
V. CONCLUSION: THE HUMAN COUPLE
Undoubtedly, the new Africa will continue to present new gender challenges, not because African men and
women are deeply corrupt in nature, but for neglecting the social norms of our cultures that helped reduce strain and
stress in society. These challenges await us, but if we look back, we will see that women were like men and men were
like women and put their strengths together for the greater good of their society.
There is no denying that the colonial disruption brought great destruction to our values. It happened in the
nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century, andthe question remains: why aren‟t we willing to change? We
have lost our memory, might be the answer. It seems that adapting ourselves to the slavish condition is what is left
ofblack culture.Yet the founders of our culture left us statutes in which women enjoyed their offices. It is on
thedestruction of these cultural values rather than on gender, that the entire controversy on issues such as domestic
violence and rape appear to hinge. We hope that the “slavery of half of humanity”, together with the whole system of
deception it implies, will be abolished and“the human couple will find its true form” (De Beauvoir, 1970:731).
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