Towards a Relational Paradigm in Sustainability Research, Practice, and Educa...Zack Walsh
Relational thinking has recently gained increasing prominence across academic disciplines in an attempt to understand complex phenomena in terms of constitutive processes and relations. Interdisciplinary fields of study, such as science and technology studies (STS), the environmental humanities, and the posthumanities, for example, have started to reformulate academic understanding of nature-cultures based on relational thinking. Although the sustainability crisis serves as a contemporary backdrop and in fact calls for such innovative forms of interdisciplinary scholarship, the field of sustainability research has not yet tapped into the rich possibilities offered by relational thinking. Against this background, the purpose of this paper is to identify relational approaches to ontology, epistemology, and ethics which are relevant to sustainability research. More specifically, we analyze how relational approaches have been understood and conceptualized across a broad range of disciplines and contexts relevant to sustainability to identify and harness connections and contributions for future sustainability-related work. Our results highlight common themes and patterns across relational approaches, helping to identify and characterize a relational paradigm within sustainability research. On this basis, we conclude with a call to action for sustainability researchers to co-develop a research agenda for advancing this relational paradigm within sustainability research, practice, and education.
ArticleLeadership A communicativeperspectiveGail T .docxfredharris32
Article
Leadership: A communicative
perspective
Gail T Fairhurst
Department of Communication, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, US
Stacey L Connaughton
The Brian Lamb School of Communication, Purdue University, West Lafayette, US
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature on communication in organizations most relevant to the study of
leadership. Although leadership communication research has a history of significant overlap with
leadership psychology, the value commitments of a communicative orientation now find expres-
sion in a large body of extant literature that this paper reviews. These value commitments, which
cross several theoretical paradigms, serve as the organizing framework for this paper. The paper
concludes with a research agenda for future leadership communication research.
Keywords
Leadership, communication, management of meaning, sensemaking, reflexivity, relational leader-
ship, team leadership, global leadership
Introduction
Contemporary studies of leadership give meaning to the old adage, ‘‘Everything old is new
again.’’ Leadership has been a topic of interest since antiquity (Grint, 2011), although it
commenced in earnest in the 20th century when the dominant lens of psychology took hold
and remains strong until this day, especially in North America. In the last several years,
however, an increasing number of voices are challenging leadership psychology’s emphasis
on a strong inner motor of leader traits, cognitions, and styles (Collinson and Hearn, 1996;
Fairhurst, 2007a; Grint, 2000). These voices are clamoring to know how leadership distrib-
utes itself across time and task, site and situation, and people—along with their bodies and
other leadership-making materialities (e.g., technology) (Connaughton and Daly, 2005;
Gronn, 2000; Sinclair, 2005). They are also questioning the bromides of the business press
This paper is based on a chapter in The Sage Handbook of Organizational Communication (2013). Putnam LL and Mumby D
(eds). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Corresponding author:
Gail T Fairhurst, Department of Communication, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0184, US.
Email: [email protected]
Leadership
2014, Vol. 10(1) 7–35
! The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1742715013509396
lea.sagepub.com
at Apollo Group - UOP on August 8, 2015lea.sagepub.comDownloaded from
http://lea.sagepub.com/
prone to reduce the complexity of leadership to common sense rules-of-thumb or the amus-
ing anecdote (Guthey et al., 2009).
Enter the field of organizational communication, European and Australasian manage-
ment studies, and other social sciences greatly impacted by the linguistic turn in social theory
emphasizing the constitutive role of language, discourse and communication in society and
its institutions (Mumby, 2007; Rorty, 1967). Just as important has been a rapidly changing
world in which the traditional bureaucratic form is quic ...
Towards a Relational Paradigm in Sustainability Research, Practice, and Educa...Zack Walsh
Relational thinking has recently gained increasing prominence across academic disciplines in an attempt to understand complex phenomena in terms of constitutive processes and relations. Interdisciplinary fields of study, such as science and technology studies (STS), the environmental humanities, and the posthumanities, for example, have started to reformulate academic understanding of nature-cultures based on relational thinking. Although the sustainability crisis serves as a contemporary backdrop and in fact calls for such innovative forms of interdisciplinary scholarship, the field of sustainability research has not yet tapped into the rich possibilities offered by relational thinking. Against this background, the purpose of this paper is to identify relational approaches to ontology, epistemology, and ethics which are relevant to sustainability research. More specifically, we analyze how relational approaches have been understood and conceptualized across a broad range of disciplines and contexts relevant to sustainability to identify and harness connections and contributions for future sustainability-related work. Our results highlight common themes and patterns across relational approaches, helping to identify and characterize a relational paradigm within sustainability research. On this basis, we conclude with a call to action for sustainability researchers to co-develop a research agenda for advancing this relational paradigm within sustainability research, practice, and education.
ArticleLeadership A communicativeperspectiveGail T .docxfredharris32
Article
Leadership: A communicative
perspective
Gail T Fairhurst
Department of Communication, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, US
Stacey L Connaughton
The Brian Lamb School of Communication, Purdue University, West Lafayette, US
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature on communication in organizations most relevant to the study of
leadership. Although leadership communication research has a history of significant overlap with
leadership psychology, the value commitments of a communicative orientation now find expres-
sion in a large body of extant literature that this paper reviews. These value commitments, which
cross several theoretical paradigms, serve as the organizing framework for this paper. The paper
concludes with a research agenda for future leadership communication research.
Keywords
Leadership, communication, management of meaning, sensemaking, reflexivity, relational leader-
ship, team leadership, global leadership
Introduction
Contemporary studies of leadership give meaning to the old adage, ‘‘Everything old is new
again.’’ Leadership has been a topic of interest since antiquity (Grint, 2011), although it
commenced in earnest in the 20th century when the dominant lens of psychology took hold
and remains strong until this day, especially in North America. In the last several years,
however, an increasing number of voices are challenging leadership psychology’s emphasis
on a strong inner motor of leader traits, cognitions, and styles (Collinson and Hearn, 1996;
Fairhurst, 2007a; Grint, 2000). These voices are clamoring to know how leadership distrib-
utes itself across time and task, site and situation, and people—along with their bodies and
other leadership-making materialities (e.g., technology) (Connaughton and Daly, 2005;
Gronn, 2000; Sinclair, 2005). They are also questioning the bromides of the business press
This paper is based on a chapter in The Sage Handbook of Organizational Communication (2013). Putnam LL and Mumby D
(eds). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Corresponding author:
Gail T Fairhurst, Department of Communication, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0184, US.
Email: [email protected]
Leadership
2014, Vol. 10(1) 7–35
! The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1742715013509396
lea.sagepub.com
at Apollo Group - UOP on August 8, 2015lea.sagepub.comDownloaded from
http://lea.sagepub.com/
prone to reduce the complexity of leadership to common sense rules-of-thumb or the amus-
ing anecdote (Guthey et al., 2009).
Enter the field of organizational communication, European and Australasian manage-
ment studies, and other social sciences greatly impacted by the linguistic turn in social theory
emphasizing the constitutive role of language, discourse and communication in society and
its institutions (Mumby, 2007; Rorty, 1967). Just as important has been a rapidly changing
world in which the traditional bureaucratic form is quic ...
14Module Eight Communication, Socialization and Culture in Or.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
14
Module Eight: Communication, Socialization and Culture in Organizations
Objectives: Candidates will acquire knowledge of group communication and organizational patterns of communication (skill). They will learn to manage their professional activities better within an organizational context by improving their understanding of group dynamics (skill). They will recognize that group behavior is the medium for organizational culture and practice.
Key Concepts: Organization, organizational communication, communication flow, gatekeeper, communication networks, formal and informal communication, organizational culture, grapevine, subaltern, informational/cybernetic models of organizations, goal displacement, scientific management, Taylorism, fantasy themes, thick description, similes, subaltern,
Blackboard Discussion: Describe the informal network of information–grapevine–in your organization from the perspective of what gets communicated, to whom, when and for what reason? How important is the grapevine to your job? How is your professional identity shaped by the grapevine? Can you afford to ignore the grapevine in your school? (What are the positive and negative consequences if you do?) What impact does the information in the grapevine have on your classroom?
On-line Activities: Please read Becker, The Dehumanized World (found in Course Documents). What is his main point? (Hint: Consider the qualities of language discussed in week two of the course as well as the content of this week’s module.). More specifically, why is the concept of reification important to anyone who works in an organization. Why are we reading his work in this module on organizational communication and culture?
Assignment(s) for Week Eight: Find an example of a locally produced official document (policy, clarification of policy from your principal, memo to all staff from district, school newsletter, email from another teacher). Consider how this/these documents promote specific social, task or procedural norms. Examine how identities are constructed in the document (what are they saying about “who” you are. What are the overt and hidden assumptions regarding what management, teachers, students and parents are supposed to do (role expectations)?
Consider how they encourage or discourage a culture of civility by the report and command or content/relational messages given off.
Readings: Chapter 13, Informative Speaking, (pp. 396-415)
Introduction to Module Eight:
One of the objectives in this course according to the course description is that candidates will understand the dynamics of interpersonal communication in educational structures. For much of this course we have been exploring the interpersonal against the backdrop of the organizational, but we have not focused specifically on the organizational forms of communication, common to most institutions, such as schools. Probably every single one of us knows something about working in an organization. Most o ...
European Journal of Training and DevelopmentRevisiting knowl.docxSANSKAR20
European Journal of Training and Development
Revisiting knowledge sharing from the organizational change perspective
Sunyoung Park Eun-Jee Kim
Article information:
To cite this document:
Sunyoung Park Eun-Jee Kim , (2015),"Revisiting knowledge sharing from the organizational change
perspective", European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 39 Iss 9 pp. 769 - 797
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-06-2015-0042
Downloaded on: 11 December 2015, At: 17:37 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 191 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 33 times since 2015*
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-
srm:260117 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of
download.
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
L
ou
is
ia
na
S
ta
te
U
ni
ve
rs
it
y
A
t
17
:3
7
11
D
ec
em
be
r
20
15
(
P
T
)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-06-2015-0042
Revisiting knowledge sharing
from the organizational change
perspective
Sunyoung Park
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA, and
Eun-Jee Kim
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST),
Daejeon, South Korea
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to identify how knowledge sharing literature has discussed
task, structure, technology and people as elements of organizational change and to examine the
interactions between the four elements of knowledge sharing.
Design/methodology/approach – The research questions guiding the study are: How do
organizational change elements influence knowledge sharing? and What are the critical elements of
organizational change in relation to knowledge sharing? Based on Leavitt’s (1965) organizational
change model, 133 articles published between 2000 and 2012 from 13 journals were reviewed and
analyzed.
Findings – The total number of articles covering task, structure, technology and people in knowledge
sharing was 49, 79, 49 and 97, respectively. Of all references, 97 articles (72 per cent) discussed the
important ...
Developing a meta language in multidisciplinary research projects-the case st...Lucia Lupi
Paper to be presented at the workshop "W14: Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Exploring the Intersection of Philosophy and HCI" at the CHI Conference 2019. The paper presents a recent work on the use of analytic techniques from philosophy to frame the design space for a technological platform aimed to support multidisciplinary research on the phenomenon of reading in Europe.
ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE, MANAGERIAL TOOL OR NEITHER?...IAEME Publication
This paper will attempt to examine whether Organisational Psychology is a
science and the extent to which its findings are of practical use to the managers. As it
will be seen, the answer to the second half of this question depends on the answer
given to the first one. For this reason, the analysis will present different views
concerning what a ‘scientific discipline’ is.
An Investigation of the Reading Text ‘Pakistan Zindabad’ (Long Live Pakistan)...Bahram Kazemian
This paper is a critical study in Critical Discourse Analysis paradigm of a Textbook prescribed for intermediate students (Second Language Learners) in Government Colleges affiliated to the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan. The textbook contains selected texts to improve students reading skills integrated with writing activities. Each of the texts contains questions at the end to be answered. It is observed that the reading tasks are badly designed and there is no mental activity to involve students in the text discourse. The study focuses on critical discourse of the underlying text to inspect whether the text reading involves students in the critical discourse or not; it also attempts to analyze the Reading Text ‘Pakistan Zindabad’ to identify problems showing the gap and unawareness on the part of teachers and students regarding the critical discourse of the text in classroom reading context. It is also suggested that teachers need to bring about a change in their traditional teaching methods in order to tackle the issue. The awareness of critical discourse analysis is recommended on the part of the teachers in order to analyze and understand the real meaning of the text. In result, it may develop the critical approach which is very essential for a reader.
A Critical Discourse Analysis of Malaysian prime minister's speech in Copenh...Roozbeh Kardooni
This paper aim to analysis environmental speech given by Malaysian PM (Najib Tun Razak) during the U.N. CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCE 2009 in Copenhagen(cop15).
Analysis of the Critical Discourse and Adversariesijtsrd
Discourse analysis is a branch of study that encompasses a variety of varied, primarily qualitative methods to the investigation of the interactions that exist between language in use and the social environment. Language is often viewed by researchers in the subject as a sort of social practice that has an impact on the social world and vice versa. There are many contemporary kinds of discourse analysis that have been overtly or indirectly informed by Michel Foucaults theories of power, knowledge, and discourse, which are discussed below. As a result of Foucaults work, there has been an increased interest in investigating the role that language plays in the formation and maintenance of certain knowledges and the maintenance of inequitable power relations. In order to undertake discourse analyses, human geographers often draw on one of three major schools of discourse analysis Foucauldian discourse analysis FDA , critical discourse analysis CDA , or Gramscian techniques. There are several theoretical and methodological distinctions between these approaches. While different approaches have different strengths and weaknesses, they all provide researchers with an effective means of investigating and exposing semiotic features of power relations in specific sociospatial contexts. While there are no set procedures for these techniques, researchers have recognized certain essential investigative strategies that can be used to inform the performance of any type of discourse analysis project. These strategies are included below. A brief history of Critical Discourse Analysis is offered, along with a full examination of the numerous criticisms levied at CDA and its practitioners over the previous two decades, both by scholars working within the critical paradigm and by other critical critics. Reader response and integration of contextual aspects are discussed, as well as a range of objections directed at the underlying premises and analytical technique. Additionally, there is discussion of contentious issues, such as the negative focus of much CDA work and CDAs developing standing as a intellectual orthodoxy They highlight the major criticisms that have emerged from this overview and provide some ways to overcome these shortcomings. Manna Dey "Analysis of the Critical Discourse and Adversaries" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47701.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/47701/analysis-of-the-critical-discourse-and-adversaries/manna-dey
OVERVIEW OF THE PAPERIn this Gordon Rule Writing course, you.docxjacksnathalie
OVERVIEW OF THE PAPER
In this
Gordon Rule Writing
course, you will complete
three writing assignments
that build on each other to facilitate your progress.
The goal of these writing assignments is for you to sharpen your research skills, apply communication theory to everyday life, and demonstrate college-level writing skills
.
SELECTION OF THE TOPIC
1. Select Section
From the sections of our course textbook on communication theories, you will choose
three sections
to base your three Theoretical Review papers on. For the Theoretical Review Paper_1, you will work with the first section of the course textbook --
The Self and Messages
. This section is assigned to you to get us started with the writing assignments, however, going forward in the course you will be able to choose the section you want to focus on for each Theoretical Review Paper. The sections you can choose from are below and they align with the sections of the course textbook.
The sections on communication theories are:
The Self and Messages (Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7)
Relationship Development (Chapters 8, 9, 10, 11)
Groups and Organizations (Chapters 14, 17)
Culture and Diversity (Chapters 27, 28)
Public and Media (Chapters 18, 21, 25, 26)
2. Select a Theory from each section
From each section, you will select a theory you will research and write about in your Theoretical Reveiw Paper. For the first Theoretical Review Paper you will select theory/theories from (1) The Self and Messages (Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7); choose
one
theory to research.
With that theory, you should research how the theory applies to some aspect of communication of interest to you.
For example, here are some topics
(sections of the text, theories, communication aspect)
that other students have previously chosen:
The Self and Messages
Symbolic Interactionism (theory), intrapersonal communication (communication context), and self-esteem among college students (situation or issue from everyday life).
Symbolic Interactionism (theory), intrapersonal communication (communication context), and its relationship to body-shaming (situation or issue from everyday life).
Coordinated Management of Meaning theory, intrapersonal communication (communication context), and its effects on the business environment (situation or issue from everyday life).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory, intrapersonal communication (communication context), and the effects on romantic relationships (situation or issue from everyday life)
Expectancy Violations Theory, intrapersonal communication, and employer/employee relationships (situation or issue from everyday life)
Relationship Development
Uncertainty Reduction Theory, interpersonal communication (or intrapersonal communication), and dating
Social Exchange Theory, interpersonal communication, and effects on sales and entrepreneurship
Groups and Organizations
Groupthink, group/organizational communication, and what happens when generating ideas in work group.
Using Social Network Analysis to Examine Leadership Capacity within a Central Office Administrative Team .. 1
Robert M. Hill, Ed.D. and Barbara N. Martin, Ed.D.
Implementation of a Teaching and Learning Model: Institutional, Programme and Discipline level at a University
of Technology in South Africa. ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Dr Pauline Machika
Effects of Bioethics Integration on the Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Skills of High School Students..... 32
Sally B. Gutierez and Rosanelia T.Yangco
Effects of Tissue Properties on OJT for Japanese Elementary School Teachers ........................................................... 43
Masaaki Murakami
Revising the Imaginative Capability and Creative Capability Scales: Testing the Relationship between
Imagination and Creativity among Agriculture Students............................................................................................... 57
Yuling Hsu, Li-Pei Peng, Jiun-Hao Wang and Chaoyun Liang
The Relationship between Upper Intermediate EFL Learners’ Critical Thinking and Their Listening
Comprehension Ability........................................................................................................................................................ 71
Samane Naderi and Hamid Ashraf
Buying Our Lives with a Riddle:1 Adaptation as the “Female-Other” Perspective .................................................... 81
Lekan Balogun
You will present information on the AAC Tobii Dynavox I Seri.docxlillie234567
You will present information on the AAC Tobii Dynavox I
Series device and SNAP Core First Software.
The following objectives should be met:
1. Identify the AAC Device and communication APP
2. Discuss/demonstrate its function, use specs, and the
population it is best suited for
3. Identify research, evidence of efficacy, list pros and
cons of the device/app
4. Use 3D visuals and video of demonstrating how it is
used
5. Steps the individual that it is best suited for needs to
take for improvement.
6. Roles of the speech pathologist and who they would
collaborate with.
7. Resources
8. At least 8-10 slides with slide transcript
.
TE
CH
46
0
M
od
ul
e
6
Im
p
le
m
e
n
ta
ti
o
n
P
la
n
Ru
br
ic
Cr
ite
ria
To
ta
l
In
cl
u
d
e
p
ro
b
le
m
s
ta
te
m
e
n
t
sl
id
e
f
ro
m
p
re
vi
o
u
s
d
e
li
ve
ra
b
le
1
0
In
cl
u
d
e
r
e
co
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
s
o
lu
ti
o
n
s
li
d
e
f
ro
m
p
re
vi
o
u
s
d
e
li
ve
ra
b
le
1
0
W
o
rk
B
re
a
kd
o
w
n
S
tr
u
ct
u
re
2
0
S
ch
e
d
u
le
2
0
S
o
lu
ti
o
n
v
a
li
d
a
ti
o
n
3
0
S
o
lu
ti
o
n
e
va
lu
a
ti
o
n
a
n
d
c
o
n
ti
n
u
o
u
s
im
p
ro
ve
m
e
n
t
3
0
Le
ga
l,
e
th
ic
a
l a
n
d
c
u
lt
u
ra
l c
o
n
si
d
e
ra
ti
o
n
s
3
0
To
ta
l
1
5
0
Pr
ob
le
m
S
ta
te
m
en
t
•S
up
po
rt
F
itb
it’
s a
dd
iti
on
o
f a
b
lo
od
p
re
ss
ur
e
m
on
ito
rin
g
ca
pa
bi
lit
y
th
ro
u
g
h
d
e
si
g
n
o
f
a
w
e
b
a
n
d
m
o
b
ile
a
p
p
u
se
r
in
te
rf
a
ce
w
it
h
t
h
e
fo
llo
w
in
g
f
e
a
tu
re
s:
•
D
is
p
la
y
b
lo
o
d
p
re
ss
u
re
r
e
a
d
in
g
s
n
u
m
e
ri
ca
ll
y
a
n
d
g
ra
p
h
ic
a
ll
y
•
Tr
a
ck
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
o
ve
r
ti
m
e
•
Id
e
n
ti
fy
lo
w
/h
ig
h
r
e
a
d
in
g
s
a
n
d
t
re
n
d
s
th
a
t
m
a
y
in
d
ic
a
te
h
e
a
lt
h
c
o
n
ce
rn
s
Re
co
m
m
en
de
d
So
lu
tio
n
•W
e
b
si
te
p
lu
s
p
la
tf
o
rm
-s
p
e
ci
fi
c
e
xt
e
n
si
o
n
s
to
e
xi
st
in
g
a
p
p
s
•J
u
st
if
ic
a
ti
o
n
•
In
te
g
ra
ti
o
n
w
it
h
e
xi
st
in
g
F
it
b
it
a
p
p
s
is
t
o
p
p
ri
o
ri
ty
•
U
se
rs
w
il
l n
o
t
w
a
n
t
to
d
o
w
n
lo
a
d
a
s
e
p
a
ra
te
a
p
p
j
u
st
f
o
r
B
P
m
o
n
it
o
ri
n
g
•
U
se
rs
w
il
l w
a
n
t
to
v
ie
w
B
P
d
a
ta
in
c
o
n
te
xt
w
it
h
o
th
e
r
h
e
a
lt
h
a
n
d
f
it
n
e
ss
d
a
ta
•
V
a
lu
e
o
f
in
te
g
ra
ti
o
n
ju
st
if
ie
s
h
ig
h
e
r
d
e
ve
lo
p
m
e
n
t
a
n
d
m
a
in
te
n
a
n
ce
c
o
st
s
W
or
k
Br
ea
kd
ow
n
St
ru
ct
ur
e
•
A
n
a
ly
si
s
•
D
ra
ft
r
e
q
u
ir
e
m
e
n
ts
s
p
e
ci
fi
ca
ti
o
n
•
R
e
vi
e
w
a
n
d
a
p
p
ro
ve
r
e
q
u
ir
e
m
e
n
ts
•
C
ro
ss
-p
la
tf
o
rm
d
e
si
g
n
•
C
o
m
p
le
te
c
o
m
m
o
n
U
X
d
e
si
g
n
•
D
e
si
g
n
c
li
e
n
t-
si
d
e
s
o
ft
w
a
re
•
W
e
b
a
p
p
d
e
ve
lo
p
m
e
n
t
•
A
d
a
p
t
co
m
m
o
n
U
X
d
e
si
g
n
f
o
r
w
e
b
•
C
o
d
e
H
T
M
L/
C
S
S
fo
r
w
e
b
a
p
p
•
C
o
d
e
J
a
va
S
cr
ip
t
fo
r
w
e
b
a
p
p
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
c
lo
u
d
A
P
I
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
e
xi
st
in
g
w
e
b
si
te
•
Te
st
w
e
b
a
p
p
•
iO
S
a
p
p
d
e
ve
lo
p
m
e
n
t
•
A
d
a
p
t
co
m
m
o
n
U
X
d
e
si
g
n
f
o
r
iO
S
•
C
o
d
e
iO
S
a
p
p
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
w
e
a
ra
b
le
d
e
vi
ce
A
P
I
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
c
lo
u
d
A
P
I
•
In
te.
More Related Content
Similar to Strategic Management.docxby CHUANLING MASubmission date.docx
14Module Eight Communication, Socialization and Culture in Or.docxfelicidaddinwoodie
14
Module Eight: Communication, Socialization and Culture in Organizations
Objectives: Candidates will acquire knowledge of group communication and organizational patterns of communication (skill). They will learn to manage their professional activities better within an organizational context by improving their understanding of group dynamics (skill). They will recognize that group behavior is the medium for organizational culture and practice.
Key Concepts: Organization, organizational communication, communication flow, gatekeeper, communication networks, formal and informal communication, organizational culture, grapevine, subaltern, informational/cybernetic models of organizations, goal displacement, scientific management, Taylorism, fantasy themes, thick description, similes, subaltern,
Blackboard Discussion: Describe the informal network of information–grapevine–in your organization from the perspective of what gets communicated, to whom, when and for what reason? How important is the grapevine to your job? How is your professional identity shaped by the grapevine? Can you afford to ignore the grapevine in your school? (What are the positive and negative consequences if you do?) What impact does the information in the grapevine have on your classroom?
On-line Activities: Please read Becker, The Dehumanized World (found in Course Documents). What is his main point? (Hint: Consider the qualities of language discussed in week two of the course as well as the content of this week’s module.). More specifically, why is the concept of reification important to anyone who works in an organization. Why are we reading his work in this module on organizational communication and culture?
Assignment(s) for Week Eight: Find an example of a locally produced official document (policy, clarification of policy from your principal, memo to all staff from district, school newsletter, email from another teacher). Consider how this/these documents promote specific social, task or procedural norms. Examine how identities are constructed in the document (what are they saying about “who” you are. What are the overt and hidden assumptions regarding what management, teachers, students and parents are supposed to do (role expectations)?
Consider how they encourage or discourage a culture of civility by the report and command or content/relational messages given off.
Readings: Chapter 13, Informative Speaking, (pp. 396-415)
Introduction to Module Eight:
One of the objectives in this course according to the course description is that candidates will understand the dynamics of interpersonal communication in educational structures. For much of this course we have been exploring the interpersonal against the backdrop of the organizational, but we have not focused specifically on the organizational forms of communication, common to most institutions, such as schools. Probably every single one of us knows something about working in an organization. Most o ...
European Journal of Training and DevelopmentRevisiting knowl.docxSANSKAR20
European Journal of Training and Development
Revisiting knowledge sharing from the organizational change perspective
Sunyoung Park Eun-Jee Kim
Article information:
To cite this document:
Sunyoung Park Eun-Jee Kim , (2015),"Revisiting knowledge sharing from the organizational change
perspective", European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 39 Iss 9 pp. 769 - 797
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-06-2015-0042
Downloaded on: 11 December 2015, At: 17:37 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 191 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 33 times since 2015*
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-
srm:260117 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of
download.
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
L
ou
is
ia
na
S
ta
te
U
ni
ve
rs
it
y
A
t
17
:3
7
11
D
ec
em
be
r
20
15
(
P
T
)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-06-2015-0042
Revisiting knowledge sharing
from the organizational change
perspective
Sunyoung Park
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA, and
Eun-Jee Kim
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST),
Daejeon, South Korea
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to identify how knowledge sharing literature has discussed
task, structure, technology and people as elements of organizational change and to examine the
interactions between the four elements of knowledge sharing.
Design/methodology/approach – The research questions guiding the study are: How do
organizational change elements influence knowledge sharing? and What are the critical elements of
organizational change in relation to knowledge sharing? Based on Leavitt’s (1965) organizational
change model, 133 articles published between 2000 and 2012 from 13 journals were reviewed and
analyzed.
Findings – The total number of articles covering task, structure, technology and people in knowledge
sharing was 49, 79, 49 and 97, respectively. Of all references, 97 articles (72 per cent) discussed the
important ...
Developing a meta language in multidisciplinary research projects-the case st...Lucia Lupi
Paper to be presented at the workshop "W14: Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Exploring the Intersection of Philosophy and HCI" at the CHI Conference 2019. The paper presents a recent work on the use of analytic techniques from philosophy to frame the design space for a technological platform aimed to support multidisciplinary research on the phenomenon of reading in Europe.
ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE, MANAGERIAL TOOL OR NEITHER?...IAEME Publication
This paper will attempt to examine whether Organisational Psychology is a
science and the extent to which its findings are of practical use to the managers. As it
will be seen, the answer to the second half of this question depends on the answer
given to the first one. For this reason, the analysis will present different views
concerning what a ‘scientific discipline’ is.
An Investigation of the Reading Text ‘Pakistan Zindabad’ (Long Live Pakistan)...Bahram Kazemian
This paper is a critical study in Critical Discourse Analysis paradigm of a Textbook prescribed for intermediate students (Second Language Learners) in Government Colleges affiliated to the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan. The textbook contains selected texts to improve students reading skills integrated with writing activities. Each of the texts contains questions at the end to be answered. It is observed that the reading tasks are badly designed and there is no mental activity to involve students in the text discourse. The study focuses on critical discourse of the underlying text to inspect whether the text reading involves students in the critical discourse or not; it also attempts to analyze the Reading Text ‘Pakistan Zindabad’ to identify problems showing the gap and unawareness on the part of teachers and students regarding the critical discourse of the text in classroom reading context. It is also suggested that teachers need to bring about a change in their traditional teaching methods in order to tackle the issue. The awareness of critical discourse analysis is recommended on the part of the teachers in order to analyze and understand the real meaning of the text. In result, it may develop the critical approach which is very essential for a reader.
A Critical Discourse Analysis of Malaysian prime minister's speech in Copenh...Roozbeh Kardooni
This paper aim to analysis environmental speech given by Malaysian PM (Najib Tun Razak) during the U.N. CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCE 2009 in Copenhagen(cop15).
Analysis of the Critical Discourse and Adversariesijtsrd
Discourse analysis is a branch of study that encompasses a variety of varied, primarily qualitative methods to the investigation of the interactions that exist between language in use and the social environment. Language is often viewed by researchers in the subject as a sort of social practice that has an impact on the social world and vice versa. There are many contemporary kinds of discourse analysis that have been overtly or indirectly informed by Michel Foucaults theories of power, knowledge, and discourse, which are discussed below. As a result of Foucaults work, there has been an increased interest in investigating the role that language plays in the formation and maintenance of certain knowledges and the maintenance of inequitable power relations. In order to undertake discourse analyses, human geographers often draw on one of three major schools of discourse analysis Foucauldian discourse analysis FDA , critical discourse analysis CDA , or Gramscian techniques. There are several theoretical and methodological distinctions between these approaches. While different approaches have different strengths and weaknesses, they all provide researchers with an effective means of investigating and exposing semiotic features of power relations in specific sociospatial contexts. While there are no set procedures for these techniques, researchers have recognized certain essential investigative strategies that can be used to inform the performance of any type of discourse analysis project. These strategies are included below. A brief history of Critical Discourse Analysis is offered, along with a full examination of the numerous criticisms levied at CDA and its practitioners over the previous two decades, both by scholars working within the critical paradigm and by other critical critics. Reader response and integration of contextual aspects are discussed, as well as a range of objections directed at the underlying premises and analytical technique. Additionally, there is discussion of contentious issues, such as the negative focus of much CDA work and CDAs developing standing as a intellectual orthodoxy They highlight the major criticisms that have emerged from this overview and provide some ways to overcome these shortcomings. Manna Dey "Analysis of the Critical Discourse and Adversaries" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47701.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/47701/analysis-of-the-critical-discourse-and-adversaries/manna-dey
OVERVIEW OF THE PAPERIn this Gordon Rule Writing course, you.docxjacksnathalie
OVERVIEW OF THE PAPER
In this
Gordon Rule Writing
course, you will complete
three writing assignments
that build on each other to facilitate your progress.
The goal of these writing assignments is for you to sharpen your research skills, apply communication theory to everyday life, and demonstrate college-level writing skills
.
SELECTION OF THE TOPIC
1. Select Section
From the sections of our course textbook on communication theories, you will choose
three sections
to base your three Theoretical Review papers on. For the Theoretical Review Paper_1, you will work with the first section of the course textbook --
The Self and Messages
. This section is assigned to you to get us started with the writing assignments, however, going forward in the course you will be able to choose the section you want to focus on for each Theoretical Review Paper. The sections you can choose from are below and they align with the sections of the course textbook.
The sections on communication theories are:
The Self and Messages (Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7)
Relationship Development (Chapters 8, 9, 10, 11)
Groups and Organizations (Chapters 14, 17)
Culture and Diversity (Chapters 27, 28)
Public and Media (Chapters 18, 21, 25, 26)
2. Select a Theory from each section
From each section, you will select a theory you will research and write about in your Theoretical Reveiw Paper. For the first Theoretical Review Paper you will select theory/theories from (1) The Self and Messages (Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7); choose
one
theory to research.
With that theory, you should research how the theory applies to some aspect of communication of interest to you.
For example, here are some topics
(sections of the text, theories, communication aspect)
that other students have previously chosen:
The Self and Messages
Symbolic Interactionism (theory), intrapersonal communication (communication context), and self-esteem among college students (situation or issue from everyday life).
Symbolic Interactionism (theory), intrapersonal communication (communication context), and its relationship to body-shaming (situation or issue from everyday life).
Coordinated Management of Meaning theory, intrapersonal communication (communication context), and its effects on the business environment (situation or issue from everyday life).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory, intrapersonal communication (communication context), and the effects on romantic relationships (situation or issue from everyday life)
Expectancy Violations Theory, intrapersonal communication, and employer/employee relationships (situation or issue from everyday life)
Relationship Development
Uncertainty Reduction Theory, interpersonal communication (or intrapersonal communication), and dating
Social Exchange Theory, interpersonal communication, and effects on sales and entrepreneurship
Groups and Organizations
Groupthink, group/organizational communication, and what happens when generating ideas in work group.
Using Social Network Analysis to Examine Leadership Capacity within a Central Office Administrative Team .. 1
Robert M. Hill, Ed.D. and Barbara N. Martin, Ed.D.
Implementation of a Teaching and Learning Model: Institutional, Programme and Discipline level at a University
of Technology in South Africa. ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Dr Pauline Machika
Effects of Bioethics Integration on the Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Skills of High School Students..... 32
Sally B. Gutierez and Rosanelia T.Yangco
Effects of Tissue Properties on OJT for Japanese Elementary School Teachers ........................................................... 43
Masaaki Murakami
Revising the Imaginative Capability and Creative Capability Scales: Testing the Relationship between
Imagination and Creativity among Agriculture Students............................................................................................... 57
Yuling Hsu, Li-Pei Peng, Jiun-Hao Wang and Chaoyun Liang
The Relationship between Upper Intermediate EFL Learners’ Critical Thinking and Their Listening
Comprehension Ability........................................................................................................................................................ 71
Samane Naderi and Hamid Ashraf
Buying Our Lives with a Riddle:1 Adaptation as the “Female-Other” Perspective .................................................... 81
Lekan Balogun
Similar to Strategic Management.docxby CHUANLING MASubmission date.docx (20)
You will present information on the AAC Tobii Dynavox I Seri.docxlillie234567
You will present information on the AAC Tobii Dynavox I
Series device and SNAP Core First Software.
The following objectives should be met:
1. Identify the AAC Device and communication APP
2. Discuss/demonstrate its function, use specs, and the
population it is best suited for
3. Identify research, evidence of efficacy, list pros and
cons of the device/app
4. Use 3D visuals and video of demonstrating how it is
used
5. Steps the individual that it is best suited for needs to
take for improvement.
6. Roles of the speech pathologist and who they would
collaborate with.
7. Resources
8. At least 8-10 slides with slide transcript
.
TE
CH
46
0
M
od
ul
e
6
Im
p
le
m
e
n
ta
ti
o
n
P
la
n
Ru
br
ic
Cr
ite
ria
To
ta
l
In
cl
u
d
e
p
ro
b
le
m
s
ta
te
m
e
n
t
sl
id
e
f
ro
m
p
re
vi
o
u
s
d
e
li
ve
ra
b
le
1
0
In
cl
u
d
e
r
e
co
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
s
o
lu
ti
o
n
s
li
d
e
f
ro
m
p
re
vi
o
u
s
d
e
li
ve
ra
b
le
1
0
W
o
rk
B
re
a
kd
o
w
n
S
tr
u
ct
u
re
2
0
S
ch
e
d
u
le
2
0
S
o
lu
ti
o
n
v
a
li
d
a
ti
o
n
3
0
S
o
lu
ti
o
n
e
va
lu
a
ti
o
n
a
n
d
c
o
n
ti
n
u
o
u
s
im
p
ro
ve
m
e
n
t
3
0
Le
ga
l,
e
th
ic
a
l a
n
d
c
u
lt
u
ra
l c
o
n
si
d
e
ra
ti
o
n
s
3
0
To
ta
l
1
5
0
Pr
ob
le
m
S
ta
te
m
en
t
•S
up
po
rt
F
itb
it’
s a
dd
iti
on
o
f a
b
lo
od
p
re
ss
ur
e
m
on
ito
rin
g
ca
pa
bi
lit
y
th
ro
u
g
h
d
e
si
g
n
o
f
a
w
e
b
a
n
d
m
o
b
ile
a
p
p
u
se
r
in
te
rf
a
ce
w
it
h
t
h
e
fo
llo
w
in
g
f
e
a
tu
re
s:
•
D
is
p
la
y
b
lo
o
d
p
re
ss
u
re
r
e
a
d
in
g
s
n
u
m
e
ri
ca
ll
y
a
n
d
g
ra
p
h
ic
a
ll
y
•
Tr
a
ck
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
o
ve
r
ti
m
e
•
Id
e
n
ti
fy
lo
w
/h
ig
h
r
e
a
d
in
g
s
a
n
d
t
re
n
d
s
th
a
t
m
a
y
in
d
ic
a
te
h
e
a
lt
h
c
o
n
ce
rn
s
Re
co
m
m
en
de
d
So
lu
tio
n
•W
e
b
si
te
p
lu
s
p
la
tf
o
rm
-s
p
e
ci
fi
c
e
xt
e
n
si
o
n
s
to
e
xi
st
in
g
a
p
p
s
•J
u
st
if
ic
a
ti
o
n
•
In
te
g
ra
ti
o
n
w
it
h
e
xi
st
in
g
F
it
b
it
a
p
p
s
is
t
o
p
p
ri
o
ri
ty
•
U
se
rs
w
il
l n
o
t
w
a
n
t
to
d
o
w
n
lo
a
d
a
s
e
p
a
ra
te
a
p
p
j
u
st
f
o
r
B
P
m
o
n
it
o
ri
n
g
•
U
se
rs
w
il
l w
a
n
t
to
v
ie
w
B
P
d
a
ta
in
c
o
n
te
xt
w
it
h
o
th
e
r
h
e
a
lt
h
a
n
d
f
it
n
e
ss
d
a
ta
•
V
a
lu
e
o
f
in
te
g
ra
ti
o
n
ju
st
if
ie
s
h
ig
h
e
r
d
e
ve
lo
p
m
e
n
t
a
n
d
m
a
in
te
n
a
n
ce
c
o
st
s
W
or
k
Br
ea
kd
ow
n
St
ru
ct
ur
e
•
A
n
a
ly
si
s
•
D
ra
ft
r
e
q
u
ir
e
m
e
n
ts
s
p
e
ci
fi
ca
ti
o
n
•
R
e
vi
e
w
a
n
d
a
p
p
ro
ve
r
e
q
u
ir
e
m
e
n
ts
•
C
ro
ss
-p
la
tf
o
rm
d
e
si
g
n
•
C
o
m
p
le
te
c
o
m
m
o
n
U
X
d
e
si
g
n
•
D
e
si
g
n
c
li
e
n
t-
si
d
e
s
o
ft
w
a
re
•
W
e
b
a
p
p
d
e
ve
lo
p
m
e
n
t
•
A
d
a
p
t
co
m
m
o
n
U
X
d
e
si
g
n
f
o
r
w
e
b
•
C
o
d
e
H
T
M
L/
C
S
S
fo
r
w
e
b
a
p
p
•
C
o
d
e
J
a
va
S
cr
ip
t
fo
r
w
e
b
a
p
p
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
c
lo
u
d
A
P
I
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
e
xi
st
in
g
w
e
b
si
te
•
Te
st
w
e
b
a
p
p
•
iO
S
a
p
p
d
e
ve
lo
p
m
e
n
t
•
A
d
a
p
t
co
m
m
o
n
U
X
d
e
si
g
n
f
o
r
iO
S
•
C
o
d
e
iO
S
a
p
p
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
w
e
a
ra
b
le
d
e
vi
ce
A
P
I
•
In
te
g
ra
te
w
it
h
c
lo
u
d
A
P
I
•
In
te.
Task· This is an individual task. · The task focuses on areas .docxlillie234567
Task
· This is an individual task.
· The task focuses on areas studied to date, requiring you to show knowledge and application in the parts stated.
· You should upload a single, correctly formatted document which may also include any relevant tables and diagrams
Continuing with the marketing plan you developed for the Midterm Assessment, complete it with according with the topics discussed in class during the 2nd part of the course with following points (but not exclusively)
1. Distribution Channels:
· Markets with direct sales (if any)
· Markets with distributors (if any)
· Markets with agents (if any)
2. Pricing Strategy:
· Pricing strategies per channel
· Take a product and show how should you fix the price according the channel
3. Communication Strategy
· Business Magazines
· Trade Shows
· Digital Tools
4. Any other factor you consider key for your marketing plan
Formalities:
· Wordcount: 2.000 words
· Cover, Table of Contents, References and Appendix are excluded from the total wordcount.
· Font: Arial 12,5 pts.
· Text alignment: Justified.
· Harvard style in-text citations and bibliography
It assesses the following learning outcomes:
1. Have an in-depth understanding of B2B market opportunities.
2. Identify and differentiate between the different and unique challenges of business markets
3. Apply and analyze the different B2Bsystems and processes
4. Have a systematic understanding of how theoretical concepts can be applied in business markets.
5. Critically appreciate B2B marketing strategy assessments and developments.
6. Apply and assess the tools for B2Bmarketing strategy development and implementation
Rubrics
Learning Descriptors
Fail Below 60%
Marginal Fail 60-69%
Fair 70-79 %
Good 80-89%
Exceptional 90-100%
Purpose & Understanding
KNOWLEDGE & UNDERSTANDING
15%
Very poor coverage of central purpose, goals, research questions or arguments with little relevant information evident. Virtually no evidence of understanding or focus.
Minimal understanding of purpose of the study; factual errors evident. Gaps in knowledge and superficial understanding. A few lines of relevant material.
Reasonable understanding and clearly identifies the purpose, goals, research questions or argument.
Reflect partial achievement of learning outcomes.
A sound grasp of, and clearly identifies, the purpose, goals, research questions or argument. Some wider study beyond the classroom content shown.
Effectively describes and explains the central purpose, arguments, research questions, or goals of the project; explanation is focused, detailed and compelling. Recognition of alternative forms of evidence beyond that supplied in the classroom.
Content
KNOWLEDGE & UNDERSTANDING
15%
Content is unclear, inaccurate and/or incomplete. Brief and irrelevant. Descriptive. Only personal views offered.
Unsubstantiated and does not support the purpose, argument or goals of the project. Reader gains no insight through the content of the project.
Limi.
Team ProjectMBA687What it is…The team project in MBA68.docxlillie234567
Team Project
MBA687
What it is…
The team project in MBA687 gives you, the learner and person who is one course away from an MBA:
The opportunity to demonstrate that you can work as a member of a high-functioning team to complete a complex analysis, synthesis and presentation task.
The opportunity to demonstrate mastery of the knowledge and skills that you have acquired through the MBA program.
Where to find information in the syllabus, 1
Page 6
Group Case Study
Prior to the start of Unit 7, students will be assigned into groups of no more than 4 students per group. Each group will be assigned to complete a case study chosen by the instructor from 20 cases located in Appendix C. The 20 case materials can be found in the required textbook (see Appendix C for relevant page numbers). Group case studies should follow the same requirements as the writing assignments stated above. Group case studies are due in Unit 7. Earlier submissions are encouraged.
Also from Page 6
Writing Assignments
Writing assignments must be APA compliant and include a title page, appropriate citations, and references.
Where to find information in the syllabus, 2
Appendix C (Page 24)
This was the list from which your team selected its case
Pages 43-45
This is the rubric (grading guide) that the instructor will use to evaluate and grade the team’s submission.
General outline for the submission
This submission is much like one that you would present in a workplace situation. Imagine that you are presenting your findings on the case to senior management of your company, or to the board of directors.
For your paper, use the outline found in Table 2, page C-6 of your text.
Strategic Profile and Case Analysis Purpose
Situation Analysis
A. General environmental analysis
B. Industry analysis
C. Competitor analysis
D. Internal analysis
III. Identification of Environmental Opportunities and Threats and Firm Strengths and Weaknesses (SWOT Analysis)
Strategy Formulation
A. Strategic alternatives
B. Alternative evaluation
C. Alternative choice
Strategic Alternative Implementation
A. Action items
B. Action plan
Parts I, II and II
Parts I, II and III are much like the introduction, external analysis and internal analysis that you did for your individual project.
The author provides a list of things that you can consider about the external analysis of the industry in Table 3 (C-7)
The author discusses industry analysis (C-6), competitor analysis (C-7) and industry analysis (C-8). It will be helpful to review these areas, even though you have done your individual projects.
In the following pages, the author suggests many tools that you can use to analyze the company and its industry.
Strategy in the paper, 1
Strategy formulation
This is your team’s recommendations for the company
Recommendations should be either business level strategy alternatives or corporate level strategy alternatives.
Recommendations should be based on and sup.
T he fifteen year-old patient was scheduled for surgery on t.docxlillie234567
T he fifteen year-old patient was
scheduled for surgery on the right
side of his brain to remove a right tem-
poral lobe lesion that was believed to be
causing his epileptic seizures.
The surgery began with the sur-
geon making an incision on the left
side, opening the skull, penetrating the
dura and removing significant portions
of the left amygdala, hippocampus and
other left-side brain tissue before it was
discovered that they were working on
the wrong side.
The left-side wound was closed,
the right side was opened and the pro-
cedure went ahead on the right, correct
side.
The error in the O.R. was revealed
to the parents shortly after the surgery,
but only as if it was a minor and incon-
sequential gaffe.
The patient recuperated, left the
hospital, returned to his regular activi-
ties and graduated from high school
before his parents could no longer deny
he was not all right. After a thorough
neurological assessment he had to be
placed in an assisted living facility for
brain damaged individuals.
When the full magnitude of the
consequences came to light a lawsuit
was filed which resulted in a $11 mil-
lion judgment which was affirmed by
the Supreme Court of Arkansas.
A circulating nurse has a le-
gal duty to see that surgery
does not take place on the
wrong side of the body.
The preoperative documents
failed to identify on which side
the surgery was to be done.
It was below the standard of
care for the circulating nurse
not to notice that fact and not
to seek out the correct infor-
mation.
SUPREME COURT OF ARKANSAS
December 13, 2012
Operating Room: Surgical Error Blamed, In
Part, On Circulating Nurse’s Negligence.
Surgical Error Blamed, In Part, On
Circulating Nurse’s Negligence
The Court accepted the testimony
of the family’s nursing expert that a
circulating nurse has a fundamental
responsibility as a member of the surgi-
cal team to make sure that surgery is
done on the correct anatomical site,
especially when it is brain surgery.
The circulating nurse is supposed
to understand imposing terms like se-
lective amygdala hippocampectomy
and know the basics of how it is sup-
posed to be done.
Hospital policy called for the sur-
geon, the anesthesiologist, the circulat-
ing nurse and the scrub nurse or tech to
take a “timeout” prior to starting a sur-
gical case for final verification of the
correct anatomical site.
The circulating nurse should have
available three essential documents, the
surgical consent form, the preoperative
history and the O.R. schedule.
The full extent of the error, that is,
a full list of the parts of the brain that
were removed from the healthy side,
should have been documented by the
circulating nurse, and failure to do so
was a factor that adversely affected the
patient’s later medical course, the pa-
tient’s nursing expert said. Proassur-
ance v. Metheny, __ S.W. 3d __, 2012 WL
6204231 (Ark.
Study Participants Answers to Interview QuestionsParticipant #1.docxlillie234567
Study Participants Answers to Interview Questions
Participant #1:
1. What are the disparities between jail and youth rehabilitation for African American offenders?
a. African Americans will be imprisoned more than their white counterparts who will be given rehabilitation, institutional racism exists, and the system will spend more man hours and time dealing with white offenders than black offenders.
2. What are some social issues that African American juveniles are faced with?
a. Sociocultural stigmas, single-parent households, inadequate educational systems, poor role models, and single-parent households
3. Why are African American male juveniles not offered other means of rehabilitative punishments?
a. The New Jim Crow is our correctional system, which seeks to fill jail cells by incarcerating more black and Latino people who are then utilized as enslaved people in the system for huge corporations and the US Government. The system indicates they are not receptive and will not change.
4. What effects does the existing jail and punishment system have on this population?
a. Demeaning and discouraging—we should fund educational aid, mental health services, and instruction. Providing people with helpful tools, role models, and direction will also help them become contributing members of society
Participant #2:
1. Youth rehabilitation centers should provide mechanisms to prevent offenders from committing crimes but in order to effectively do that the differences amongst AA juveniles and other races must be addressed, while jail just allows for a separation from society to think about the crime.
2. African American male juveniles are faced with a predetermined
perception of being criminals as well as a lack of resources in their communities to educate them on the different career paths & trades that exist.
3. The funding doesn’t exist to provide other rehabilitative opportunities in AA communities.
4. The existing punishment system allows offenders to be separated from the public but it doesn’t provide them with any resources to be successful once their time is complete. Not addressing the underlying issues of how they entered the system as well as how to they can live a successful life after now being labeled as a criminal normally results in repeat offenders.
Participant #3:
1. The youth aren’t getting the proper guidance, mental healthcare and attentiveness in jail. They’re already “written off” which leads to them believing what they’re being taught and increasing the likelihood of them becoming repeat offenders. In youth rehab, you’re given a second chance, you’re being taught how to manage your mental and emotional state. You are being prepared for the world.
2. Prejudice. Are seen as thugs, no good. Etc. don’t have proper resources to get them back on their feet. Difficulty getting jobs, getting into school once released.
3. Unsure, but I’m sure it’s race.
4. You can become in.
STUDENT REPLIES
STUDENT REPLY #1 Vanessa Deleon Guerrero
When conducting surveillance, you are closely monitoring a person’s activities. Investigators or detectives watch their every move, at home, work, where they eat, shop all while being unnoticeable. When detectives conduct surveillance, they still need to ensure that they are respecting the person’s privacy. For example, detectives will not take photos of the person while they are in the shower. If the person is outside or in an area that has public view, then they can take photos of that person. They must conduct their surveillance in an orderly manner, without causing panic to the public in order to ensure public safety.
Private companies such as Facebook, Instagram or twitter are used for people to express themselves. However, what is posted on their social media becomes public and they make their lives public for everyone to see. If someone posted that they were just at a park where a shooting happened, law enforcement can use that to interview them because it puts them at the scene of the crime. However, private companies, for example like phone companies should not use data like text messaging for their benefit. They should not be allowed to read their customers’ messages or listen in on their phone calls. That is a true invasion of privacy.
Reference
Brandl, S. (2018). Criminal investigation (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Bedi, M. (2016). The curious case of cell phone location data: Fourth Amendment doctrine mash-up Links to an external site... Northwestern University Law Review, 110(2), 507–524
STUDENT REPLY #2 Danielle Berlus
Hello everyone, when I think of surveillance, I think of all the places that they put cameras like the ones at streetlights that catch you speeding or when they are looking for a suspect and they look to facial recognition devices. I think it is hard to balance what is expected to be private. I don't think anything is private anymore except possibly the bathrooms and even then, someone maybe recording you. Our cell phones I think are being monitored by so many companies and even those who want to steal our personal data as well.
"The government tracks movements through the acquisition of cell phone location data: historical cell phone location data, real-time cell phone location data, and actively "pinging" a cell phone for location data. Cell phone providers store location data as the normal part of their business of providing service. Police, in turn, can request that cell phone providers hand over this location data for a suspect over a set period of time. This information is classified as historical cell phone location data. This data stands in contrast to real-time location data. Whereas the former focuses on past locations, real-time data provides locations as they actually occur. Here, cell phone providers, upon request, give police contemporaneous data on the location of the nearest cell tower for tracking p.
Student Name
BUS 300 Public Relations
[Insert Instructor’s Name]
Month Date Year
BUS300 PR Plan Part 2 Outline
This paper will be a revised and expanded version of Developing a Public Relations Plan, Part 1 assignment in Week 4. Your paper should have a section with the bolded headers below. Ensure you have a section that discusses each of these:
Mix Media
In this section, you will describe the mix of media you would use to implement your public relations campaign and explain in detail your objectives for each media form. Include traditional and twenty-first- century integrated marketing communication strategies in your discussion. (This section should be at least three paragraphs).
Government Relations
In this section you will describe the government relations tactics you would use as part of your public relations campaign, and explain in detail how these tactics will help you achieve your objectives. In great detail explain how these tactics will help you achieve your objectives. (This section should be at least two paragraphs).
Community Relations
In this section please explain in detail how you can take advantage of community relations to generate positive publicity for your organization. (This section should be at least two paragraphs).
News Release
Draft a news release that you will use in your public relations campaign (Chapter 15). Explain in detail how the content, style, and essentials of your news release will help you persuade the public to your point of view. Use information from Chapter 15 as support. Describe the key elements of writing to consider when responding to a public relations crisis or scandal. (Your news release should be similar to the example provided in the book).
Crisis Management
In this section you will explain the five planning issues related to crisis management that can be employed to mitigate the scandal or risks (Chapter 17). (This section should be at least four to five paragraphs).
Additional Requirements
Remember to Include in-text citations when presenting information from other sources. You should begin your search for sources in the Strayer Library. Use a minimum of three credible, relevant, and appropriate sources. After you conclude the paper, you will need a separate page that includes your references. Include a sources page at the end of your paper.
Please ensure you proofread your paper and summarize when providing in-text citations.
1. Enter your first source entry here.
2. Enter your second source entry here.
3. Enter your third source entry here.
image1.png
BUS 300 Public Relations
Dr. Tenielle Buchanan
October 30, 2022BUS300 PR Plan Part 1 Outline
Your paper should have a section with the bolded headers below. Ensure you have a section that discusses each of these:
Name of organization
The United States-based publication Rolling Stone magazine is a news magazine that covers articles on current events relating to music, contempo.
Statistical Process Control 1 STATISTICAL PROCESS .docxlillie234567
Statistical Process Control 1
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
by XXXXXXXX
Student ID: 2XXXXXXX
University of Northampton
(Amity Global Institute Pte Ltd, Singapore)
Managing Operations and The Supply Chain
Dr. Melvin Goh
BSOM046
BSOM046-SUM-1920-ES1-Statistical Process Control
18 Oct XXXX
Word Count: 1600 (± 50)
Statistical Process Control 2
Table of Content
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………….3
2. Literature Review……………………………………………………………3
3. Methodology…………………………………………………………………5
4. Case Study Analysis…………………………………………………………9
5. Recommendation…………………………………………………………….15
6. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...17
7. References……………………………………………………………………18
8. Appendix……………………………………………………………………..22
Statistical Process Control 3
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
This report will provide a literature review of the concept and relevance of statistical process
control (SPC) from its inception until the present day. A case study of Waterside’s Leather
Limited (WLL) using the temperature data of its combined effluent discharge over one hundred
and twenty days will be conducted, and a recommendation will also be proposed.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Man has always tried to imitate and better his competitors to develop a better and cheaper
product or service. This idea was as crucial for the hunter-gatherer as it is for the manufacturing
industry after many millennia. This awareness led to the requirement of apprentices having to
follow in the footsteps of the master craftsmen for many years until they could become masters
in their craft. However, this was not a scientifically tabulated and monitored process.
Bradford and Miranti (2019) state that “it was in 1924 that Walter A. Shewhart introduced the
use of control charts to evaluate data distribution patterns to determine whether manufacturing
processes remain under control at Bell Telephone Laboratories”. He also introduced the terms
of variation in the process which comprises of common cause and special cause variation
(Subhabrata and Marien, 2019).
SPC is a technique for controlling processes to distinguish causes of variation and signal for
corrective action (Chen 2005 cited in Avakh and Nasari 2016). While some say that “SPC is
the use of statistically based tools and techniques principally for the management and
Statistical Process Control 4
improvement of processes” (Stapenhurrst, 2005), others say that “SPC is not really about
statistics or control, it is about competitiveness” (Oakland and Oakland, 2018).
Figure 1: A typical Control Chart
(Graph from https://learning.oreilly.com/library/view/nonparametric-statistical-process/9781118456033/c02.xhtml#head-2-
18)
The USA War Department used these methods to enhance the quality of products during World
War II. W.E Deming used Shewhart’s cycle in his quality training in Japan in 1950 but made
a new version stress.
Student 1 Student Mr. Randy Martin Eng 102 MW .docxlillie234567
Student 1
Student
Mr. Randy Martin
Eng 102 MW
6 December 2010
The Tragedy of Othello
The “Devil” throughout the ages has been referred to by many names; accuser, adversary,
enemy, and thief among others, no matter what title is given he is universally accepted as the
purest and ultimate form of evil. In William Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Othello,
Shakespeare uses the element of drama of character to create a villain that embodies absolute
wickedness, a human form of the author of evil. The character Shakespeare creates to serve as
the ultimate antagonist is none other than “honest Iago.” Iago’s character is the best
representation of an elusive villain whose clever abilities to deceive and persuade bring
catastrophic destruction like that of an unexpected, nearly invisible black ice. Shakespeare uses
the character to advance the theme that mankind has the ability to be influenced and even driven
to engage in repulsive and devastatingly horrendous acts towards to each other. Iago himself is
driven and influences the actions Casio, Othello, and Rodrigo.
Spurred by jealousy and the pain of an injured pride Iago observes the man who was
granted/appointed the position he believed to have deserved and conceives a plan for taking
Cassio(this man) out. The character Cassio is deceived and manipulated by Iago in two manners.
First Iago sets up Cassio to betray himself and be demoted and then later uses Cassio as a pawn
to play into an even greater and more elaborate act of revenge against Othello.
Giving into anger and jealousy, Iago devises a plan to crush Cassio and satiate the pain of
Student 2
being passed over, Shakespeare writes:
I: With as little
a web as this will I ensnare as great a fly as Cassio. Ay, smile upon her, do!
I will gyve thee in thine own courtship…
If such tricks as these strip you out of your lieutenantry, (2.1.162-4)
Critic August Schlegel notes, “…he spreads his nets with a skill which nothing can escape.” The
devastation of being passed over for the position drove Iago to exact revenge on the unknowing
bystander, Cassio. Pride is a powerful internal motivator that takes a tremendous toll on those
who allow it contribute to their actions or control their thoughts. It is easy to give into the
feelings of being wronged and turn an evil eye rather than applauding another in their success.
More commonly found in relationships is the mentality of if I can’t have him nobody will.
With ease and grace Iago is able to show Cassio false sympathy and gain trust that allows
him to direct Cassio’s actions, by creating false hope. Shakespeare writes:
I: …, I could heartily wish this had not
befall’n; but since it is as it is, mend it for your own good.(2.3.270-1)
I: I tell you what you
shall do. Our general’s wife is now the general...
confess yourself freely to her; importune her help
to put you in your place again. She is of so free, .
Sophia Pathways for College Credit – English Composition II
SAMPLE TOUCHSTONE AND SCORING
Logan Stevens
English Composition II
December 20, 2019
Where’s the Beef?: Ethics and the Beef Industry
Americans love their beef. Despite the high rate of its consumption, in recent years
people in the United States have grown increasingly concerned about where their food comes
from, how it is produced, and what environmental and health impacts result from its production.
These concerns can be distilled into two ethical questions: is the treatment of cattle humane and
is there a negative environmental impact of beef production? For many, the current methods of
industrial beef production and consumption do not meet personal ethical or environmental
standards. Therefore, for ethical and environmental reasons, people should limit their beef
consumption.
The first ethical question to consider is the humane treatment of domesticated cattle. It
has been demonstrated in multiple scientific studies that animals feel physical pain as well as
emotional states such as fear (Grandin & Smith, 2004, para. 2). In Concentrated Animal Feeding
Operations (CAFOs), better known as “factory farms” due to their industrialized attitude toward
cattle production, cattle are often confined to unnaturally small areas; fed a fattening, grain-based
diet; and given a constant stream of antibiotics to help combat disease and infection. In his essay,
“An Animal’s Place,” Michael Pollan (2002) states that beef cattle often live “standing ankle
Comment [SL1]: Hi Logan! This is a great title.
Comment [SL2]: It will help strengthen your opening
sentence to include some sort of facts or statistics about
beef consumption in America.
Comment [SL3]: Throughout your essay, you talk about
more than just limiting the consumption of beef. How could
you strengthen your Thesis Statement to connect all of
those points?
Sophia Pathways for College Credit – English Composition II
SAMPLE TOUCHSTONE AND SCORING
deep in their own waste eating a diet that makes them sick” (para. 40). Pollan describes
Americans’ discomfort with this aspect of meat production and notes that they are removed from
and uncomfortable with the physical and psychological aspects of killing animals for food. He
simplifies the actions chosen by many Americans: “we either look away—or stop eating
animals” (para. 32). This decision to look away has enabled companies to treat and slaughter
their animals in ways that cause true suffering for the animals. If Americans want to continue to
eat beef, alternative, ethical methods of cattle production must be considered.
The emphasis on a grain-based diet, and therefore a reliance on mono-cropping, also
contributes to the inefficient use of available land. The vast majority of grain production (75-
90% depending on whether corn or soy) goes to feeding animals rather than humans, and cattle
alone .
STORY TELLING IN MARKETING AND SALES – AssignmentThe Ethic.docxlillie234567
STORY TELLING IN MARKETING AND SALES – Assignment
The Ethics of Storytelling
Assignment Description:
During the past week in class, we learned that all brand stories need to have a strong ethical foundation. Brands need to create and distribute messages that are honest and convey their corporate values.
FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT, “CHOOSE ANY 1” OF THE FOLLOWING SHORT VIDEOS TO WRITE ABOUT:
· “Apple 2013 Christmas commercial”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=03KQTCEM08k
· “WestJet Christmas Miracle”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zIEIvi2MuEk&t=9s
For the video you choose, answer the following questions about the story that is being told:
(minimum 350 words, combine 1 to 5)
1. Does this story affirm the company’s core values? Why or why not?
2. Does this story foster trust with each and every stakeholder? Why or why not?
3. Does this story help build relationships? Why or why not?
4. Does this story showcase diverse and inclusive behaviors?
5. Does this story honor the company’s commitments and promises to its customers? Why or why not?
Note: Write a minimum of 350 words for above 5 questions, conveying your own thoughts and views.
image1.png
CHCCCS023 Learner Guide Version 1.1 Page 1 of 59
CHCCCS023
Support independence and
wellbeing
Learner Guide
CHCCCS023 Learner Guide Version 1.1 Page 2 of 59
Table of Contents
Unit of Competency ..................................................................................................................... 5
Application ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Unit Sector ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Performance Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 6
Foundation Skills ............................................................................................................................. 8
Assessment Requirements .............................................................................................................. 9
1. Recognise and support individual differences.......................................................................... 12
1.1 – Recognise and respect the person’s social, cultural and spiritual differences ........................ 13
Individual differences .................................................................................................................... 13
Social differences .......................................................................................................................... 13
Cultural differences ....................................................
STEP IV CASE STUDY & FINAL PAPERA. Based on the analysis in Ste.docxlillie234567
STEP IV: CASE STUDY & FINAL PAPER
A. Based on the analysis in Step III, choose which theory best applies to this situation. Add any arguments justifying your choice of these ethical principles to support your decision.
Consequentialism (Utilitarian) Theory
Deontology Theory
Kant’s Categorical Imperative Principle
Social Contract Theory
Virtue Ethics Theory
NAME THE THEORY HERE: Deontology Theory
B. Explain your choice above: THIS AREA SHOULD BE 4-7 sentences or roughly 100-200 words.
Deontology is an approach to Ethics that focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves I choose this because ethical actions based on normative theories can be effective in developing better privacy practices for organizations. A business should be able to admit to making a mistake. This is especially important to shareholders, employees, and other stakeholders.It is important for businesses to operate with transparency. Consumers need to be able to trust what businesses present to them.
C. Your decision: What would you do? Why? List the specific steps needed to implement your defensible ethical decision. THIS AREA SHOULD BE 2 OR MORE PARAGRAPHS (250-350 words).
Deontology is a theory of ethics that suggests that actions can either be bad or good when judged based on a clear set of rules. So what I would do is set these rules in place. Businesses/companies should uphold the ethical standard of respect. People personal data shouldn’t be treated as ends rather than means. Companies should keep personal data about their customers/users and should be expected to keep this information private out of respect for these individual’s privacy.
Another rule, Businesses/companies should uphold complete transparency. This builds not only trust, but help builds a relationship with the users/customers. And if they don’t enclosed information the company’s actions would be considered unethical and wrong. Another rule is that there should always be accountability. A business/company should always be able to admit to making a mistake. This is especially important to shareholders, and stakeholders. They should be able to own up to missteps even when this could have serious consequences. With these rules emplaced it would be more ethical.
D. What longer-term changes (i.e., political, legal, societal, organizational) would help prevent your defined dilemma in the future? THIS AREA SHOULD BE 2 OR MORE PARAGRAPHS (250-350 words).
My dilemma is the misuse of personal information and data. Not just in social media but, also companies and business. One of the obvious ways to stop this dilemma is to make it that companies aren’t allowed to collect and store our personal data. User data can legally be sold as long as legal conditions for its collection and sale have been met and there isn’t any regulation against it. Our data is being sold for profit. This shouldn’t be allowed. There should be laws and regulations against that. They are the only ones benefiting.
Step 1Familiarize yourself with the video found here .docxlillie234567
Step 1:
Familiarize yourself with the video found here:
Link to Who Leads Us? video
AND the website associated with the video, located here:
Who Leads Us?
AND the website of your Representative in the United States House:
The US House of Representatives
Step 2:
After learning about Reflective Democracy across the United States it is time to learn about how it affects you. Begin by examining yourself and your surrounding community. How would you describe your cultural background? How would you describe the cultural background of your US Representative? How would you describe the cultural background of the district that he or she represents (and that you are a part of)? Compare and contrast the culture of the district to the culture of your Representative. Compare and contrast the culture of your Representative and your culture. Compare and contrast your culture with the culture of the district that you live. Where do you see the greatest differences between cultures? What are some advantages and disadvantages of these cultural differences? How would you work to bridge the divide between cultures? (SR 1)Step 3:
Find a policy issue that your Representative has taken a stand on. Explain that issue in detail. Once you have explained the issue, provide information on where your representative stands on the issue. Where do you stand on the issue? What do you believe should be done? What might be another alternative solution? Thinking about your ideas on the issue who might object to your viewpoint and what might their objections be? Once you’ve laid out their objections, respond to them, and explain, with logic, why your perspective is correct and your opponents’ objections are mistaken. (PR 1 and PR 2)Step 4:
Now that you have officially staked out a policy position, you need to think about how to get it put into action. Who in the government, and who in your community. do you believe should be involved? What specific actions should you (and those in the community) take? Why is it important to get your community involved and what will be the benefits of activating people to the cause? (SR 2)Step 5:
Let’s assume that you are successful in your efforts, and you achieve your policy goal. What do you believe will be the consequences of putting this policy into practice? How far reaching do you think the consequences will be for your community? Your state? Your country? What do you think will be the effects over the short term? Over the long term? Be sure to mention both positive and negative consequences that might result? (PR 3)
.
Statistical application and the interpretation of data is importan.docxlillie234567
Statistical application and the interpretation of data is important in health care. Review the statistical concepts covered in this topic. In a 800-1,000 words paper, discuss the significance of statistical application in health care. Include the following:
1. Describe the application of statistics in health care. Specifically discuss its significance to quality, safety, health promotion, and leadership.
2. Consider your organization or specialty area and how you utilize statistical knowledge. Discuss how you obtain statistical data, how statistical knowledge is used in day-to-day operations and how you apply it or use it in decision making.
Three peer-reviewed, scholarly or professional references are required.
Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.
RUBRICS:
1, Application of statistics in health care is described in detail. The significance to quality, safety, health promotion, and leadership is described thoroughly for all criteria. Strong information and rationale is provided to fully illustrate the application of statistics, and its significance, to health care and the specific areas.
2, Application of statistical knowledge to organization or specialty area is thoroughly discussed. How statistical data are obtained, used in day-to-day operations, or applied in decision making is described in detail. The ability to understand and apply statistical data is clearly demonstrated.
3, Thesis is comprehensive and contains the essence of the paper. Thesis statement makes the purpose of the paper clear.
4, Clear and convincing argument presents a persuasive claim in a distinctive and compelling manner. All sources are authoritative.
5, Writer is clearly in command of standard, written, academic English
6, Paper Format (use of appropriate style for the major and assignment)
Compañías utilizando la Inteligencia Artificial
La Inteligencia Artificial es un campo donde se combina las ciencias de las computadoras y bases de datos para ayudar a resolver problemas o para simular Inteligencia Humana. Comprende varios subcampos donde se utilizan varios métodos en los cuales se pueden mencionar los más comunes que son: las maquinas aprendiendo o Machine Learning y el aprendizaje profundo o Deep Learning. Estos métodos o disciplinas están comprometidas con los Algoritmos de la Inteligencia Artificial que buscan crear sistemas expertos que pueden hacer predicciones o clasificaciones basadas en una data introducida por un usuario. Algunas de las funciones primarias de la Inteligencia Artificial varían entre razonar, aprender, resolver problemas, toma de decisiones y principalmente entender el comportamiento humano. Este concepto esta formado por dos tipos de acercamientos, el primero es el acercamiento humano y el acercamiento ideal. Cuando hablamos del acercamiento humano, estamos emprendiendo sistemas que piensan y actúan como humanos. El acercami.
SOURCE: http://eyeonhousing.org/2013/09/24/property-tax-remains-largest-revenue-source/
Property tax comes from housing. More new construction means more property taxes collected. The
better (so more expensive the home) the more property taxes collected. Defaults, foreclosures can
drive down house values and reduce property taxes. You are simply trying to understand some
forecasting regarding the future (maybe near-term future) of property taxes to be collected. CERNIK
Property Tax Remains Largest Revenue Source
According to the latest data from the Census Bureau, taxes paid by homeowners and other real
estate owners remain the largest single source of revenue for state and local governments. At
34%, property taxes represent a significantly larger share than the next largest sources: individual
income taxes (24%) and sales taxes (21%).
State and local government property tax collections continue to increase on a nominal basis.
From the third quarter of 2012 through the end of the second quarter of 2013, approximately
$479 billion in taxes were paid by property owners. This was a small increase from the
previous trailing four-quarter record of $477 billion, set last quarter.
The modest changes throughout the Great Recession in nominal state and local government
property tax collections are due in large part to lagging property assessments and the ability of
local jurisdiction to make annual adjustments to tax rates. In general, declining property values
are not reflected in the system until a few years after the decline occurs. Once assessments are
updated, property tax authorities can adjust rates thus maintaining a desired level of collection.
http://eyeonhousing.org/2013/09/24/property-tax-remains-largest-revenue-source/
http://www.census.gov/govs/qtax/
http://eyeonhousing.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/piechart.png
As state and local government property tax collections increased in recent years, the share of
local tax collections due to property taxes fell from a high of 37.4% in the second quarter of
2010 to the current share of 33.5%. The average share for property taxes since 2000 is 32.4%.
The changing share of local collections is due predominantly to fluctuations in all other tax
receipts. State and local individual income tax, corporate income tax, and sales tax collections
are very responsive to changing economic conditions. For example, in the second quarter of 2009
state and local governments collected $76 billion in individual income tax. In the second quarter
of 2013, the most recent, state and local governments collected $114 billion in individual income
tax. The dramatic 50% increase in state and local individual income tax receipts is due to
improving economic conditions, rising incomes, and higher rates in several states.
http://eyeonhousing.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/chart_13.png
The S&P/Case-Shiller House Price Index – National Index grew by 7.1% on a n.
Sophia Pathways for College Credit – English Composition I
Are you ready to write Touchstone 4?
The essay below provides an example of an advanced level argumentative essay. As you read through
the essay, notice how the author effectively incorporates elements of argument, has a strong thesis
statement which takes a stand on one side of a debatable topic, and utilizes the classical model of
argumentation with effective incorporation and utilization of support.
______________________________________________________________________
Marcus Bishop
English Composition I
March 15, 2018
Teenage Sleep and School Start Times
John, an average teenager, tries to get to school on time in the mornings. He sets two
alarms on his phone and often skips a shower or breakfast, or both, so that he doesn’t miss the
school bus that stops at his corner at 7:00 AM. Once at school, John joins his sleep-deprived
peers in mad dashes to their first classes. School is on, whether students are prepared to learn
or not. According to numerous studies, the average U.S. teenager gets between 7 and 7.25
hours of sleep a night, while his body needs between 9 and 9.5 hours. With the average start
time for high school in the U.S. 8:03 AM (Croft, Ferro, and Wheaton, 2015), it’s not a great leap
to conclude many high school students are sleep-deprived. High schools should implement later
start times to maintain healthy biological functions and to maximize learning for teenagers.
Comment [SL1]: While the sentence structure is a bit
repetitive, this introduction does a good job of engaging the
reader with the average teenager and providing the
necessary background information for the reader to fully
understand the importance of the thesis.
Comment [SL2]: This is a well written thesis statement. It
takes a clear position on one side of a debatable topic. It is
concise, yet provides adequate detail so that the reader
knows what your key points within the essay will likely be.
Sophia Pathways for College Credit – English Composition I
Sleep deprivation in teens affects their health, including issues like mood and behavior,
increased anxiety or depression, use of caffeine, tobacco, or alcohol, and even weight gain. Lack
of sleep increases the likelihood that teens across all socio-economic spectrums will be unable
to concentrate and will suffer poor grades in school as a result. In addition, teens, already in a
high risk category as new drivers, are more susceptible to “drowsy-driving incidents.” (Richter,
2015). These are all compelling reasons to consider changes in school start times for teenagers.
Our internal body clocks – what scientists call circadian rhythm - regulate biological
processes according to light and dark. When our eyes tell us it’s dark, we begin to tire, and
when our eyes tell us it’s light, we begin to waken. Adults often refer to themselves as a
“morning person” or a “night person” because t.
Statistical annex
Country classifications
Data sources, country classifications
and aggregation methodology
The statistical annex contains a set of data that the World Economic Situation and
Prospects (WESP) employs to delineate trends in various dimensions of the world economy.
Data sources
The annex was prepared by the Economic Analysis and Policy Division (EAPD) of the De-
partment of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (UN/DESA). It
is based on information obtained from the Statistics Division and the Population Division
of UN/DESA, as well as from the five United Nations regional commissions, the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations World
Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World
Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and na-
tional and private sources. Estimates for the most recent years were made by EAPD in
consultation with the regional commissions, UNCTAD, UNWTO and participants in
Project LINK, an international collaborative research group for econometric modelling
coordinated jointly by EAPD and the University of Toronto. Forecasts for 2019 and 2020
are primarily based on the World Economic Forecasting Model of EAPD, with support
from Project LINK.
Data presented in WESP may differ from those published by other organizations for
a series of reasons, including differences in timing, sample composition and aggregation
methods. Historical data may differ from those in previous editions of WESP because of
updating and changes in the availability of data for individual countries.
Country classifications
For analytical purposes, WESP classifies all countries of the world into one of three broad
categories: developed economies, economies in transition and developing economies. The
composition of these groupings, specified in tables A, B and C, is intended to reflect basic
economic country conditions. Several countries (in particular the economies in transition)
have characteristics that could place them in more than one category; however, for purposes
of analysis, the groupings have been made mutually exclusive. Within each broad category,
some subgroups are defined based either on geographical location or on ad hoc criteria, such
as the subgroup of “major developed economies”, which is based on the membership of the
Group of Seven. Geographical regions for developing economies are as follows: Africa, East
Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean.1
1 Names and composition of geographical areas follow those specified in the statistical paper entitled
“Standard country or area codes for statistical use” (ST/ESA/STAT/SER.M/49/Rev). Available from
https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publication/SeriesM/Series_M49_Rev4(1999)_en.pdf.
168 World Economic Situation and Prospects 2019
In parts of the analysis, a distinction is made between fuel export.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
3. 4 2%
5 2%
6 2%
7 2%
8 2%
9 1%
Strategic Management.docx
ORIGINALITY REPORT
PRIMARY SOURCES
Submitted to University of Bolton
Student Paper
Submitted to Chapman University
Student Paper
Submitted to University of Lincoln
Student Paper
ejournals.library.ualberta.ca
Internet Source
www.conftool.net
Internet Source
Submitted to University of Northampton
Student Paper
4. bura.brunel.ac.uk
Internet Source
ppe.mcmaster.ca
Internet Source
Submitted to Association of Business
Executives
Student Paper
10 1%
11 1%
12 1%
Exclude quotes Off
Exclude bibliography Off
Exclude matches Off
Submitted to Central Queensland University
Student Paper
Submitted to York St John University
Student Paper
Submitted to University of Dundee
Student Paper
6. book, Images of Organization (IO).
In this article, we summarize the nature of the contributions
made by IO, sketch ways in which
the book has prompted and served as a touchstone for new
research on metaphor and orga-
nization, and discuss the application of contemporary
metaphorical analysis to the problems of
theory development, research methods, and puzzle solving
facing scholars interested in sustain-
ability studies and research on organizations and the natural
environment (ONE). We illustrate
how early research that fostered ONE scholarship is marked by
the use of particularly powerful
metaphorical language and attention to poetic technique as well
as rigorous science. We suggest
how ONE research (and organizational studies in general) can
benefit from studying IO and
related literature on metaphorical analysis.
Keywords
Gareth Morgan, paradigm, tropes, root metaphor, analogical
reasoning, cognitive science,
theory construction, disciplined imagination, research
methodology, positivist empirical science,
organizational discourse analysis, literary method, rhetorical
styles, poetic technique, nature
writing, spirituality and the environment, organizational theory,
organizations and the natural
environment, critical theory, sustainability studies, Silent
Spring, The Ecology of Commerce,
corporation as island
Scholars of organizations have benefitted through the years
from key books that map and other-
wise take stock of the field (e.g., Baritz, 1960; Burrell &
7. Morgan, 1979; Clegg, Hardy, & Nord,
1996; March, 1965; Nystrom & Starbuck, 1981; Perrow, 1986;
Tsoukas & Knudson, 2003).
These compilations are invaluable because they advance
frameworks that organize and highlight
important schools of thought and streams of research. They also
tell a story about what warrants
attention in the field—and what does not. This type of
accounting for progress in organizational
studies is also conducted through annual reviews, research
anthologies, and special issues of
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F10860266
11436328&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2012-02-09
Jermier and Forbes 445
journals. These sources are often highly influential in charting
the course for future research and
in shaping the imagination of scholars interested in developing
and contributing to the field.
In this Citation Classics and Foundational Works feature, we
focus attention on Gareth
Morgan’s (1986) Images of Organization (IO), a book that
serves many of the important pur-
poses identified above. In addition, IO encourages reflection on
the concept of metaphor (and
its role in human thought and scientific work) and on the
fundamental root (or generative)
metaphors that underwrite the field’s dominant and emerging
theories and perspectives. The
message of IO for researchers, educators, and other students of
organization is that all concep-
tual frameworks (including formal theories) result from the
8. elaboration of root metaphors and
that metaphor tends to lock the scholar into a particular train of
thought. That is, the metaphors
we begin with and their associated philosophical assumptions
have profound consequences for
further thought and action. Thus, metaphor is not merely useful
in literary expression and jour-
nalism. It is useful in all intellectual work and is a proper
subject of inquiry for any scientific
field seeking to discover its foundations and advance its
research.
We are highlighting this book because we think it can serve as a
valuable resource for schol-
ars of organization and environment who want to further
explore the field’s metaphorical
underpinnings and the related literature that builds on this work.
In our view, this is some of the
field’s most creative and methodologically sophisticated
material and is indispensable for those
grappling with paradigmatic choices and radical approaches to
developing an ecocentric sci-
ence of organizations (see Hoffman & Bansal, 2012).
In this article, we introduce the Feature, which includes
Morgan’s (2011) companion piece
that follows (“Reflections on Images of Organization and Its
Implications for Organization and
Environment”). We also (a) summarize the nature of the
contributions made by IO, (b) sketch
ways in which the book has prompted and served as a
touchstone for new research on metaphor
and organization, and (c) discuss the application of
contemporary metaphorical analysis to the
problems of theory development, research methods, and puzzle
solving facing scholars inter-
9. ested in sustainability studies and research on organizations and
the natural environment (ONE).
The Nature of the Contribution
Even if it had not been cited more than 8,000 times since its
initial publication, it is easy to see
how Images of Organization serves as a crucial foundational
work for organizational studies. It
offers readers an overview of organizational social science and
theories of organization from the
perspective of metaphor, a fundamental element in human
language and, more specifically from
several root metaphorical expressions in the language of
organization. Therefore, it is useful
for analyzing underlying conceptual processes and linguistic
conventions that manifest in
everyday speech about organizations as well as in analyzing the
carefully formulated scientific
expressions produced by scholars of organizations.
Using eight root metaphors (organizations as machines, living
organisms, brains, cultures, polit-
ical systems, psychic prisons, flux and transformation, and
instruments of domination), IO inte-
grates decades of research and offers an approach to the field
that holds appeal for both novices and
experts. Commentators have traced the book’s appeal to many
factors, from the elegance of the
writing style to the innovativeness of the images of organization
that are elaborated. In our view,
IO has also appealed to so many different kinds of readers
because of the method of presentation.
Although there is no explicit theory of learning articulated in
the text, IO makes use of the method
of comparison and contrast, one of the most natural and
powerful forms of human learning (see
10. Marzano, 2007). By provoking the method of comparing and
contrasting metaphors, IO invites
learning at a highly abstract level and also at the more concrete
level of key concepts derived from
the root metaphors and combinations of concepts that might not
otherwise be brought together.
446 Organization & Environment 24(4)
Another appealing quality of IO is that it is written from a well-
formulated philosophical
position. IO is based on the idea that metaphors are inexorably
wrapped up with ontology, epis-
temology, methodology, and ultimately with the process of
developing theory. Metaphors are
wrapped up with ontology because our assumptions about the
nature of reality condition every
facet of existence. The ontological premise that “organizations
are multidimensional, socially
constructed realities where different aspects can co-exist in
complementary, conflicting, hence
paradoxical ways,” as Morgan (2011, p. 467) states in his
companion essay, has profound impli-
cations for developing strategies to comprehend organizations.
In addition, there is a certain
epistemological tone in the presentation that is appealing. This
tone is echoed in the companion
piece as Morgan (2011, p. 475) reiterates the key points that
metaphors provide partial insights; that different metaphors can
produce conflicting
insights; that in elevating one insight others are downplayed;
that a way of seeing becomes
a way of not seeing; and that any attempt to understand the
11. complex nature of organiza-
tions (as with any complex subject) always requires an open and
pluralistic approach
based on the interplay of multiple perspectives.
This epistemology is expressed in the conclusion to each
chapter in which strengths and limita-
tions of that metaphor are discussed. It is also expressed when
Morgan refers to the metaphors
presented in the book as illustrative of a range of possibilities
for organizational theorizing and
not as an exhaustive list.
Another angle that appeals to scholars of organizations is the
assertion that “metaphor is the
process that drives theory construction and science” (Morgan,
2011, p. 463). Although it is
commonly held that theory development is a process and that
theories can be falsified with
empirical evidence, it is not as commonly recognized that
theory and method are underwritten
and otherwise constructed from metaphorical imagery. IO
illustrates this treatise and lays
important groundwork for understanding the role of metaphor in
the process of theory develop-
ment and in the integral choice of research methods. Indeed, IO
serves as a reminder that theory
and method can no more transcend metaphor than metaphor can
transcend ontology and episte-
mology. Thus, as an innovative excursion into the realm of the
deep structure of organizational
studies, IO can be read simultaneously as a well-positioned
philosophical treatise, a rich theo-
retical exposition, and a sophisticated methodological exercise.
Importantly, IO also played a major role in legitimating
12. exploration and further elaboration
of frameworks derived from interpretive and radical paradigms
(see Burrell & Morgan, 1979).
This occurred at a time when the mainstream of the field was
not fully aware of the limitations
of devoting so much attention to work grounded in taken-for-
granted mechanistic and organis-
mic root images and when realist ontology and positivist
epistemology were seen as the gold
standard for underwriting scientific method. Building on earlier
work that revealed the underly-
ing philosophical assumptions in objectivist science, IO
challenged the credentials of the field’s
dominant images (mechanistic and living systems) and
highlighted the premature closure that
existed. As Morgan (2011, p. 468) states in his reflective essay
in response to our question about
whether he was calling for new liberating metaphors as a basis
for research: “One of my definite
aims was to help break the bonds of existing thinking and open
inquiry to more radical
metaphors.”
In summary, it is reasonable to think that without Morgan’s
efforts in producing IO and related
articles (e.g., Morgan, 1980, 1983a, 1983b), the field of
organizational studies might have been
substantially delayed in discovering and clarifying its
metaphorical foundations. IO has made a
unique contribution to organizational studies by elevating the
process of metaphorical thinking
Jermier and Forbes 447
13. to the level of conscious awareness of countless students of
organization. Accordingly, as our
sketch in the section below suggests, this work has mobilized
scholars of organizations to more
closely examine the foundations of the field and the processes
through which new knowledge is
created.
Research on Metaphor and Organization
The Early Years
IO was published 25 years ago in a very different intellectual
climate. Lakoff and Johnson’s
(1980) classic, Metaphors We Live By, was widely circulated
but cognitive linguistic analyses,
experimental studies in social cognition, and other empirical
research defining and establishing
the important role played by metaphor in social thought and
attitudes was limited (see Landau,
Meier, & Keefer, 2010). Morgan (1980) based his early work on
metaphors on landmark studies
in the philosophy of culture (Ernst Cassirer), ordinary language
theory (Max Black), poetic
sociology (Richard Brown), and related frameworks that
emphasize the ways human beings
develop and use symbolic constructs to structure and give
meaning to their world. The study of
metaphor lacked credibility in the broader social sciences and in
organizational studies. Yet as
he states in his reflective essay (Morgan, 2011, p. 460), the idea
of forging a link between the
perspectives advanced in Sociological Paradigms and
Organizational Analysis (Burrell &
Morgan, 1979) and metaphors of organization truly came easily,
“as an intuitive flash of
insight,” while facing a pragmatic career crossroad.
14. The work prefigured and helped shape an explosion of interest
in examining and challenging
the field’s paradigmatic and metaphorical underpinnings. One
such stream emerged in the early
1980s as a number of influential organizational studies scholars
embraced the theme of homo
symbolicus—an approach to understanding the symbolic
character of human life and the primacy
of symbolic representations in all fields of activity, including
science. They drew heavily on the
interpretive paradigm, cultural anthropology, and subjectivist
methods, launching the field of
organizational culture and symbolism (e.g., Frost, Moore,
Louis, Lundberg, & Martin, 1985;
Pondy, Frost, Morgan, & Dandridge, 1983). Studies of metaphor
and language were integral
parts of the emerging zeitgeist, and IO eventually helped further
expand this counter-paradigmatic
movement centered on culture and symbolism.
Although it is outside the scope of this introduction to provide a
comprehensive review of the
research on metaphor and organization influenced by Morgan’s
early work (which also can be
understood to include research on discourse theory and
organization), it is important to sketch
some of the ways this work has been developed. Given the reach
of Morgan’s thesis (that meta-
phor inevitably permeates both everyday meaning making and
the production of academic
knowledge), it is not surprising that the initial reaction to IO
was mixed. Most reviewers recog-
nized the creative flourish that was necessary to produce such a
radical reframing of the field,
appreciated the rigor of the subjectivist method that
15. demonstrated the relevance of the humani-
ties to organizational studies, and celebrated the liberating
potential of the multiperspectival
approach. However, some reacted negatively to the core idea, as
first presented in Morgan
(1980), objecting to the application of metaphors and other
figurative language on the grounds
that unconstrained use would retard or even derail more
traditional scientific pursuits in the
study of organization (Pinder & Bourgeois, 1982). Others
contended that Morgan’s advocacy of
metaphorical pluralism could inadvertently lend support to
totalitarian political tendencies
(Tinker, 1986) or expressed concern that the method of
metaphor would lead to extreme episte-
mological relativism, undermining the modernist project (Reed,
1990). Even more fundamen-
tally, some cautioned against rampant and naïve use of
metaphor in conceptualizing organizational
448 Organization & Environment 24(4)
phenomena (e.g., VrMeer, 1994), and Carr and Leivesley (1995)
went so far as to claim that
organizational studies scholars frequently invoked the word
metaphor inappropriately.
In an attempt to provide a critical appraisal of the use of
metaphors in organizational science,
Grant and Oswick (1996a) invited several scholars to contribute
chapters to a book dealing with
key issues and new directions for research. This book has
become required reading for scholars
interested in the subject. Their introduction to the volume
16. includes an instructive section on
organizational science and metaphor that reviews the literature
and raises the question of whether
metaphors should be accorded a positive or negative status. The
main argument in favor of
according a positive status, write Grant and Oswick (1996b), is
the belief that metaphors have
generative capacity and are, therefore, liberating in orientation.
They enable seeing the world
anew and can serve as a tool helpful in overcoming the trap of
reifying the social world. They
also outline two arguments in favor of according metaphors a
negative status. First, as a result of
their figurative quality, metaphors do not meet standards for
exactitude in scientific investigation.
Second, metaphors (particularly the dominant mechanistic and
organismic frames) tend to gener-
ate ideological distortion and create “false consciousness”
because they fail to highlight structural
conflicts and power inequality. Of course the latter point does
not negate the idea that alterna-
tive metaphors could generate at least moments of emancipation
or that even the dominant
metaphors, if raised above the level of the taken for granted and
incisively critiqued, could gener-
ate new ways of seeing. In the volume’s closing chapter,
Morgan (1996) provides a useful expla-
nation of how metaphor works and reaffirms his emphasis on
metaphorical analysis as a valuable
tool for liberation and extending the boundaries of organization
and management theory.
Two Streams of Research
Research on metaphor and organization has continued to
progress and is now mature enough to
include useful attempts to map the terrain, define the orthodoxy,
17. and point to future directions
for research (e.g., Cornelissen, 2005; Cornelissen, Oswick,
Christensen, & Phillips, 2008; Inns,
2002; Oswick, Keenoy, & Grant, 2002). In making our own
observations about this field of
study, we will draw on these detailed reviews and we highly
recommend them. Given space
considerations, however, we focus our attention on two central
tendencies or themes in the
research literature: (a) studies examining metaphors in specific
organizational settings and (b) stud-
ies detailing how metaphor works and exploring the role of
metaphor in the construction of
organizational theories. We also highlight two articles
published shortly after IO that we believe
illustrate the approaches to research on metaphor and that serve
well as markers. They represent
important streams of literature that have developed from two of
the seeds Morgan (1980, 1983a,
1983b, 1986) planted, although we cast them more as
contemporaneous studies than as deriva-
tive presentations.
Metaphors in organizational settings. The first theme,
examination of the meaning of meta-
phors in specific organizational settings, has a rich history in
organizational studies, one that
extends beyond research on organizational culture and
symbolism and that includes literature
on organizational discourse (e.g., Grant, Hardy, Oswick, &
Putnam, 2004). Through the years,
many researchers have taken a descriptive and critical approach
to understand how metaphors
are used in certain settings, focusing on power, control,
resistance, and related concepts (e.g.,
Alvesson & Willmott, 2002; Hopfl & Maddrell, 1996; Leclercq-
18. Vandelannoitte, 2011; Mantere
& Vaara, 2008; Martin, Knopoff, & Beckman, 1998). For
decades, metaphor has also been
considered more normatively from the point of view of its
possible role in organizational
development and planned change (e.g., Barrett & Cooperrider,
1990; Burke, 1992; Cornelissen,
Holt, & Zundel, 2011; Gibson & Zellmer-Bruhn, 2001; Jacobs &
Heracleous, 2006; Oswick &
Montgomery, 1999).
Jermier and Forbes 449
To illustrate this latter approach, we refer to Sackmann (1989),
who conducted a detailed
study of metaphorical expressions in an applied setting—a sales
conglomerate based in Los
Angeles, California. She interviewed 52 employees, including
top management and a sample
of lower level employees randomly selected from various
divisions and different hierarchical
levels. Her objective was to develop a better understanding of
what kind of metaphors are
appropriate to promote organizational transformation when
corporate survival is at stake. The
organizational change process was divided into two parts:
strategic planning (which involved
searching out a new identity and direction for the firm) and an
implementation stage (which
involved the rather typical and often extremely taxing initiative
of creating and maintaining a
humanistic culture amidst [“housecleaning,” Sackman, 1989, p.
479], downsizing, and other
divestiture activities). According to Sackmann (1989), a
19. metaphor of “philosophizing” was
elaborated to attempt to influence perceptions of the company’s
identity and related macro
characteristics during strategic planning while a metaphor of
“gardening” (cutting, pruning,
gathering, and planting/nurturing) was elaborated to attempt to
influence meaning making
during implementation. This study is interesting for our
purposes because it illustrates how
metaphors can be elaborated and apparently effectively
deployed in a typical organizational
setting aspiring to enact humanistic transformation following
radical structural change. The
empirical content presented in this article is appropriately
detailed for the time and tells a
credible story about metaphorical expression at a general level.
It differs from current state of
the art studies of metaphor and language use in organizations
that emphasize discursive prac-
tices primarily in that it does not provide extensive
conversational evidence to support its
claims or much detail about the context.
How metaphors work and disciplined imagination in theory
construction. The second theme
(which is focused on how metaphors work and on the role of
metaphor in the construction of
organizational theory) includes detailed studies of theoretical
distinctions and debates in social
cognition, ranging from perspectives on conceptual metaphor
theory to new perspectives on
embodied cognition (see Landau et al., 2010, for review). Our
emphasis is on work that uses this
literature to uncover what metaphors do in the process of
theorizing. From Gareth Morgan’s
early work to the present, he has stressed that metaphor is the
20. foundation of the human concep-
tual system, a position articulated in Lakoff and Johnson’s
(1980) classic and one substantiated
by decades of subsequent research (see Gibbs, 2008; Lakoff,
2008). As noted above and in the
companion essay that follows, Morgan conceptualizes metaphor
as the process that drives the-
ory construction and science. Most organizational studies
scholars working in the area tend to
accept this premise and devote attention to exploring the role
metaphor can play in generating
new theory. The emphasis placed on generating new theory
rather than on testing and develop-
ing existing theory may be grounded in the belief that
organizational studies scholars have
focused far more attention on reductionist empirical methods
than on cultivating the theoretical
imagination. In line with this assessment, Morgan (2011)
laments the fact that in current scien-
tific work, innovative metaphors that can generate useful
insights tend to get lost in the process
of concretizing or tying down the details, a goal displacement
that has negative consequences
for both theoretical understanding and practical puzzle solving.
In an article that warrants consideration as a Citation Classics
and Foundational Works piece
in its own right, we now turn to Weick’s (1989) study of the
process of theory construction in
organizational studies. The theme of the article is seemingly
straightforward: “to build better
theory, theorists have to ‘think better’” (p. 529). But, for Weick
as for Morgan, this is not a
simple proposition because it means laying down new
foundations for thinking imaginatively
and relying on those foundations in attempts to develop theory
21. instead of following the more
traditional handbook. To elaborate: the tone of the article and
its compatibility with Morgan’s
views on scientific reductionism are established in the first
sentence. Weick asserts that theorists
450 Organization & Environment 24(4)
often write trivial theories because their process of theory
construction favors methods aimed at
empirical validation rather than broader criteria, such as
usefulness. The root of the problem is
that there is little room in the handbook of the positivist
epistemologist for anything theoretical
that does not lead directly to empirical validation and definite
predictions about the results of
future observations. When scientific communities see validation
as the ultimate test of the value
of a theory, steps preliminary to this stage can be degraded. Yet
these are precisely the steps
Weick believes generate higher quality theoretical formulations.
Weick’s model of disciplined imagination is his prescription for
producing better theory.
Better theory results from more accurate and detailed problem
statements that trigger theoriz-
ing, more heterogeneity among thought trials (conjectures about
ways to solve theoretical and
practical problems), and more diversity of selection criteria
used to evaluate conjectures. Weick
compares his model to the process of natural selection in the
theory of evolution and settles on
the notion of artificial selection because the theorist (or more
precisely a community of theo-
22. rists) guides the evolutionary process. In contrast with
traditional theory construction activities,
the disciplined imagination recognizes that because
organizations are so complex, dynamic,
and difficult to observe, theorists must be guided through all
stages of the process by “indirect
evidence and visualizations of what they [organizations] may be
like, often captured in meta-
phors” (Weick, 1989, p. 529). Better theorizing necessitates that
tools such as metaphors be
embraced and used creatively to enrich each step of the process
and enhance the variety.
Recently, organizational studies scholars have taken up the
challenge issued by Weick,
Morgan, and others to identify what would be necessary to more
fully liberate the imagination in
theory construction activities (e.g., Boxenbaum & Rouleau,
2011; Cornelissen, 2006; Cornelissen
et al., 2008; Oswick et al., 2002; Oswick, Fleming, & Hanlon,
2011). Three things are clear from
this research: (a) there is some dissatisfaction being expressed
with the limited amount of new
theory being generated, (b) metaphor and other forms of
analogical reasoning are increasingly
being seen as central to all aspects of new theory construction,
and (c) some influential scholars
are calling for greater attention to methodological issues
concerning the identification and analy-
sis of metaphors, including more rigorous qualitative and
quantitative assessments.
We view these developments as largely consistent with
Morgan’s early work because in
responding to the call for new theories, scholars are
recommending more explicit recognition of
23. the role for metaphor in the process of theory construction and
in the analysis of phenomena in
organizational settings. In focusing on methodological issues,
they are emphasizing the impor-
tant distinction between generative root metaphors and surface
or decorative metaphors. As
Morgan (2011, p. 468) puts it, “Innovative theory building and
problem solving does not just
rest in finding a cute new metaphor.” The field of
organizational studies should be able to con-
tinue to benefit greatly from coordinated attempts to produce
new generative root metaphors,
apply disciplined imagination in theory construction, and even
explore the significance of other
tropes, such as anomaly, paradox, and irony (see Oswick et al.,
2002).
Metaphor, Organization, and the Natural Environment
Literary Method and Silent Spring
The ONE research literature is inherently multidisciplinary. It is
based on ecology and environ-
mental science, biology, organizational social science, and other
scientific disciplines.
Interestingly, as we will illustrate, it also has deep roots in the
literary arts and humanities, as
metaphor and other tropes are ubiquitous in the field. Although
it can be argued that tropes
shape the literature of any discipline, research that fostered
ONE scholarship is marked by the
use of particularly powerful metaphorical imagery and poetic
technique. And, there is evidence
Jermier and Forbes 451
24. that some scholars explicitly crafted figurative language to
enhance the appeal and impact of
their work. For example, Rachel Carson’s (1962) Silent Spring,
well known to ONE scholars
and often cited as the book that launched the contemporary
environmental movement, effec-
tively reached a broad audience by fusing rigorous science with
literary art techniques. Carol
Gartner (2000), a noted literary scholar specializing in Rachel
Carson’s writings, elaborates on
this point:
Carson uses a lawyer’s arsenal of classic rhetorical
argumentation to make her case but
augments it with a writer’s mastery of poetic technique. The
beauty of her writing style
beguiles the reader into reading and assimilating material that is
both intellectually diffi-
cult to understand and emotionally difficult to accept. (pp. 104-
105)
Beyond using the best scientific evidence available to make a
substantive case against the
overuse of pesticides, Carson selected vivid and often
disturbing language and metaphors. With
this style, she created moving and lingering dystopian images.
Indeed, the very title of her book,
Silent Spring, has created one of the most memorable and
didactical images in modern literature.
In developing her main theme, calling into question the idea
that synthetic chemicals could be
targeted to selectively kill pests and weeds, she wrote,
These sprays, dusts, and aerosols are now applied almost
universally to farms, gardens,
25. forests, and homes—nonselective chemicals that have the power
to kill every insect, the
“good” and the “bad,” to still the song of birds and the leaping
of fish in the streams, to
coat the leaves with a deadly film, and to linger on in soil—all
this though the intended
target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe
it is possible to lay down
such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without
making it unfit for all life?
They should not be called “insecticides,” but “biocides.”
(Carson, 1962, p. 18)
In invoking (for rhetorical purposes) the language and image of
“biocides,” Carson subtly
linked her argument against the widespread use of insecticides
to the Cold War and the nuclear
winter many feared could result. This move served to
underscore the gravity of her message (see
Glotfelty, 2000). Each chapter of Silent Spring contains a
powerful blend of literary imagery and
accessible scientific description and explanation. Often, her
chapter titles tell a story in their own
right, provoking reader’s emotions. To wit, her third chapter,
“Elixirs of Death,” uses paradox to
link elixir (an agent that can cure all) with death (cf. Gartner,
2000). The blend in her writing of
credible scientific information and poetic flair through
metaphor (and other figures of speech and
literary techniques) moved scholars and millions of citizens
alike to identify more strongly with
nature and natural systems.
Literary Method and ONE Literature
Carson’s (1962) Silent Spring is undoubtedly in a class of its
own. It is not difficult, however, to
26. think of other classic environmental studies that have deeply
influenced ONE scholarship and
that are marked with literary brilliance, such as Carolyn
Merchant’s (1980) The Death of Nature,
Bill McKibben’s (1989) The End of Nature, and Paul Hawken’s
(1993) The Ecology of
Commerce. In a vividly descriptive text, Hawken (1993)
analyzes the role of business and its
relationship with the natural environment. Like Carson’s Silent
Spring, through strong research
and skilled rhetorical technique, he has moved many readers to
new ways of thinking about the
roles and responsibilities of contemporary business (see Forbes
& Jermier, 2010). His literary
acumen shines brightly in the chapter titled “The Death of
Birth.” This particular chapter led the
452 Organization & Environment 24(4)
late Ray Anderson, Founder and long-time CEO of Interface
Carpets, to a personal transforma-
tion in ecological consciousness. In speeches, interviews,
lectures, and other public presenta-
tions, Anderson (2009) often confessed that his reading of
Hawken’s book made him feel
“indicted as a plunderer, a destroyer of the earth, a thief,
stealing my grandchildren’s future”
(p. 14). Anderson’s widely circulated epiphany story has, in
turn, affected the ecological con-
sciousness of many ONE students and scholars.
In the same chapter, Hawken discusses efforts to convince
business leaders to cease their
campaign against limits to economic growth and to rethink
27. taken-for-granted notions of pros-
perity. He employs the underlying image of a “sound economy”
and the metaphor of “prosper-
ity as limitation” to liberate thinking about economic growth
and sustainable progress.
Hawken’s use of these images draws attention to and illustrates
the often contested nature of
metaphors. Building a sound economy requires that humans
respect natural limits and find new
ways to thrive without threatening nature’s diversity and our
own genetic heritage. As Hawken
(1993) puts it,
Business must change its perspective and its propaganda, which
has successfully por-
trayed the idea of “limits” as a pejorative concept. Limits and
prosperity are intimately
linked. Respecting limits means respecting the fact the world
and its minutiae are diverse
beyond our comprehension and highly organized for their own
ends, and that all facets
connect in ways which are sometimes obvious, and at other
times mysterious and com-
plex. If our economy is “limited” by inclusion as part of the
greater closed system of
nature, those limits are not more necessarily constricting to a
sound economy than a blank
canvas was to Cézanne or a flute to Jean-Pierre Rampal. (p. 35)
By the early 1990s, through reflection on the field’s
anthropocentric paradigmatic underpin-
nings, organizational studies scholars realized that a vast
literature had been developed that paid
virtually no attention to the natural environment (see Jermier,
Forbes, Benn, & Orsato, 2006).
Although several published studies called attention to this fact
28. and advocated development of
alternative theoretical frameworks grounded in ecocentric
thinking, Shrivastava’s (1994) state-
ment of the problem was perhaps the most compelling. Arguing
that the concepts and language
of organizational studies were narrow, economistic, and
antinaturalistic (denatured), thereby
“[precluding] the discipline from addressing the central
concerns of environmentalism that deal
with degradation and extinction of natural resources” (p. 711),
he developed the metaphor of
“organizational theory as castrated male.” The concept of
CASTRATED is used as a mnemonic
symbol to organize his critique of the field. The letters stand for
“Competition, Abstraction,
Shallowness, Theoretical Immaturity, Reification,
Anthropocentrism, Time Independence
(Ahistorical), Exploitable, and Denaturalized” (p. 711)—his
interpretation of what characterized
the field, its biases, and its limitations. Shrivastava countered
by proposing that the greening of
organizational studies could be facilitated by adopting an
“ecologically grounded concept” that
would take an “eco-biosphere view of organizational
environments” (p. 720).
This study provides an excellent example of how a field can be
reoriented and reshaped by
following Morgan’s (1980) approach to metaphorical analysis,
beginning with reflection on par-
adigmatic underpinnings and linking to puzzle solving in the
realms of both theory and practice.
There are many other examples of metaphors driving the
narratives of contemporary ONE schol-
arship that have been or will be highly influential (e.g., “The
Natural Step,” Karl-Henrik Robert,
29. see http://www.naturalstep.org; “Natural Capitalism,” Hawken,
Lovins, & Lovins, 1999; “Cradle-
to-Cradle,” McDonough & Braungart, 2002; “Corporate
environmentalism as greenwashing,”
Ramus & Montiel, 2005; “Earth as small planet,” Stead &
Stead, 2009; “Earth as Gaia,” Waddock,
2011; “Corporate environmentalism as sustainability,” Hoffman
& Bansal, 2012), but focused
Jermier and Forbes 453
studies on the effects of underlying metaphors and other tropes
in the ONE literature are rare. As
we discussed earlier, one of the important roles metaphor can
play is that of supporting the
development of theory construction. As Morgan and others have
argued and demonstrated (also
see Keulartz, 2007), when metaphors are appreciated as more
than linguistic ornaments, they
can be valuable tools used in the creation and conceptualization
of novel ideas. Moreover, those
metaphors that are in use can be critically examined to
determine how they are directing thought
and action.
Audebrand’s (2010) recent article warrants attention along these
lines because it demonstrates
not only the need for new metaphors but also recognition of the
challenges faced when attempt-
ing to overcome limiting, deeply entrenched metaphors. The
focus of the article is on sustain-
ability in strategic management education but it raises broader
concerns and questions about the
field of organizational studies. Despite signals of meaningful
30. change, such as sustainability
related subjects being added to conventional textbooks,
Audebrand contends that there are major
obstacles to enacting deeper ongoing change in the field when it
comes to integrating sustain-
ability themes. The reason is that the dominant, root metaphor
of war is so pervasive in strategic
management thought and theory that it undermines attempts to
reorient the field (also see
Oreskes, 2011, on metaphors of warfare in dealing with climate
change). He argues that mean-
ingful change will require the generation and adoption of new
root metaphors as well as new
forms of educator awareness and responsibility. The powerful
presence of the war metaphor and
the hold it has on the field of strategic management, however,
are only part of the problem.
Audebrand (p. 425) notes that “the challenge is even greater
since the war metaphor is embedded
in a complex network of metaphors that include
anthropocentrism, individualism, patriarchy,
mechanism and progress (as well as their derivations).” This is
a good example of how the
“forcefulness” of metaphors builds when they are part of a
“whole system” or an “ecology” of
metaphors (Keulartz, 2007, p. 44).
We have attempted to demonstrate through some examples that
metaphor has been and is a
particularly powerful force in environmental studies and in ONE
research. But we also think
there is a need for much more development. To this end, we
believe more cross-disciplinary
engagement holds considerable promise for ONE scholarship.
Scholars in the fields of geogra-
phy, environmental history, environmental studies, and
31. environmental science, among other
areas of study, are debating the relative merits of various
metaphors. While few in this broad
literature argue that there is one best metaphor that will
adequately foster the advancement of
needed theory, many do concur with Morgan’s approach and
advocate double vision or multiple
perspectives. For example, Keulartz (2007) argues that
metaphors and other discursive tools
can serve as “diplomatic devices that facilitate interaction
between different disciplines and
discourses” (p. 27).
Logocentric Empirical Science and Song Bird Logic
Many organizational studies scholars have been aware of the
central role language plays in all
facets of theory construction and development for years despite
what Van Maanen (1995, p. 134)
in his insightful essay refers to as the field’s “logocentric
tradition of empirical science.” In this
dominant tradition, “we cultivate and teach a writing style or
nonstyle that values limited meta-
phor, simplicity, and a formal, if not mathematical precision.”
Certainly, this statement is less
true of organizational studies research today than it was 15
years ago. Alternative paradigms and
methods have reached a stage of development that can convey
mainstream credibility, and
metaphorical and discourse analysis, as discussed above, have
begun to reach their stride.
However, we wonder to what degree Van Maanen’s (1995)
characterization of and reaction to
the field still holds:
32. 454 Organization & Environment 24(4)
I am appalled at much of organization theory for its
technocratic unimaginativeness. Our
generalizations often display a mind-numbing banality and an
inexplicable readiness to
reduce the field to a set of unexamined, turgid, hypothetical
thrusts designed to render
organizations systematic and organization theory safe for
science. (p. 139)
In line with this, to what extent do ONE scholars privilege the
logocentric tradition in theory
construction and development? To what extent is our thinking
still captured by anthropocentric or
reformist paradigm assumptions and root metaphors that lead us
to celebrate incremental change
and marginalize radical perspectives on change? To what extent
are we aware that the choices we
make at the level of metaphor and language have consequences
for theory construction and puzzle
solving? Nature writer Curtis White (2007) argues that those
interested in stopping environmental
destruction must be careful not to place too much faith in the
best empirical evidence, quantitative
reasoning, and the language of science and bureaucracy. When
we approach environmentalism
with this mindset, soon “we no longer have a forest; we have
‘board feet.’ We no longer have a
landscape, a world that is our own; we have ‘valuable natural
resources’” (p. 22). In effect, we lose
the poetic, the aesthetic, the moral, the spiritual, and it is these
sources, according to White, that
are our strongest foundation for confronting the bulldozers,
confronting the chainsaws, confront-
ing Monsanto. It is song bird logic that prevails.
33. Many ONE scholars, including us, do not wish to abandon the
language of traditional,
empirical science or concede that the reformist agenda will
inevitably hijack more ambitious
environmental initiatives and lead to a dead end. What business
does in meeting their legal and
moral obligations with respect to the environment is crucially
important. We are learning valu-
able lessons for progressive environmentalism by studying
(using varied methods) all moments
of corporate environmentalism. However, it does seem crucial
that we avoid the false certainty
that objectivist methods can provide. It seems equally crucial
that we not limit our agenda to
managerialist solutions to greening capitalism because
assessments of today’s environmental
problems raise doubts about the efficacy of strictly reformist
approaches. The fields of ONE
research (and organizational studies in general) need new
thinking about organization and envi-
ronment. In our view, this is not a good time to accept
assimilation into the conservative main-
stream of the field or to rest on the dominant metaphors that
guide so much theory development
and everyday puzzle solving. We can continue to elaborate
those metaphors and tie them
down more securely, as Morgan (2011) notes in his companion
essay is typical of normal sci-
ence. A higher priority should be placed on generating new
metaphors or least on being conver-
sant with metaphors that are being developed in related fields.
Creating New Metaphors
The metaphor of nature as island is an example that has
received considerable attention across
34. fields. This is not a new idea. It has long captured the human
imagination and is often equated
with utopia (Philippon, 2004; see also Keulartz, 2007).
Contemporary interest in this metaphor
focuses on extending classic theories of the biogeography of
islands (see MacArthur & Wilson,
1967), which attempt to explain how species are distributed in
relation to space and time. But,
island biogeography is about more than actual islands.
It is also about metaphorical islands: areas of the environment
that have become isolated
from their surroundings, either through natural means, cultural
means, or some combina-
tion of the two. What holds for an island in the Galapagos, in
other words, also holds for a
distant mountaintop, a prairie pothole, or a square mile of old-
growth timber left standing
in the middle of a clear-cut. (Philippon, 2004, p. 268)
Jermier and Forbes 455
In an era of high connectivity and global reach, would the trope
“corporation as island,” if
mixed with the right amount of irony and paradox, provoke new
thinking? Would it encourage
scholars and other puzzle solvers to think about what can be
ripped from existing, degraded
environmental conditions, insulated by a moat, and steered
toward utopian ideals? For those
scholars of organizations interested in developing new
metaphors, we hope the material
presented in this article will be useful. Of course, we believe
scholars can benefit greatly
35. from reading Gareth Morgan’s (2011) reflections on new
metaphors of organizations and the
natural environment in the companion piece that follows.
Interestingly, in addition to recog-
nizing how new thinking and new theory can develop by
systematically attempting to create new
metaphors, Morgan is also clear in stating that there is much to
be gained from addressing the
limitations and distortions created through existing metaphors
that have been widely used to
rationalize environmental degradation. Gains can be achieved
through both avenues.
New thinking and new theory in the field of organizational
studies can develop following
many avenues, including some that do not pay systematic
attention to the field’s metaphorical
underpinnings. However, the message of this feature, in short, is
articulated best by Morgan in
his early work (1980, 1983a, 1983b, 1986, 1996) and reiterated
and expanded in the companion
essay: better theory, research methods, and puzzle solving can
always result from deeper reflec-
tion on and critical assessment of a field’s metaphorical
foundations.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
36. References
Alvesson, M., & Wilmott, H. (2002). Identity regulation as
organizational control: Producing the appropri-
ate individual. Journal of Management Studies, 39, 619-644.
Anderson, R. (2009). Confessions of a radical industrialist:
Profits, people, purpose—Doing business by
respecting the earth. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
Audebrand, L. K. (2010). Sustainability in strategic
management education: The quest for new root meta-
phors. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 9, 413-
428.
Baritz, L. (1960). The servants of power. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.
Barrett, F. J., & Cooperrider, D. L. (1990). Generative metaphor
intervention: A new approach for working
with systems divided by conflict and caught in defensive
perception. Journal of Applied Behavioral
Science, 26, 219-239.
Boxenbaum, E., & Rouleau, L. (2011). New knowledge products
as bricolage: Metaphors and scripts in
organizational theory. Academy of Management Review, 36,
272-296.
Burke, W. W. (1992). Metaphors to consult by. Group &
Organization Management, 17, 255-259.
Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and
organizational analysis. London, England:
Heinemann Educational Books.
37. Carr, A., & Leivesley, R. (1995). Metaphors in organization
studies: A retreat to obscurantism or ideology
“in drag”? Administrative Theory & Praxis, 17, 55-66.
Carson, R. (1962). Silent spring. New York, NY: Ballantine
Books.
Clegg, S. R., Hardy, C., & Nord, W. R. (Eds.). (1996).
Handbook of organization studies. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE.
Cornelissen, J. P. (2005). Beyond compare: Metaphor in
organization theory. Academy of Management
Review, 30, 751-764.
456 Organization & Environment 24(4)
Cornelissen, J. P. (2006). Making sense of theory construction:
Metaphor and disciplined imagination.
Organization Studies, 27, 1579-1597.
Cornelissen, J. P., Holt, R., & Zundel, M. (2011). The role of
analogy and metaphor in the framing and
legitimization of strategic change. Organization Studies, 32,
1701-1716.
Cornelissen, J. P., Oswick, C., Christensen, L. T., & Phillips, N.
(2008). Metaphor in organizational research:
Context, modalities, and implications for research—
Introduction. Organization Studies, 29, 7-22.
Forbes, L. C., & Jermier, J. M. (2010). The new corporate
environmentalism and the ecology of commerce.
Organization & Environment, 23, 465-481.
38. Frost, P. J., Moore, L. F., Louis, M. R., Lundberg, C. C., &
Martin, J. (Eds.). (1985). Organizational culture.
Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
Gartner, C. B. (2000). When science writing becomes literary
art: The success of Silent Spring. In
C. Waddell (Ed.), And no birds sing: Rhetorical analysis of
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (pp. 103-125).
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Gibbs, R. W., Jr. (2008). Metaphor and thought: The state of the
art. In R. W. Gibbs Jr. (Ed.), The Cambridge
handbook of metaphor and thought (pp. 3-13). Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Gibson, C. B., & Zellmer-Bruhn, M. E. (2001). Metaphors and
meaning: An analysis of the concept of
teamwork. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 274-303.
Glotfelty, C. (2000). Cold war, Silent Spring: The trope of war
in modern environmentalism. In C. Waddell
(Ed.), And no birds sing: Rhetorical analysis of Rachel Carson’s
Silent Spring (pp. 157-173). Carbondale:
Southern Illinois University Press.
Grant, D., Hardy, C., Oswick, C., & Putnam, L. L. (Eds.).
(2004). The Sage handbook of organizational
discourse. London, England: SAGE.
Grant, D., & Oswick, C. (Eds.). (1996a). Metaphor and
organizations. London, England: SAGE.
Grant, D., & Oswick, C. (Eds.). (1996b). Introduction: Getting
the measure of metaphors. In D. Grant &
C. Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and organizations (pp. 1-20).
39. London, England: SAGE.
Hawken, P. (1993). The ecology of commerce: A declaration of
sustainability. New York, NY: Harper Business.
Hawken, P., Lovins, A., & Lovins, L. H. (1999). Natural
capitalism: Creating the next industrial revolution.
New York, NY: Hatchett Book.
Hoffman, A. J., & Bansal, P. (2012). Retrospective, perspective,
and prospective: Introduction. In P. Bansal
& A. J. Hoffman (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on business and
the natural environment (pp. 3-25).
Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Hopfl, H., & Maddrell, J. (1996). Can you resist a dream?
Evangelical metaphors and the appropriation
of emotion. In D. Grant & C. Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and
organizations (pp. 200-212). London,
England: SAGE.
Inns, D. (2002). Metaphor in the literature of organizational
analysis: A preliminary taxonomy and a
glimpse at a humanities-based perspective. Organization, 9,
305-330.
Jacobs, C. D., & Heracleous, L. T. (2006). Constructing shared
understanding: The role of embodied meta-
phors in organizational development. Journal of Applied
Behavioral Sciences, 42, 207-226.
Jermier, J. M., Forbes, L. C., Benn, S., & Orsato, R. J. (2006).
The new corporate environmentalism and
green politics. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W.
Nord (Eds.), The Sage handbook of
organization studies (2nd ed., pp. 618-650). London, England:
SAGE.
40. Keulartz, J. (2007). Using metaphors in restoring nature. Nature
and Culture, 2, 27-48.
Lakoff, G. (2008). The neural theory of metaphor. In R. W.
Gibbs Jr. (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of
metaphor and thought (pp. 17-38). Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Landau, M. J., Meier, B. P., & Keefer, L. A. (2010). A
metaphor-enriched social cognition. Psychological
Bulletin, 136, 1045-1067.
Leclercq-Vandelannoitte, A. (2011). Organizations as discursive
constructions: A Foucauldian approach.
Organization Studies, 32, 1247-1271.
Jermier and Forbes 457
MacArthur, R. H., & Wilson, E. O. (1967). The theory of island
biogeography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Mantere, S., & Vaara, E. (2008). On the problem of
participation in strategy: A critical discursive perspec-
tive. Organization Science, 19, 341-358.
March, J. G. (Ed.). (1965). Handbook of organizations. Chicago,
IL: Rand McNally.
Martin, J., Knopoff, K., & Beckman, C. (1998). An alternative
to bureaucratic impersonality and emotional
41. labor: Bounded emotionally at the body shop. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 43, 429-469.
Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A
comprehensive framework for effective instruc-
tion. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to cradle:
Remaking the way we make things. New York,
NY: North Point Press.
McKibben, B. (1989). The end of nature. NY: Random House.
Merchant, C. (1980). The death of nature: Women, ecology, and
the scientific revolution. San Francisco:
Harper & Row.
Morgan, G. (1980). Paradigms, metaphors and puzzle solving in
organization theory. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 25, 605-622.
Morgan, G. (1983a). More on metaphor: Why we cannot control
tropes in administrative science. Adminis-
trative Science Quarterly, 28, 601-607.
Morgan, G. (Ed.). (1983b). Beyond method: Strategies for
social research. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Morgan, G. (1996). An afterward: Is there anything more to be
said about metaphor? In D. Grant &
C. Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and organizations (pp. 227-240).
London, England: SAGE.
Morgan, G. (2011). Reflections on Images of Organization and
its implications for studies of organization
42. and environment. Organization & Environment, 24, 459-478.
Nystrom, P. C., & Starbuck, W. H. (1981). Handbook of
organizational design. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Oreskes, N. (2011). Metaphors of warfare and the lessons of
history: Time to revisit a carbon tax? Climatic
Change, 104, 223-230.
Oswick, C., Fleming, P., & Hanlon, G. (2011). From borrowing
to blending: Rethinking the process of
organizational theory-building. Academy of Management
Review, 36, 317-337.
Oswick, C., Keenoy, T., & Grant, D. (2002). Metaphor and
analogical reasoning in organizational theory:
Beyond orthodoxy. Academy of Management Review, 27, 294-
303.
Oswick, C., & Montgomery, J. (1999). Images of organization:
The use of metaphor in a multinational
company. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12,
501-523.
Perrow, C. (1986). Complex organizations: A critical essay.
New York, NY: Random House.
Philippon, D. J. (2004). Conserving words: How American
nature writers shaped the environmental move-
ment. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
Pinder, C. C., & Bourgeois, W. V. (1982). Controlling tropes in
administrative science. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 27, 641-652.
Pondy, L. R., Frost, P. J., Morgan, G., & Dandridge, T. C.
(Eds.). (1983). Organizational symbolism. Greenwich,
43. CT: JAI Press.
Ramus, C., & Montiel, I. (2005). When are corporate
environmental policies a form of greenwashing? Business
& Society, 44, 377-414.
Reed, M. (1990). From paradigms to images: The paradigm
warrior turns post-modernist guru. Personnel
Review, 19, 35-40.
Sackmann, S. (1989). The role of metaphors in organization
transformation. Human Relations, 42, 463-485.
Shrivastava, P. (1994). Castrated environment: Greening
organizational studies. Organization Studies, 15,
705-726.
Stead, J. G., & Stead, W. E. (2009). Management for a small
planet. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
458 Organization & Environment 24(4)
Tinker, T. (1986). Metaphor or reification: Are radical
humanists really libertarian anarchists? Journal of
Management Studies, 23, 363-384.
Tsoukas, H., & Knudson, C. (Eds.). (2003). The Oxford
handbook of organization theory. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
Van Maanen, J. (1995). Style as theory. Organization Science,
6, 133-143.
VrMeer, R. (1994). Postmodernism: A polemic commentary on
continuity and discontinuity in contempo-
44. rary thought. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 16, 85-91.
Waddock, S. (2011). We are all stakeholders of Gaia now: A
normative perspective on stakeholder thinking.
Organization & Environment, 24, 192-212.
Weick, K. E. (1989). Theory construction as disciplined
imagination. Academy of Management Review, 14,
516-531.
White, C. (2007). The idols of environmentalism. Orion
Magazine, 26(4), 18-23.
Bios
John M. Jermier is Professor of Organizational Behavior and
Exide Professor of Sustainable Enterprise
Research at the University of South Florida, Tampa. Most of his
research has focused on developing critical
theory perspectives on organizations and on social science
research methodology. His current interests
center on organizational greening and environmental policy. He
is co-founding editor (with Paul
Shrivastava) and current co-editor (with Richard York) of
Organization & Environment.
Linda C. Forbes is Associate Professor of Organizational
Studies at the Ancell School of Business at
Western Connecticut State University in Danbury, CT, USA.
Her research interests include cultural studies
and symbolism, environmental philosophy and policy and
varieties of qualitative inquiry.
Journal of Management Inquiry
46. Rather than offering a broad discussion of the role and
status of metaphorical thinking in organizational analysis,
this contribution focuses on Gareth Morgan’s perspective on
metaphor and considers which particular metaphors have
had significant purchase, which have endured, and whether
any new and significant metaphors are emerging within the
field. Given that we have known Professor Morgan for more
than 20 years, and having written extensively on metaphor
ourselves (see, for example, Grant & Oswick, 1996; Oswick
& Jones, 2006; Oswick et al., 2002), the interaction pre-
sented here unfolded as an emergent conversation rather than
as a structured interview.
The “Eight Metaphors” and Beyond
Following an initial discussion of parameters and defini-
tional issues, our conversation offered some reflections on
established organizational metaphors before going on to con-
sider new ones. More specifically, we reviewed the status of
the eight metaphors contained in Images of Organization and
then we briefly explored the emergence of two new contem-
porary metaphors.
Foundational Images or Illustrative Starting
Points?
Cliff: Okay. Did you want to talk about . . . we could
talk about metaphors themselves. I’d be really
591854 JMIXXX10.1177/1056492615591854Journal of
Management InquiryOswick and Grant
research-article2015
1City University London, UK
2UNSW Business School, Sydney, Australia
47. Corresponding Author:
Cliff Oswick, Cass Business School, City University London,
106 Bunhill
Row, London EC1Y 8TZ, UK.
Email: [email protected]
Re-Imagining Images of Organization:
A Conversation With Gareth Morgan
Cliff Oswick1 and David Grant2
Abstract
In this article, we review the metaphors presented by Morgan in
Images of Organization and highlight how they simultaneously
act as “relatively static reflections” (i.e., they provide a history
of organization theory) and “relatively dynamic projections”
(i.e., stimulating the formulation of further organizational
images). We also discuss the potential for new organizational
metaphors and consider two specific metaphors (i.e., the “global
brain” and “organization as media”). We also challenge the
established punctuated metaphorical process (i.e., a transfer
from a metaphorical source domain to an organizational target
domain), propose a dynamic perspective of interchange (i.e.,
source domain to target domain to source domain and so on),
and develop the notion of multidirectionality (i.e., two-way
projections between target and source domains).
Keywords
organizational behavior, organizational design, organization
theory
mailto:[email protected]
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F10564926
15591854&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2015-06-24
48. Oswick and Grant 339
interested in having a little chat about them. You
previously mentioned the phrase, “the eight
metaphors.”2 We ought to talk about how the
metaphors have changed, whether the original
metaphors still have purchase. So do you still
think they’re relevant?
Gareth: Oh, absolutely. They’re relevant historically,
right? If you want to understand organization
and where it’s come from and how organization
theory has developed, then obviously the eight
metaphors are actually relevant to that. In many
respects Images of Organization is an analysis
of the history of organization through metaphor,
right? And that’s where I always start. But, the
point is now that metaphors have different sig-
nificance, it’s going back to the idea we have
previously talked about in terms of context and
the importance of metaphor in a context, so
building upon what you’ve just said, it’s clear
that organizations are shifting from hierarchical
structures to flat networks. Basically, new meta-
phors are needed for understanding this. Sure
you can get some degree of understanding net-
works through the images of the brain or of cul-
ture or of the organism, but, obviously new
metaphors are forcing themselves into our atten-
tion. So that metaphor [i.e., the “flat network”]
in particular is one that’s obviously very
relevant.
David: Do you see them as new root metaphors, or met-
aphors that may emanate out of the original
eight?
49. Gareth: Well, that becomes a little bit of a game really of
whether you want to make the eight work, which
you can to a huge degree. But, it would be stupid
for me to defend just eight metaphors when the
whole purpose of images of organization is to
say . . . to talk about the way of thinking and
how, if you accept that the way of thinking is
metaphorical, then why would you limit your-
self, okay, and so I’ve always said that they’re
illustrative. So it becomes clear that we’ve got
to add to them and different people are doing
that and legitimately.
Big Data and Big Brother
David: Any examples [of metaphors that have been
added to] that really work for you? That appeal
to you personally?
Gareth: Yeah, well obviously the idea of the global
brain, which is a variation, if you want, on the
brain metaphor, but it’s not really, it goes way
beyond it, but clearly the Internet as a simple
example of that and then there is “big data.” Big
data in this world, that’s hugely important.
Think about the Foucauldian metaphor, the pan-
opticon and the whole idea of discipline and
self-discipline, punishment, surveillance. Link
that now to big data, look at what all the big tech
companies are doing . . .
Cliff: Yes, but it seems to me that it’s one of those
metaphors that has been a bit of a slow burn
metaphor, to use a metaphor to talk about meta-
50. phors, that when I talked to managers and stu-
dents, 10, 15, 20, 25 years ago about the idea of
surveillance and disciplinary power, a lot of
them just couldn’t get that idea at all. I think it’s
one of those metaphors that’s come of age with
the increase in the actual prevalence of surveil-
lance in society [e.g., the proliferation of video
cameras in public spaces] and greater awareness
of the power of institutions.
Gareth: Exactly.
David: Well I think it’s freed up, it’s left it shackles
behind, if you like, of . . . it was mixed up in
discussions about Neo-Marxism and control in
the workplace, which is a different thing. It’s
that ideological bent that’s got left behind, so
that when you’re talking about surveillance
now, you’re talking about surveillance in so-
called free world . . . we’re supposedly never . . .
have never been as free as we are in many ways,
but are actually constrained.
Gareth: Yes, I agree with that. But, it’s interesting
because there are two elements to this. It seems
to me, it’s external surveillance, which we can
all see, but in the Foucauldian model as well, it’s
how this becomes self-surveillance and so the
way in which we are looking . . .
Cliff: Self-discipline, yeah . . .
Gareth: . . . self-disciplining, right, which is incredibly
powerful in terms of the way things are working
out and also I think we have to recognize how
big data and how the big companies like Google
51. and the like, and the collection of data, are basi-
cally another form of surveillance in the sense
that they’re understanding . . .
Cliff: How people behave.
Gareth: . . . how they behave, what their interests are,
what they do, what they buy, etc. etc. etc. And,
what they’re actually doing in many respects is
not feeding back the differences, what you don’t
think or what you don’t like, they’re feeding
back stuff that reinforces your point of view. So
if you want to take this on it becomes . . . we’re
in a self-affirming bubble, where the external
reality that we’re encountering all the time is
340 Journal of Management Inquiry 25(3)
reinforcing whatever patterns that we’ve got. So
there are very, very interesting implications of
this, so clearly this becomes a major line of
development.
Cliff: Yeah. I also think, and you may not agree with
me here, but the power of some of the meta-
phors is when they’re juxtaposed. I don’t mean
blended or multiple lenses, but they are just held
in tension. So the kind of, the machine metaphor
and the organism metaphor are best understood
in relation to each other and when we start to
talk about the panopticon, I wonder about the
kind of emergence of social movements and the
whole idea of activism as a response to some of
the disciplinary power issues and the panopti-
52. con. So in other words, just as you have a play
between the organic metaphor and the mecha-
nistic one, that you have this sort of . . . these
things almost grow in relation to each other as
ways of thinking, so I wonder whether the kind
of . . .
Gareth: Symbiotic, almost? To use a metaphor, but yes.
Cliff: Symbiotic, yes. Possibly, because I do think . . .
I kind of introduced it there but, I don’t know
how you think or what you think the kind of . . .
the social networks, activism, mobilization, all
these kinds of . . . they seem to be very pertinent
ways of thinking about a new form of organiza-
tional metaphor.
Gareth: Yes, linking into the concept of self-organiza-
tion, right, of emergent organization and com-
plex adaptive systems thinking has got a lot to
contribute to this, but here you get into, where’s
the driving metaphor? Where’s the root meta-
phor in it all? I think that’s hugely important to
understand those social movements and what
the driving metaphors behind them are. It’s
utterly fascinating. So clearly new metaphors
are being developed and rightly so.
Images of Media-ization?
Gareth: There’s one other metaphor I’ve got to put on
the table, because you asked me what metaphors
that I think are important and I said, the global
brain . . . and we discussed the panopticon. The
other one is this notion of organization as media.
53. David: Oh, yes.
Gareth: Which is one that I’ve floated around, because
I’ve been very . . . not very involved, I’ve been
flirting, I guess, with Marshall McLuhan3 for
the best part of 20, 30 years. I don’t know if you
can do much more than flirt with the ideas
because the whole notion is that there’s . . . it’s
much more of a source of provocation and all
the rest of it. Anyway, it fits very well with my
type of thinking and the whole idea that we have
a society that historically has been built up on
the concept of literacy and so the written word
and taking the bureaucracy as the embodiment
of the written approach to organizing through
the rules, etc. etc. and all of the conventional
science and perspective based thinking and the
linearity that comes with that. The whole idea of
fixed objective reality, all connected with this
world of literacy and the digital revolution and
the shift in to electronic-mediated, multi-sen-
sory modes of understanding to a degree that
we’ve never experienced before, has got to be a
force, not in a technologically determined way,
but has to be a force that demands a completely
new mode of thinking in how we understand the
world that’s going on around us and McLuhan
came up with the notion of the global village as
a very, very early metaphorical understanding of
what’s going on, but there are many, many more
ways of thinking about this and of capturing this
movement which is as important as the trend to
media-ization, and so if you start to see this as
part of the ground which is in motion here, all
those metaphors that are going to be needed to
54. capture this, it’s just phenomenal.
Cliff: Yeah, and I can see that, and I think it’s always
interesting to then sort of look at the second
order metaphors. So, for example, the “organi-
zation as family” metaphor encourages us to
look at second order comparisons such as pater-
nalism, the maternal figure, family feuds, and
family values. Following through on that orga-
nization as media take, companies used to talk
about mission statements, the written. Now it’s
about brands and a brand isn’t an . . .
Gareth: It’s an image. . . .
Cliff: . . . it’s an image, and do you know what, brands
are consumed as much by employees as they are
by external agents these days. So it kind of plays
to the idea that if there’s media metaphors tak-
ing . . . really taking hold, then we find some of
these artifacts that are around that move away
from mission statements to, what’s our brand?
And our brand is something you can’t easily
capture in just a written form, and a mission
statement is exactly that. It’s a statement that’s
written and it’s that literacy thing and the media
thing really does play into things like, as I say,
brand.
David: I think the thing that you’re capturing there is
that we’re moving towards a much more
Oswick and Grant 341
55. sensory approach to understanding, which is
interesting in itself, because it may be almost a
full circle, going back to what we were talking
about earlier. So without the literal [written
word approach], we’re much more reliant on our
five senses. . . . And that either . . . I’m not quite
sure, but it either creates the potential for new
metaphors or it takes us back to some of the
original real basic metaphors that we’re founded
on and reinterpreting those, coming up with dif-
ferent metonymical outcomes, if you like.
Gareth: No, it’s fascinating, because it will potentially
revolutionize the whole of science and the whole
scientific thinking and the notion of research
and . . .
Cliff: Have you heard of these things called
“emojis”?
Gareth: Emojis?
Cliff: Right. Emojis are symbols that you use in text
messages. Teenagers use them on their mobile
phones—smiley face, sad face, heart, etc. There
are hundreds of them on phones. You can repre-
sent happiness, sadness, love, anger . . .
Gareth: Nothing written.
Cliff: No, and as I understand it kids are sending com-
plete text messages, which have no words and
consist only of a string of images.
Gareth: I love that. You see it’s just a little illustration of
how this is all unfolding in a way that we can’t
56. possibly appreciate. So it’s clear that Images of
Organization is not about the eight metaphors,
but it’s about that type of thinking that can help
us get into this . . . deal with this world a bit
faster than we might otherwise would, particu-
larly as academics.
Concluding Thoughts
There are several main inferences that can be derived from
the interaction presented in this article. The first concerns
Gareth Morgan’s reflections regarding the production and
consumption of the eight metaphors contained in Images of
Organization. It is clear that his metaphors continue to be
popular and relevant (e.g. Human Relations have a special
issue planned that is devoted to Morgan’s eight metaphors).
For Morgan, the continued allure of his metaphors is their
historical relevance as a collection of insights that help to
make sense of how organization theory has developed. He
states in our discussion that “. . . in many respects Images
of Organization is an analysis of the history of organiza-
tion through metaphor.” Although the eight metaphors
have an enduring historical significance, it is also apparent
that Morgan wants them to be seen as illustrative rather
than exhaustive images and, as such, that they are deployed
going forward as a basis for generating further insights and
ways of thinking. In this regard, his metaphors simultane-
ously work as “relatively static reflections” (i.e., they cap-
ture the essence of the history of organization theory) and
“relatively dynamic projections” (i.e., offering a reference
point and/or trigger for further metaphorical entailments
and developments).
A further interesting aspect of our conversation was that it
highlighted two new organizational metaphors that resonate
57. with contemporary organization life, namely, “the global
brain” and “organization as media.” The “global brain” met-
aphor draws attention to the neural-like interconnectedness
of a digital world combined with the increasing significance
of “big data.” This metaphor also reveals the dark side of
“big data,” in the Foucauldian sense of disciplinary power
and surveillance, as ever more intrusive phenomena for indi-
viduals as employees, consumers, and citizens. The “organi-
zation as media” metaphor draws from Marshall McLuhan’s
work—especially the idea that “the medium is the message”
(McLuhan, 1964)—to provoke a consideration of the demise
of the written word as a cornerstone of organizing (e.g., job
descriptions, rules, mission statements, etc.) and a shift
toward what Morgan describes as “electronic-mediated,
multi-sensory modes of understanding.”
If we reflect upon the characteristics of the “global brain”
and “media” metaphors, it appears that they are very differ-
ent to Morgan’s “eight metaphors.” The earlier metaphors
seem to be far more bounded insofar as it is possible to con-
ceive of an individual organization as a discrete metaphorical
entity (e.g., as a machine, organism, culture, or brain). By
contrast, it is hard to envisage a single organization as a
“global brain” or “media.” Instead, they are more easily
depicted as synonymous with organizations at an aggregated
level. Moreover, these new metaphors can be appropriately
positioned as “images of society and social life” as much as
“images of organization and organizational life.” Somewhat
ironically, this perhaps, at least to a certain extent, is in itself
a reflection of living within a digitally connected world with
increasingly blurred boundaries between organizations (and
between business and society more generally). Hence, we
posit that new organizational metaphors are not organiza-
tion-specific and that they are largely driven by wider social
and technological changes rather than organization-centric
imperatives.
58. When we reviewed the transcript of our meeting, we
noticed that the discourse concerning established meta-
phors (i.e., the machine and the organism) and the new
metaphors did not entirely adhere to the conventional wis-
dom on metaphor-use where the process is presented as
involving the projection of a relatively concrete “source
domain” (i.e., a specific metaphor) onto a relatively
abstract “target domain” (i.e., an organization) to generate
insights or new ways thinking (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980;
Morgan, 1980, 1986). More specifically, it appeared that
342 Journal of Management Inquiry 25(3)
the process of elaborating upon, and projecting a metaphor
typically required the concurrent articulation of an inverse
or opposite metaphorical image. So, for example, the dis-
cussion of machine metaphor incorporated the concomi-
tant use of the organism metaphor. Equally, the discussion
of “big data” (i.e., “the global brain”—control and surveil-
lance) was accompanied by a discussion of “big brother”
(i.e., “social movements”—autonomy and resistance).
And, the discussion of “organization as media” based on
“electronic-mediated, multi-sensory modes of understand-
ing” (e.g., images, sounds, feelings) was juxtaposed with
“the literal” (i.e., the written). This might suggest that
rather than seeing the metaphorical process as a two-part
projection (i.e., from “source domain” to “target domain”),
we might further explore the metaphorical process as a
form of tripartite correspondence (an interplay between a
“source domain,” a “shadow source domain,” and a “target
domain”).
Finally, this last point leads us to a final closing provoca-
59. tion: If, as Morgan has indicated, the metaphors produced in
Images of Organization should be utilized to generate further
ways of thinking, we could further rethink the established
metaphorical process (i.e., a transfer from a metaphorical
source domain to an organizational target domain) in terms
of the extent to which it can be thought of as being fixed and
relatively discrete. By adopting a dynamic perspective of
movement from one metaphor to another (i.e., source domain
to target domain to source domain and so on) and embracing
the notion of multi-directionality4 (i.e., target domains can
also project onto source domains), we can create more play-
ful and less constrained ways of using metaphors that are
likely to produce more innovative ways of thinking and cre-
ate new images of organization.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
Notes
1. For example, the first edition of Images of Organization sold
just under 250,000 copies.
2. The eight metaphors refer to those contained in Images of
Organization (Morgan, 1986).
3. Marshall McLuhan formed the notions of the “medium is the
60. message” and the “global village” and is credited with predict-
ing the advent of the Internet (see McLuhan, 1964).
4. A multi-directional view of metaphor has been developed
within cognitive linguistics (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002) but
has not really permeated through to management and organi-
zation theory.
References
Broekstra, G. (1998). An organization is a conversation. In D.
Grant, T. Keenoy, & C. Oswick (Eds.), Discourse and organi-
zation (pp. 152-176). London, England: Sage.
Cornelissen, J. P. (2002). On the organizational identity
metaphor.
British Journal of Management, 13, 259-268.
Dunford, R., & Palmer, I. (1996). Metaphors in popular man-
agement discourse: The case of corporate restructuring. In
D. Grant & C. Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and organizations
(pp. 95-109). London, England: Sage.
Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way we think:
Conceptual
blending and the mind’s hidden complexities. New York, NY:
Basic Books.
Grant, D., & Oswick, C. (Eds.). (1996). Metaphor and organiza-
tions. London, England: Sage.
Hazen, M. A. (1993). Towards polyphonic organization. Journal
of
Organizational Change Management, 6(5), 15-26.
Kumra, S. (1996). The organization as a human entity. In C.
61. Oswick
& D. Grant (Eds.), Organisation development: Metaphorical
explorations (pp. 35-53). London, England: Pitman.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by.
Chicago,
IL: University of Chicago Press.
Mangham, I. L., & Overington, M. A. (1987). Organizations as
the-
atre: A social psychology of dramatic appearances. Chichester,
UK: Wiley.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extensions of
man. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Morgan, G. (1980). Paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle solving
in orga-
nization theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 605-622.
Morgan, G. (1981). The schismatic metaphor and its
implications
for organizational analysis. Organization Studies, 2, 23-44.
Morgan, G. (1983). More on metaphor: Why we cannot con-
trol tropes in administrative science. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 28, 601-607.
Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage.
Morgan, G. (1993). Imaginization: The art of creative
management.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Morgan, G. (1996). Is there anything more to be said about
62. meta-
phor? In D. Grant & C. Oswick (Eds.), Metaphor and organi-
zations (pp. 227-240). London, England: Sage.
Morgan, G. (2011). Reflections on Images of Organization and
its
implications for organization and environment. Organization
& Environment, 24, 459-478.
Oswick, C., & Jones, P. (2006). Beyond correspondence?
Metaphor
in organization theory. Academy of Management Review, 31,
483-485.
Oswick, C., Keenoy, T., & Grant, D. (2002). Metaphor and ana-
logical reasoning in organization theory: Beyond orthodoxy.
Academy of Management Review, 27, 294-303.
Oswick, C., Lowe, S., & Jones, P. (1996). Organisational
culture
as personality: Lessons from psychology? In C. Oswick & D.
Grant (Eds.), Organization development: Metaphorical explo-
rations (pp. 106-117). London, England: Pitman.
Tsoukas, H. (1993). Organizations as soap bubbles: An
evolutionary
perspective on organization design. Systems Practice, 6, 501-
515.
Zack, M. H. (2000). Jazz improvisation and organizing: Once
more
from the top. Organization Science, 11, 227-234.
Oswick and Grant 343
63. Author Biographies
Cliff Oswick is professor of organization theory and deputy
dean at
Cass Business School, City University London, UK. His
research
interests focus on the application of aspects of discourse,
drama-
turgy, tropes, narrative and rhetoric to the study of
management,
organizations, organizing processes, and organizational change.
He
has published more than 140 academic articles and contributions
to
edited volumes. He is the European editor for Journal of
Organizational Change Management and associate editor for
Journal of Change Management. He is also a member of the
National Training Laboratory, a trustee of the Tavistock
Institute of
Human Relations, and co-director of the International Centre for
Research on Organizational Discourse, Strategy and Change.
David Grant is a professor of organizational studies and senior
deputy dean at UNSW Business School, Sydney, Australia. His
research focuses on how language and other symbolic media
influ-
ence the practice of leadership and organization-wide, group-
and
individual-level change. He has published on these topics in a
range
of peer-reviewed and practitioner journals as well as numerous
handbooks and edited volumes. He is also co-editor of the Sage
Handbook of Organizational Discourse (2004, with Cynthia
Hardy,
Cliff Oswick, and Linda Putnam), Metaphor and Organizations
64. (1996, with Cliff Oswick), and Organization Development:
Metaphorical Explorations (1996, with Cliff Oswick). He is a
member of the National Training Laboratory and a founding
mem-
ber of the International Centre for Organizational Discourse
Strategy and Change.
Metaphorical images of organization:
How organizational researchers develop
and select organizational metaphors
Joep P. Cornelissen, Mario Kafouros and Andrew R. Lock
A B S T R AC T The article examines how metaphors are
developed and selected
within organizational theorizing and research.The issue
addressed is
not whether metaphors exist and play a part in organizational
theorizing – as this is now widely accepted – but to draw out
how
metaphors are actually used and are of conceptual value,
particularly
as such insights may aid organizational researchers in a better
use of
them.Working from this position, the article reviews the extant
theor-
etical literature on metaphor, surveys the organizational
65. literature to
document past and contemporary metaphors-in-use (1993–
2003),
and identifies the heuristics (i.e. judgmental rules) that have
been used
by organizational researchers in developing and selecting these
metaphors. The identified heuristics are the integration,
relational,
connection, availability, distance and concreteness heuristics.
On the
basis of these identified heuristics, and the biases and errors
associ-
ated with them, the article also posits a number of governing
rules
that can guide organizational researchers in their continued
develop-
ment and selection of metaphors in the organizational field.
K E Y WO R D S heuristics � metaphor � organization theory
� tropes
This article reflects at least three trends that have become
increasingly
apparent over the past two decades within the field of
organization theory:
the development of interest in the paradigms, schemes and
concepts that over
67. metaphor in
the thinking and behavior of organizational theorists and
researchers. More
specifically, the article clarifies how metaphor, and the
imagination that
follows from it, is used within organizational theorizing and
what this
implies for its continued use within organization theory and
research.
Specifically, the purpose of our analysis is 1) to clarify how
organiz-
ational researchers circumscribe and understand the world of
organizations
through the use of metaphor, 2) to document the heuristics of
metaphor that
they use in doing so, and 3) to suggest, on the basis of this
documentation,
how metaphor can be used to its fullest effect. The latter
suggestion is
evidently more prescriptive in nature and moves beyond the
descriptive data
presented to discuss missed opportunities and potentialities in
the heuristic
inferences used by researchers in order to probe more deeply
and generate
new insights into the world of organizations. This is not,
however, the central
thrust of our analysis. Rather, our major emphasis is on
providing a histori-
cal and empirical overview of the past and contemporary
metaphors in use
over the period 1993–2003, and to delineate the heuristics (i.e.
the judg-
mental rules in producing and selecting metaphors) that have
guided their
68. development, selection and use. We focus particularly on the
dominant
metaphors within organizational theorizing and research and by
looking at
their heuristics attempt to explain their prevalence and
continued use.
In what follows, we will first contextualize the role of metaphor
in
organizational theorizing, before moving on to a more specific
and detailed
discussion of prior work that has speculated on the heuristics of
metaphor.
From this discussion the article then proceeds with a survey of
the use of
metaphor in organizational theorizing and research over the past
period
(1993–2003) in order to infer and document empirically the
heuristics-in-use
in organizational theorizing and research. The results of the
empirical survey
and the uncovered heuristics-in-use are discussed and are also
used to formu-
late a number of governing rules for the selection, adoption and
continued
use of metaphor in organizational theorizing and research. We
conclude with
a discussion of theory and research implications, positioning the
suggested
governing rules for the use of metaphor within the wider realm
of organiz-
ation theory and suggesting research applications.
Human Relations 58(12)1 5 4 6
69. Metaphor in organization theory
The trends indicated at the beginning of this article suggest a
marked increase
of interest in recent years in the paradigms, schemes and
metaphors that
organizational theorists and researchers work from in their
theorizing and
research endeavors (Bacharach, 1989; Morgan, 1980; Weick,
1989).
Although this interest comes in various forms (see Gioia &
Pitre, 1990) and
reflects wider meta-theoretical issues around theorizing and
research, our
concern in this regard is with the specific use of metaphor
within the process
of organizational theorizing. This concern is given in by
previous work
(Morgan, 1980, 1983; Weick, 1989) which has suggested that
metaphors
play a crucial role within theorizing, that theorists cannot really
surpass them
and that theorists and researchers therefore need to be more
mindful of their
use and the images that they evoke in such a way that they
become ‘more
deliberate in the formation of these images and more respectful
of represen-
tations and efforts to improve them’ (Weick, 1989: 529). This
view stands
in sharp contrast to an earlier view of metaphor as a derivative
issue of only
secondary importance. That is, metaphor was thought to be
either a deviant
form of expression or a nonessential literary figure of speech
70. (e.g. Pinder &
Bourgeois, 1982). In either case, it was generally not regarded
as cognitively
fundamental. This denial of any serious cognitive role for
metaphor was prin-
cipally the result of the longstanding popularity of strict
‘objectivist’ assump-
tions about language and meaning. The objectivist view
suggests that the
world has its structure, and that our concepts and propositions,
to be correct,
must correspond to that structure. Metaphors, then, may exist as
cognitive
processes of our understanding, but their meaning must be
reducible to some
set of literal concepts and propositions (Bourgeois & Pinder,
1983; Pinder
& Bourgeois, 1982).
In marked contrast with this ‘objectivist’ view, Morgan (1980,
1983)
forcefully demonstrated that metaphors involve a cognitively
fundamental
way of structuring our understanding of organizations as a new
meaning is
created through the creative juxtaposition of concepts (e.g.
‘organization’
and ‘machine’) that previously were not interrelated. Ever
since, a whole
range of theories and frameworks have been proposed (e.g. the
‘transfor-
mational’ model, Tsoukas, 1991, and the ‘domains-interaction’
model,
Cornelissen, 2004, 2005) that have both advanced and
challenged Morgan’s
characterization of metaphor as proceeding ‘through assertions
71. that subject
A is, or is like B, the processes of comparison, substitution and
interaction
between the images of A and B acting as generators of new
meaning’
(Morgan, 1980: 610). Tsoukas (1991, 1993), for example,
suggests that a
metaphor, as a figurative play of words, can be used in a
creative manner to
Cornelissen et al. Metaphorical images of organization 1 5 4 7
reveal ‘literal’ structural similarities between concepts that
were not salient
before, and may as such provide for ‘enriching’ and ‘insightful’
new under-
standings of organizations. Cornelissen (2004, 2005) argued
that metaphor-
ical language sets up a creative and novel correlation of two
concepts which
forces us to make semantic leaps to create an understanding of
the infor-
mation that comes off it. The notion of semantic leaps, then,
points to certain
‘non-compositional’ processes that are at work in metaphor, that
evoke the
imaginative capacities of meaning construction, and that
eventually lead to
the production of a new, emergent meaning (see also Fauconnier
& Turner,
1998; Tourangeau & Rips, 1991). Accordingly, in Cornelissen’s
view,
metaphors are cognitively fundamental in themselves – a
metaphor creates
72. new, emergent meaning that is not compositional; instead, there
is new
meaning constituted in and through the metaphor (e.g. ‘an
organization
having certain identity traits in its strategies, values and
practices that give
it its specificity, stability and coherence’ in case of the
‘organizational
identity’ metaphor) that is not a composition of meanings that
can be found
in either the target or source concepts per se.
Beyond this discussion of how metaphors ‘work’, the
organizational
literature on metaphors has also drawn attention to further
analytical
distinctions; primarily between ‘live’ and ‘dead’ metaphors, and
between
‘root’ metaphorical schemata versus specific ‘surface’
metaphorical
language and concepts (Alvesson, 1993; Morgan, 1980; Oswick
et al.,
2002). Tsoukas (1991), for example, pointed to the difference
between
‘novel’ or what are sometimes understood as ‘live’ metaphorical
word
combinations (e.g. ‘organizational identity’) versus
‘conventionalized’ or
‘dead’ metaphors (e.g. ‘organizational structure’); language and
concepts
that have become so familiar and so habituated in theoretical
vocabulary
that scholars have often ceased to be aware of the metaphorical
underpin-
nings (see also Hunt & Menon, 1995; Inns, 2002; Sandelands &
Srivatsan,
73. 1993). Alvesson (1993) and Morgan (1980) have drawn a
distinction
between ‘root’ or ‘second-order’ metaphorical schemata as
schools of
thought that filter and structure a researcher’s perceptions of
the subject of
study (e.g. ‘social phenomena as information processing
systems’) (e.g. Daft
& Weick, 1984) which then pre-structure and give rise to more
specific ‘first-
order’ metaphorical concepts (e.g. ‘organizational memory’)
(e.g. Walsh &
Ungson, 1991) with the latter serving as more concrete
frameworks for
scholarship and analysis. Inns (2002), finally, in her review of
writings on
metaphor within organization theory, suggested that many
authors not only
explore and use metaphors differently (for example as a
qualitative research
tool, as a generative tool for creative thinking, as a pedagogical
or
communicative tool) but also differ in terms of whether they
critically
Human Relations 58(12)1 5 4 8
engage with them. At the level of organization theory, then,
Inns’ review
suggests that organizational researchers primarily appear to use
metaphors
in their theory building as ways of ‘making the unfamiliar
familiar’ (akin to
Inns’s view of metaphor as an explicatory teaching or
74. communicative tool)
or as a means of generating novel understandings that push the
boundaries
of the body of knowledge on organizations (cf. Inns’s view of
metaphor as
a generative tool for creative thinking) (see also Oswick et al.,
2002; Schön,
1993, for a similar discussion). The latter generative capacity of
metaphor
to create new ways of seeing, conceptualizing and
understanding organiz-
ational phenomena is indeed widely acknowledged within the
scholarly
organizational community (Alvesson, 1993; Chia, 1996;
Cornelissen, 2004,
2005; Grant & Oswick, 1996; Inns, 2002; Morgan, 1996;
Tsoukas, 1991,
1993).
In the present study, we accommodate the aforementioned
analytical
distinctions (between ‘live’ and ‘dead’ metaphors, between
‘root’ metaphor-
ical schemata and ‘surface’ metaphorical language, and between
‘explicatory’
and ‘generative’ uses of metaphor) and define metaphor as a
linguistic utter-
ance in which the combination of words is literally deviant in
the sense that
terms that have originally or conventionally been employed in
relation to a
different concept or domain are applied and connected to a
target term or
concept within organization theory (cf. Cameron, 1999; Gibbs,
1996; Steen,
1999). We also assume that metaphors as linguistic utterances