Stability of Language in Childhood:
A Multiage, Multidomain, Multimeasure, and Multisource Study
Marc H. Bornstein and Diane L. Putnick
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland
The stability of language across childhood is traditionally assessed by exploring longitudinal relations
between individual language measures. However, language encompasses many domains and varies with
different sources (child speech, parental report, experimenter assessment). This study evaluated individ-
ual variation in multiple age-appropriate measures of child language derived from multiple sources and
stability between their latent variables in 192 young children across more than 2 years. Structural
equation modeling demonstrated the loading of multiple measures of child language from different
sources on single latent variables of language at ages 20 months and 48 months. A large stability
coefficient (r � .84) obtained between the 2 language latent variables. This stability obtained even when
accounting for family socioeconomic status, maternal verbal intelligence, education, speech, tendency to
respond in a socially desirable fashion, and child social competence. Stability was also equivalent for
children in diverse childcare situations and for girls and boys. Across age, from the beginning of language
acquisition to just before school entry, aggregating multiple age-appropriate methods and measures at
each age and multiple reporters, children show a strong stability of individual differences in general
language development.
Keywords: language development, stability, preschool
Language Development by Individual and Group:
Two Developmental Psychologies
Development is in many ways synonymous with growth and
change. In the realm of language development, growth and change
are especially salient. As the toddler emerges out of the infant and
the child out of the toddler, one of the most prominent and readily
observable developmental characteristics is growth and change in
the child’s language. But the coin in this realm, as in other realms
of development, has two sides. The complements of growth and
change in development are continuity and stability. Although
development may be commonly identified with change, some
features of human development are theorized to remain (more or
less) consistent over time. Furthermore, transformation versus
constancy in developmental science is crossed with two similarly
related and complementary temporal concerns: group average per-
formance across time and individual variation around that average
(Cairns, 1979; Hartmann, Pelzel, & Abbott, 2011; Wohlwill,
1973). In developmental study, group-mean-level consistency or
inconsistency (continuity/discontinuity) is often contrasted with
individual-order consistency or inconsistency (stability/instabil-
ity). This article is centrally concerned with stability through time
in the important developmental domain of child langua.
Response 1· Explain how socioeconomic factors affect the lmickietanger
Response 1
·
Explain how socioeconomic factors affect the language development of children and adolescents Consider the impact of socioeconomic status and social class on both positive and negative child and adolescent development and language development. Think about how language development may differ between socioeconomic groups.
Socioeconomic status is a difficult demographic to discuss in child development. Many times it can be viewed at a crutch and other times as a legitimist hindrance to the child’s success. Mise explores the impact of SES as it pertains to child language development (2012). Specifically it was noted that the hours spent in child care had not impact on language development, positive or negative (Mise, 2012). Many times parents who are required to work so many hours to provide for their families need to leave their children with daycare workers longer than other parents, it is nice to know this has no negative impact on language development (Mise, 2012). A negative impact of lower SES means less resources available, specifically for extra curricular activities such as music or art classes. As Paquette discussed, there are benefits to exploring language in a creative sense (2008). A child may be struggling to learn language in it’s traditionally taught manner, thus there is potential for learning in these more creative outlets (Paquette, 2008).
Explain how socioeconomic factors affect the language development of children and adolescents Think about possible long-term effects of socioeconomic status on language development. Explain how these factors further influence the development of child and adolescent linguistic identities.
Some of the long-term impacts of SES on language development could be “closeminded-ness”. Typically, those in lower SES neighborhoods experience more diversity than those in higher SES neighborhoods. By placing value on diversity and learning from other’s differences, those families who lack diversity can increase their understanding of those around them (Souto-Maning, 2006). Staying in one’s own SES bubble will only limit language development in that vocabulary will be limited to that cultural group (Souto-Manning, 2006). Studies have show that through diversity, vocabulary and phonological understanding begin to grow (Souto-Manning, 2006) (Gorman, 2012).
Mise, T. M., & Hupp, J. M. (2012). The influence of socioeconomic status, home environment, and childcare on child language abilities.
Current Psychology, 31
(2), 144–159.
Paquette, K. R., & Rieg, S. A. (2008). Using music to support the literacy development of young English language learners.
Early Childhood Education Journal, 36
(3), 227–232.
Souto-Manning, M. (2006). Families learn together: Reconceptualizing linguistic diversity as a resource.
Early Childhood Education Journal, 33
(6), 443–446.
Gorman, B. (2012). Relationships between vocabulary size, working memory, and phonological awareness in ...
Language acquisition entails the acquisition of several crucial linguistic components like phonology, morphology, syntax
and semantics. Individual elements merge seamlessly with each other giving birth to insightful communication whenever
needed. Among these varied but fundamental aspects necessary for any competent communicator, is adding on the vital aspect of tense marking
appropriately into conversations or text rendering accurately when an event occurred or will occur. We must appreciate this pivotal role played by
acquiring uency in using verb tenses by young children seeking effective communication alongside understanding its importance a bit more in
the language development process. The study attempts to investigate the acquisition of tense markers in typical children speaking Hindi with the
goal of assessing data from children in the age range of 6-8 years. Results suggested that tense markers increased with age. Almost half of the tense
markers were not fully acquired by the age of 8 years. The research also analysed various studies that uphold the ndings.
Response 1· Explain how socioeconomic factors affect the lmickietanger
Response 1
·
Explain how socioeconomic factors affect the language development of children and adolescents Consider the impact of socioeconomic status and social class on both positive and negative child and adolescent development and language development. Think about how language development may differ between socioeconomic groups.
Socioeconomic status is a difficult demographic to discuss in child development. Many times it can be viewed at a crutch and other times as a legitimist hindrance to the child’s success. Mise explores the impact of SES as it pertains to child language development (2012). Specifically it was noted that the hours spent in child care had not impact on language development, positive or negative (Mise, 2012). Many times parents who are required to work so many hours to provide for their families need to leave their children with daycare workers longer than other parents, it is nice to know this has no negative impact on language development (Mise, 2012). A negative impact of lower SES means less resources available, specifically for extra curricular activities such as music or art classes. As Paquette discussed, there are benefits to exploring language in a creative sense (2008). A child may be struggling to learn language in it’s traditionally taught manner, thus there is potential for learning in these more creative outlets (Paquette, 2008).
Explain how socioeconomic factors affect the language development of children and adolescents Think about possible long-term effects of socioeconomic status on language development. Explain how these factors further influence the development of child and adolescent linguistic identities.
Some of the long-term impacts of SES on language development could be “closeminded-ness”. Typically, those in lower SES neighborhoods experience more diversity than those in higher SES neighborhoods. By placing value on diversity and learning from other’s differences, those families who lack diversity can increase their understanding of those around them (Souto-Maning, 2006). Staying in one’s own SES bubble will only limit language development in that vocabulary will be limited to that cultural group (Souto-Manning, 2006). Studies have show that through diversity, vocabulary and phonological understanding begin to grow (Souto-Manning, 2006) (Gorman, 2012).
Mise, T. M., & Hupp, J. M. (2012). The influence of socioeconomic status, home environment, and childcare on child language abilities.
Current Psychology, 31
(2), 144–159.
Paquette, K. R., & Rieg, S. A. (2008). Using music to support the literacy development of young English language learners.
Early Childhood Education Journal, 36
(3), 227–232.
Souto-Manning, M. (2006). Families learn together: Reconceptualizing linguistic diversity as a resource.
Early Childhood Education Journal, 33
(6), 443–446.
Gorman, B. (2012). Relationships between vocabulary size, working memory, and phonological awareness in ...
Language acquisition entails the acquisition of several crucial linguistic components like phonology, morphology, syntax
and semantics. Individual elements merge seamlessly with each other giving birth to insightful communication whenever
needed. Among these varied but fundamental aspects necessary for any competent communicator, is adding on the vital aspect of tense marking
appropriately into conversations or text rendering accurately when an event occurred or will occur. We must appreciate this pivotal role played by
acquiring uency in using verb tenses by young children seeking effective communication alongside understanding its importance a bit more in
the language development process. The study attempts to investigate the acquisition of tense markers in typical children speaking Hindi with the
goal of assessing data from children in the age range of 6-8 years. Results suggested that tense markers increased with age. Almost half of the tense
markers were not fully acquired by the age of 8 years. The research also analysed various studies that uphold the ndings.
12 BRIDGING RESEARCH AND PRACTICE www.ChildCareExchange.com.docxdurantheseldine
12 BRIDGING RESEARCH AND PRACTICE www.ChildCareExchange.com
EXCHANGE JULY/AUGUST 2018
create a cohesive story, or idea, in the case of expository text
(Hogan, Adlof, & Alonzo, 2014). Early elementary school
reading curricula focus primarily on teaching word reading.
To prepare children for this curricular focus, preschool
teachers are spending more time on pre-reading skills such
as print awareness, letter recognition, and letter-sound
correspondences, thereby leaving less time for activities that
increase language skills foundational for comprehension.
As a result, some children are becoming good word readers
who cannot comprehend the texts they read (Catts, Hogan, &
Adlof, 2005).
Noting this trend, the U.S. Department of Education funded
the Reading for Understanding initiative in 2010. This was the
largest federal research initiative ($120 million) since sending
a man to the moon in the 1960s. RFU provided funding to six
teams, or consortiums, of researchers to determine the devel-
opmental processes underpinning reading comprehension
and to create and test evidence-based interventions to
improve reading comprehension in children preschool
through 12th grade (Douglas & Albro, 2014).
Language development begins in utero and continues to
expand across the lifespan. Early childhood in particular is a
time of extraordinary gains in language that set the stage for
academic achievement. In a recent study, my colleagues and I
found that language skills measured at as early as 15 months
predicted reading comprehension in fifth grade (Petscher,
Justice, & Hogan, 2017). One pillar of most, if not all, preschool
curricula is shared book reading, in which children listen to
a text read aloud. In this article, I describe work by a feder-
ally funded consortium that provides an evidence-base on
how best to leverage shared book reading to stimulate early
comprehension, which in turn builds a strong foundation for
future academic achievement.
What Does the Research Say?
Reading comprehension is comprised of both word reading—
turning printed text into spoken words either read aloud
or kept in one’s head—and language comprehension—under-
standing these spoken words as connected language that
Tiffany P. Hogan, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, is director of the
speech and language (SAiL) literacy lab, and
professor in the department of communication
sciences and disorders at MGH Institute of
Health Professions in Boston, Massachusetts.
Hogan studies the genetic, neurologic, and
behavioral links between oral and written
language development, with a focus on improving assessment
and intervention for young children with speech, language
and/or literacy impairments. Her research is funded by the
National Institutes of Health’s National Institute on Deafness
and Other Communication Disorders and the Department of
Education’s Institute of Education Sciences. Hogan teaches
graduate courses in literacy assessment and intervent.
December 2011 Volume 14 Number 10 LEARNING DISABILITY PRAC.docxtheodorelove43763
December 2011 | Volume 14 | Number 10 LEARNING DISABILITY PRACTICE14
Feature
CarE of a Child with
down’s syndromE
Lisa Hughes and Pauline Cardwell describe a student’s
experience of supporting parents during their son’s hospital stay
Child dEvElopmEnt is a vast and complex subject
which considers the growth and maturation of
the child and the possible influences on how this
occurs (Berk 2008). the nature-nurture debate has
endured for many years, with conflicting views
being proposed on how a child has the capacity to
reach adulthood (moules and ramsay 2008, Bee
and Boyd 2010). the nativist perspective is that
development is a predetermined pattern; the result
of the individual’s biological inheritance (Berk 2008),
whereas empiricists emphasise the importance of
external stimuli in child development, such as a
mother’s interaction with her baby (Glasper and
richardson 2010). however, many experts favour
a combination of innate biological components
and lifelong external influences – for example,
environment and social relationships – as playing a
vital role (moules and ramsay 2008).
the focus of this article is the development
of a child who was cared for in hospital during a
clinical placement of the first author, and takes
into consideration the physical and psychosocial
elements that influenced his growth and maturation.
for nurses caring for children and young people,
professional knowledge of how children typically
grow and develop is important. when a child’s
development does not proceed along the predicted
‘normal’ milestones, nurses need to understand the
implications for everyone involved.
Characteristics
people with down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes
in each cell because they have an extra copy of
chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) (Burns and Gunn
1993). this additional chromosome and the
genetic material it accommodates causes too many
proteins to be produced in the cell, which disturbs
the normal growth of the fetus (selikowitz 1997).
this abnormal growth results in the cognitive and
physical impairments seen in children who have
down’s syndrome (hockenberry and wilson 2007).
there is a wide variation in symptoms associated
with the condition: some individuals achieve average
competence and others have severe intellectual
disability (Burns and Gunn 1993).
with one or two affected children being born
every day in England on average, down’s syndrome
is common and, because of the increased incidence
in babies born to older mothers, the incidence is
predicted to rise as more women are opting to delay
starting families (Bailey 2009, Blakemore 2009).
Sean’s development
sean (not his real name) is a 19-month-old boy
with down’s syndrome, who lives with his mother
and father and younger brother liam, aged
seven months. physically, sean displays some of the
classical features of the condition (mcCance and
huether 2002), including microgenia (an abnormally
small chin), macroglossia (an.
The Role and Strategy to Stimulate Language Development in Early Childhood Du...EvaniaYafie
The development of aspects of language in human life is very important. A
language is a tool of education and interaction between individuals. Language development
problems in early childhood that often arise are late language emergence (LLE). From some
previous studies, stimulation and education factors become guidelines for teachers and
parents in providing appropriate stimulation through the principle of play while learning and
adapted to the development and age of the child. The purpose of this study is to describe the
role and strategy of stimulating children's language development during the COVID
pandemic. The design of this study uses the method of literature study or literature review.
The results and discussion of strategies for developing children's language for 1-2 years old
can be done by 1) Mothering, 2) Recasting, 3) Echoing 4) Expanding 5) Labeling. While
strategies for developing children's language for ages 3-6 years 1) Increasing Interaction and
Communication with Children 2) Reading aloud, 3) Involving Children in Storytelling, 4)
Providing literacy activities.
Baby WordsmithFrom Associationist to Social SophisticateRokacie8xcheco
Baby Wordsmith
From Associationist to Social Sophisticate
Roberta Michnick Golinkoff1 and Kathy Hirsh-Pasek2
1
University of Delaware and
2
Temple University
ABSTRACT—How do infants acquire their first words? Word
reference, or how words map onto objects and events, lies
at the core of this question. The emergentist coalition model
(ECM) represents a new wave of hybrid developmental
theories suggesting that the process of vocabulary devel-
opment changes from one based in perceptual salience and
association to one embedded in social understanding. Be-
ginning at 10 months, babies learn words associatively,
ignoring the speaker’s social cues and using perceptual
salience to guide them. By 12 months, babies attend to so-
cial cues, but fail to recruit them for word learning. By 18
and 24 months, babies recruit speakers’ social cues to learn
the names of particular objects speakers label, regardless
of those objects’ perceptual attraction. Controversies about
how to account for the changing character of word ac-
quisition, along with the roots of children’s increasing re-
liance on speakers’ social intent, are discussed.
KEYWORDS—word learning; language development
There is power in language. It can start wars or ruin marriages.
Readers of these words barely remember a time when they did
not have language. But every word you know had to be learned.
Imagine bending over your car engine with your mechanic and
being told, ‘‘Your zorch is shot.’’ You follow your mechanic’s eyes
and body orientation to the part he is examining. That rusty metal
protrusion must be the zorch. How do we learn the mapping
between words and the objects and events they represent?
THE WORD-LEARNING PROBLEM
Establishing a Word’s Referent: Perceptual, Social, and
Linguistic Cues
Infants are motivated to learn names for the same reason that
adults are: Knowing what to call something allows one to share
the contents of one’s mind with another person (Bloom & Tinker,
2001), even when the object is not present. Indeed, a great
deal is known about the course of word learning. At 10 months,
babies have an average comprehension vocabulary of 50 words,
saying virtually nothing. By 30 months, average production
vocabulary soars to 550 words (see Table 1; Fenson, Dale,
Reznick, Bates, Thal, & Pethick, 1994), and children speak in
full sentences.
Describing vocabulary growth, however, is only a first step
toward unpacking the mechanisms behind word learning. How
do words get ‘‘hooked’’ to objects and events? How do we (or
children) learn that zorch refers to that whole rusty protrusion
rather than to the object’s color or size? Any object presents an
array of possible referents, a problem Quine (1960) called the
indeterminacy of reference. A number of diverse theories have
arisen to explain how children solve this problem.
One theory is that children approach the word-learning
problem with a set of constraints or principles biasing them ...
— This paper provides general information on the language of children with Trisomy 21, on their development and on the methods of educational-therapeutic intervention. I defined the means of applying of Total Communication in the development of communication and of the language in 21-trisomic children. Mental retardation in 21-trisomic children impairs learning ability in many fields, with a negative impact on children's communication ability; these communication possibilities should be improved throughout their entire life. This paper highlights the methods of intervention using Total Communication, the evolution throughout therapy; the therapy will continue in order to attain the objectives determined within the complex educational therapy program. An early educative intervention contributes to the systematisation of all chances of obtaining a more rapid psychological development of 21-trisomic children until the level becomes easy to achieve.
Project 2: Research Paper Compendium
Choose what you consider to be a monster or monstrosity –
literal
figurative (ideology, practice)
historical
cryptozoology
Examples:
mythology
invention
Vlad Tepes
Joseph Stalin
Pablo Escobar
Nazis
Biological Weapons
Assault Rifles
Adolf Hitler
the Ku Klux Klan
Dylan Roof
Griselda Blanco
Aileen Wuornos
Fred & Rosemary West
Mark Twitchell
Jeffrey Dahmer
Long Island Serial Killer
Jack the Ripper
Jim Jones/Jonestown
Bigfoot
Loch Ness Monster
the Hydra
Slender Man
Michael Myers
Ed Gein
Freddy Krueger
Slavery
Human Trafficking
the Drug Trade
Drug Addiction
Rwandan Genocide
Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge
Aurora shooting
Sandy Hook
Lizzie Borden
Saddam Hussein
Heaven’s Gate Cult
Baba Yaga
the Holocaust
Balkan Genocide
the list goes on…
Write an 8 to 9 page research paper in which you are the expert on this monster/monstrosity. Both your paper and your expert presentation will reflect the biography/origin; timeline of actions/atrocities; cultural/societal impact; how this subject is depicted/sensationalized through various writings/the media (stories, biographies, scholarly articles, comics, graphic novels, poems, movies, interviews, folklore/fairy tails, television shows, et cetera); and why this monster/monstrosity has meaning to you. The paper must also include
7-8 annotated bibliography entries (I have attatched a document to show what it is).
Jamal Sampson's paper has to focus on the two monsters listed:
Saddam Hussein
Osama Bin Laden
.
Project 1 Interview Essay Conduct a brief interview with an Asian.docxdessiechisomjj4
Project 1: Interview Essay
Conduct a brief interview with an Asian immigrant to ask about their immigration story and push-pull factors. This can last 5-15 minutes. Then, write a 2 paragraphs on the DB.
You do
not
have to include the person’s real name! Immigration status is a sensitive topic, so please understand if someone does not want to be interviewed. Students have interviewed friends, family members, people in their community, and other students.
Project 1: Prompt
1.
Brief facts:
Around what age did they immigrate? How old are they now (in my 30s is acceptable)? What push-pull factors led them to immigrate to the U.S.? (You may have to explain what push-pull factors are.)
2. Add your own comments/perspective and perhaps even your own immigration story. What aspects of their story did you find interesting or surprising? What aspects were familiar to you?
Example:
I conducted a 10 minute interview with my neighbor "Dr. Villanueva" who immigrated to the U.S. over 45 years ago at the age of 26. I asked him about his push and pull factors. What reasons did he have for leaving his home country and why did he choose the U.S. as his new home? He stated that he wanted to leave the Philippines for a better life and more opportunities. He had grown up as the youngest of nine children and was very poor, but was able to study medicine and become a medical doctor specializing in ophthalmology. He heard that the U.S. was encouraging medical professionals to work there especially if they were fluent in English. According to our reading "Filipinos in America," (Lee 2015) the Philippines was a colony of the U.S. from 1898-1945 and English was taught in the education system (Lee, p. 90). Plus, many Filipinos then and still today dream about immigrating to the United States to improve their educational and financial opportunities. Dr. Villanueva came to the U.S. after the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act abolished national quotas but limited immigration from Asia to educated professionals. When I asked if he felt that he experienced discrimination, Dr. Villanueva said yes, many times, but overall he is glad that he immigrated because his children had so many more opportunities in the U.S. Often, people still think that he is a foreigner or can't speak English. There have been a few occasions that people directed racial slurs at him, but he has not experienced any physical harm.
Dr. Villanueva seems to fit much of the data on Asian Americans that we studied in this class. However, I noticed some ways that he did not. For example, {etc....} Dr. Villanueva's story is much different than my grandparents' story who immigrated from __ and did not have college degrees when they arrived. [ADD YOUR PERSONAL REFLECTIONS ON THE INTERVIEW.]
.
More Related Content
Similar to Stability of Language in ChildhoodA Multiage, Multidomain, .docx
12 BRIDGING RESEARCH AND PRACTICE www.ChildCareExchange.com.docxdurantheseldine
12 BRIDGING RESEARCH AND PRACTICE www.ChildCareExchange.com
EXCHANGE JULY/AUGUST 2018
create a cohesive story, or idea, in the case of expository text
(Hogan, Adlof, & Alonzo, 2014). Early elementary school
reading curricula focus primarily on teaching word reading.
To prepare children for this curricular focus, preschool
teachers are spending more time on pre-reading skills such
as print awareness, letter recognition, and letter-sound
correspondences, thereby leaving less time for activities that
increase language skills foundational for comprehension.
As a result, some children are becoming good word readers
who cannot comprehend the texts they read (Catts, Hogan, &
Adlof, 2005).
Noting this trend, the U.S. Department of Education funded
the Reading for Understanding initiative in 2010. This was the
largest federal research initiative ($120 million) since sending
a man to the moon in the 1960s. RFU provided funding to six
teams, or consortiums, of researchers to determine the devel-
opmental processes underpinning reading comprehension
and to create and test evidence-based interventions to
improve reading comprehension in children preschool
through 12th grade (Douglas & Albro, 2014).
Language development begins in utero and continues to
expand across the lifespan. Early childhood in particular is a
time of extraordinary gains in language that set the stage for
academic achievement. In a recent study, my colleagues and I
found that language skills measured at as early as 15 months
predicted reading comprehension in fifth grade (Petscher,
Justice, & Hogan, 2017). One pillar of most, if not all, preschool
curricula is shared book reading, in which children listen to
a text read aloud. In this article, I describe work by a feder-
ally funded consortium that provides an evidence-base on
how best to leverage shared book reading to stimulate early
comprehension, which in turn builds a strong foundation for
future academic achievement.
What Does the Research Say?
Reading comprehension is comprised of both word reading—
turning printed text into spoken words either read aloud
or kept in one’s head—and language comprehension—under-
standing these spoken words as connected language that
Tiffany P. Hogan, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, is director of the
speech and language (SAiL) literacy lab, and
professor in the department of communication
sciences and disorders at MGH Institute of
Health Professions in Boston, Massachusetts.
Hogan studies the genetic, neurologic, and
behavioral links between oral and written
language development, with a focus on improving assessment
and intervention for young children with speech, language
and/or literacy impairments. Her research is funded by the
National Institutes of Health’s National Institute on Deafness
and Other Communication Disorders and the Department of
Education’s Institute of Education Sciences. Hogan teaches
graduate courses in literacy assessment and intervent.
December 2011 Volume 14 Number 10 LEARNING DISABILITY PRAC.docxtheodorelove43763
December 2011 | Volume 14 | Number 10 LEARNING DISABILITY PRACTICE14
Feature
CarE of a Child with
down’s syndromE
Lisa Hughes and Pauline Cardwell describe a student’s
experience of supporting parents during their son’s hospital stay
Child dEvElopmEnt is a vast and complex subject
which considers the growth and maturation of
the child and the possible influences on how this
occurs (Berk 2008). the nature-nurture debate has
endured for many years, with conflicting views
being proposed on how a child has the capacity to
reach adulthood (moules and ramsay 2008, Bee
and Boyd 2010). the nativist perspective is that
development is a predetermined pattern; the result
of the individual’s biological inheritance (Berk 2008),
whereas empiricists emphasise the importance of
external stimuli in child development, such as a
mother’s interaction with her baby (Glasper and
richardson 2010). however, many experts favour
a combination of innate biological components
and lifelong external influences – for example,
environment and social relationships – as playing a
vital role (moules and ramsay 2008).
the focus of this article is the development
of a child who was cared for in hospital during a
clinical placement of the first author, and takes
into consideration the physical and psychosocial
elements that influenced his growth and maturation.
for nurses caring for children and young people,
professional knowledge of how children typically
grow and develop is important. when a child’s
development does not proceed along the predicted
‘normal’ milestones, nurses need to understand the
implications for everyone involved.
Characteristics
people with down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes
in each cell because they have an extra copy of
chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) (Burns and Gunn
1993). this additional chromosome and the
genetic material it accommodates causes too many
proteins to be produced in the cell, which disturbs
the normal growth of the fetus (selikowitz 1997).
this abnormal growth results in the cognitive and
physical impairments seen in children who have
down’s syndrome (hockenberry and wilson 2007).
there is a wide variation in symptoms associated
with the condition: some individuals achieve average
competence and others have severe intellectual
disability (Burns and Gunn 1993).
with one or two affected children being born
every day in England on average, down’s syndrome
is common and, because of the increased incidence
in babies born to older mothers, the incidence is
predicted to rise as more women are opting to delay
starting families (Bailey 2009, Blakemore 2009).
Sean’s development
sean (not his real name) is a 19-month-old boy
with down’s syndrome, who lives with his mother
and father and younger brother liam, aged
seven months. physically, sean displays some of the
classical features of the condition (mcCance and
huether 2002), including microgenia (an abnormally
small chin), macroglossia (an.
The Role and Strategy to Stimulate Language Development in Early Childhood Du...EvaniaYafie
The development of aspects of language in human life is very important. A
language is a tool of education and interaction between individuals. Language development
problems in early childhood that often arise are late language emergence (LLE). From some
previous studies, stimulation and education factors become guidelines for teachers and
parents in providing appropriate stimulation through the principle of play while learning and
adapted to the development and age of the child. The purpose of this study is to describe the
role and strategy of stimulating children's language development during the COVID
pandemic. The design of this study uses the method of literature study or literature review.
The results and discussion of strategies for developing children's language for 1-2 years old
can be done by 1) Mothering, 2) Recasting, 3) Echoing 4) Expanding 5) Labeling. While
strategies for developing children's language for ages 3-6 years 1) Increasing Interaction and
Communication with Children 2) Reading aloud, 3) Involving Children in Storytelling, 4)
Providing literacy activities.
Baby WordsmithFrom Associationist to Social SophisticateRokacie8xcheco
Baby Wordsmith
From Associationist to Social Sophisticate
Roberta Michnick Golinkoff1 and Kathy Hirsh-Pasek2
1
University of Delaware and
2
Temple University
ABSTRACT—How do infants acquire their first words? Word
reference, or how words map onto objects and events, lies
at the core of this question. The emergentist coalition model
(ECM) represents a new wave of hybrid developmental
theories suggesting that the process of vocabulary devel-
opment changes from one based in perceptual salience and
association to one embedded in social understanding. Be-
ginning at 10 months, babies learn words associatively,
ignoring the speaker’s social cues and using perceptual
salience to guide them. By 12 months, babies attend to so-
cial cues, but fail to recruit them for word learning. By 18
and 24 months, babies recruit speakers’ social cues to learn
the names of particular objects speakers label, regardless
of those objects’ perceptual attraction. Controversies about
how to account for the changing character of word ac-
quisition, along with the roots of children’s increasing re-
liance on speakers’ social intent, are discussed.
KEYWORDS—word learning; language development
There is power in language. It can start wars or ruin marriages.
Readers of these words barely remember a time when they did
not have language. But every word you know had to be learned.
Imagine bending over your car engine with your mechanic and
being told, ‘‘Your zorch is shot.’’ You follow your mechanic’s eyes
and body orientation to the part he is examining. That rusty metal
protrusion must be the zorch. How do we learn the mapping
between words and the objects and events they represent?
THE WORD-LEARNING PROBLEM
Establishing a Word’s Referent: Perceptual, Social, and
Linguistic Cues
Infants are motivated to learn names for the same reason that
adults are: Knowing what to call something allows one to share
the contents of one’s mind with another person (Bloom & Tinker,
2001), even when the object is not present. Indeed, a great
deal is known about the course of word learning. At 10 months,
babies have an average comprehension vocabulary of 50 words,
saying virtually nothing. By 30 months, average production
vocabulary soars to 550 words (see Table 1; Fenson, Dale,
Reznick, Bates, Thal, & Pethick, 1994), and children speak in
full sentences.
Describing vocabulary growth, however, is only a first step
toward unpacking the mechanisms behind word learning. How
do words get ‘‘hooked’’ to objects and events? How do we (or
children) learn that zorch refers to that whole rusty protrusion
rather than to the object’s color or size? Any object presents an
array of possible referents, a problem Quine (1960) called the
indeterminacy of reference. A number of diverse theories have
arisen to explain how children solve this problem.
One theory is that children approach the word-learning
problem with a set of constraints or principles biasing them ...
— This paper provides general information on the language of children with Trisomy 21, on their development and on the methods of educational-therapeutic intervention. I defined the means of applying of Total Communication in the development of communication and of the language in 21-trisomic children. Mental retardation in 21-trisomic children impairs learning ability in many fields, with a negative impact on children's communication ability; these communication possibilities should be improved throughout their entire life. This paper highlights the methods of intervention using Total Communication, the evolution throughout therapy; the therapy will continue in order to attain the objectives determined within the complex educational therapy program. An early educative intervention contributes to the systematisation of all chances of obtaining a more rapid psychological development of 21-trisomic children until the level becomes easy to achieve.
Project 2: Research Paper Compendium
Choose what you consider to be a monster or monstrosity –
literal
figurative (ideology, practice)
historical
cryptozoology
Examples:
mythology
invention
Vlad Tepes
Joseph Stalin
Pablo Escobar
Nazis
Biological Weapons
Assault Rifles
Adolf Hitler
the Ku Klux Klan
Dylan Roof
Griselda Blanco
Aileen Wuornos
Fred & Rosemary West
Mark Twitchell
Jeffrey Dahmer
Long Island Serial Killer
Jack the Ripper
Jim Jones/Jonestown
Bigfoot
Loch Ness Monster
the Hydra
Slender Man
Michael Myers
Ed Gein
Freddy Krueger
Slavery
Human Trafficking
the Drug Trade
Drug Addiction
Rwandan Genocide
Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge
Aurora shooting
Sandy Hook
Lizzie Borden
Saddam Hussein
Heaven’s Gate Cult
Baba Yaga
the Holocaust
Balkan Genocide
the list goes on…
Write an 8 to 9 page research paper in which you are the expert on this monster/monstrosity. Both your paper and your expert presentation will reflect the biography/origin; timeline of actions/atrocities; cultural/societal impact; how this subject is depicted/sensationalized through various writings/the media (stories, biographies, scholarly articles, comics, graphic novels, poems, movies, interviews, folklore/fairy tails, television shows, et cetera); and why this monster/monstrosity has meaning to you. The paper must also include
7-8 annotated bibliography entries (I have attatched a document to show what it is).
Jamal Sampson's paper has to focus on the two monsters listed:
Saddam Hussein
Osama Bin Laden
.
Project 1 Interview Essay Conduct a brief interview with an Asian.docxdessiechisomjj4
Project 1: Interview Essay
Conduct a brief interview with an Asian immigrant to ask about their immigration story and push-pull factors. This can last 5-15 minutes. Then, write a 2 paragraphs on the DB.
You do
not
have to include the person’s real name! Immigration status is a sensitive topic, so please understand if someone does not want to be interviewed. Students have interviewed friends, family members, people in their community, and other students.
Project 1: Prompt
1.
Brief facts:
Around what age did they immigrate? How old are they now (in my 30s is acceptable)? What push-pull factors led them to immigrate to the U.S.? (You may have to explain what push-pull factors are.)
2. Add your own comments/perspective and perhaps even your own immigration story. What aspects of their story did you find interesting or surprising? What aspects were familiar to you?
Example:
I conducted a 10 minute interview with my neighbor "Dr. Villanueva" who immigrated to the U.S. over 45 years ago at the age of 26. I asked him about his push and pull factors. What reasons did he have for leaving his home country and why did he choose the U.S. as his new home? He stated that he wanted to leave the Philippines for a better life and more opportunities. He had grown up as the youngest of nine children and was very poor, but was able to study medicine and become a medical doctor specializing in ophthalmology. He heard that the U.S. was encouraging medical professionals to work there especially if they were fluent in English. According to our reading "Filipinos in America," (Lee 2015) the Philippines was a colony of the U.S. from 1898-1945 and English was taught in the education system (Lee, p. 90). Plus, many Filipinos then and still today dream about immigrating to the United States to improve their educational and financial opportunities. Dr. Villanueva came to the U.S. after the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act abolished national quotas but limited immigration from Asia to educated professionals. When I asked if he felt that he experienced discrimination, Dr. Villanueva said yes, many times, but overall he is glad that he immigrated because his children had so many more opportunities in the U.S. Often, people still think that he is a foreigner or can't speak English. There have been a few occasions that people directed racial slurs at him, but he has not experienced any physical harm.
Dr. Villanueva seems to fit much of the data on Asian Americans that we studied in this class. However, I noticed some ways that he did not. For example, {etc....} Dr. Villanueva's story is much different than my grandparents' story who immigrated from __ and did not have college degrees when they arrived. [ADD YOUR PERSONAL REFLECTIONS ON THE INTERVIEW.]
.
Project 1 Scenario There is a Top Secret intelligence report.docxdessiechisomjj4
Project 1:
Scenario
: There is a Top Secret intelligence report that a terrorist organization based in the Middle East is planning to plant a dirty bomb in the inner harbor of major American city in the next 48 hours. The report has not been officially released or the classification reduced. You (the student) are the Chief of Police of this major metro city and do not have a security clearance at this time. The inner harbor is a major tourist attraction, a major shipping port and home to many international shipping companies, trade zones and military and federal government facilities.
You have heard the report exists but have not seen it. As the Police Chief of (you choose the city e.g. Baltimore, New York, Miami, Los Angeles, San Diego, Seattle etc) you have many questions about the report and many different agencies you will want to coordinate with. You will identify the real Homeland Security, LE and Intelligence organizations within the jurisdiction of the city you have chosen.
Requirement:
Write a minimum 1000 word paper (double space, 12 Font, New Times Roman) explaining how you would deal with this yet unseen report.
What actions would you take upon hearing of this report?
What Federal, state, local or government agencies would want to contact?
What questions would you want to ask about this report?
If it were true who would you want to share it with? Can you share it? What factors (e.g. legal, operational, public safety) might impede sharing this information?
Address
at least ten
of the concepts listed below within your paper:
Dissemination
Differentiate between intelligence and information
Intelligence products
Strategic versus tactical intelligence
Information sharing
Jurisdiction
Security classifications
Public safety
Intelligence roles
Federal versus local, state, and/or tribal
Target identification
Media/Hollywood portrayals
Database security/security of data
Value of intelligence
Domain awareness
Intelligence gap
Collection plans
Reliability, viability, and validity
Security clearances
.
Project #1 Personal Reflection (10)Consider an opinion that you .docxdessiechisomjj4
Project #1: Personal Reflection (10%)
Consider an opinion that you hold dearly. Write a brief reflection on the genealogy of your opinion. This can include personal experience, upbringing, social influence, media analysis, philosophy, anything that’s helped you form your opinion.
Purpose: I want you to start thinking about your process as a thinker. We can’t improve our processes in the future without understanding what we’ve done in the past.
Length: 1-3 pages
Format: MLA, 12 point Times New Roman font, 1 inch margins
.
Project 1 Chinese Dialect Exploration and InterviewYou will nee.docxdessiechisomjj4
Project 1: Chinese Dialect Exploration and Interview
You will need to cite references whenever you get the information from an article or from some online resources. In the written report, you need to include the following:
Title: An Exploration of [Dialect Name (spoken
where
)]
1.
Introduction
Introduce the geography of the dialect and which particular dialect variant you are focusing on. Give basic introduction about how many people are using this dialect and its current situation. Provide a map to indicate the dialectal grouping and the location of the speakers of the dialect.
2.
Linguistic Features of [Dialect Name (spoken
where
)]
Explore the following topics and introduce the
differences between this dialect and Standard Chinese (Mandarin)
in an organized and systematic way.
·
Syllable structure
·
Initial consonants
·
Finals (Rhymes)
·
Medials
·
Basic tones
·
Tone changes (optional: you get additional points if you explore this one)
·
Lexical or syntactic differences
To be able to do this section, you need to find resources online or from the library that reliably analyzed a dialect and systematically introduces this dialect or a dialect closely related to it. At the end of this linguistic description, summarize the speech features of speakers of this dialect when s/he uses Standard Chinese. What features do you expect a speaker of this dialect may carry into Standard Chinese? Are the differences going to be drastic enough to be detectable?
3.
Method:
In this section, you introduce the linguistic and social background of your interviewee(s).
1.
Informant Background:
Personal profile (gender, age, relevant linguistic and educational history, family background) [Have your interviewee fill out a linguistic background form provided by Prof. Lin]
2.
Setting (time and location of the interview, how was it documented?)
4.
Findings: Sociolinguistic aspect of the dialect according to the interview
You will present the interview results in an organized way. You should discuss the following issues related to the dialect:
·
What is the status of the particular dialect in relation to Mandarin? Discuss the issues related to diglossia (high versus low varieties). What are the social functions of the dialects? When do people use them and when do they not use them but opt for other languages and dialects? Compare the different uses of different dialects or speech variants.
·
Ask your interviewee his or her experiences with “accents”. How do people sound if they have accents? Do people using the dialects carry a special accent speaking Mandarin? How are people with accents perceived? Are there social stigma, attitudes, and identity issues associated with the dialect? How are people speaking this dialect usually perceived? Why do you think there are these social meanings that go with the accented speech?
·
How has this dialect changed in recent years, which may be associated with the above social political properties?
5.
Online.
Project 1 (1-2 pages)What are the employee workplace rights mand.docxdessiechisomjj4
Project 1 (1-2 pages)
What are the employee workplace rights mandated by U.S. Federal law?
Briefly discuss at least two controversial issues concerning workplace rights (other than monitoring e-mail). Provide real-life examples to illustrate your answer.
In addition, discuss the issue of workplace privacy. Specifically, do employees have the right to expect privacy in their e-mail conversations, or do companies have a right and/or responsibility to monitor e-mail?
Project 2 (1-2 pages)
Draft a performance action plan for a company to follow when providing discipline in response to complaints of sexual harassment. Use the Library or other Web resources if needed.
Please submit your assignment.
.
PROGRAM 1 Favorite Show!Write an HLA Assembly program that displa.docxdessiechisomjj4
PROGRAM 1: Favorite Show!
Write an HLA Assembly program that displays your favorite television show on screen in large letters. There should be no input, only output. For example, I really like The X-Files, so my output would look like this:
All this output should be generated by just five
stdout.put
statements.
.
Program must have these things Format currency, total pieces & e.docxdessiechisomjj4
Program must have these things
Format currency, total pieces & exit or ok button to go back; comments; tooltips;
Piecework C
Modify Piecework B to a multi-form project, adding a Splash form and a Summary form. Be sure to
retain your Piecework B program as you will need it later. Add a slogan and logo that the user can
display or hide independently, based on toggling and
displaying a checkmark in the menu choices; program
should start with slogan and logo being displayed and the
menu items checked. Add program version number, a
graphic, and an OK button to About box; About box should
display as modal. Splash should display project name,
programmer name, and a graphic. Change the Summary
data from a message box to its own form (also modal).
.
Professors Comments1) Only the three body paragraphs were require.docxdessiechisomjj4
Professors Comments:
1) Only the three body paragraphs were required. The introduction and the conclusion were not to be included in the Unit 6 paper. They should be saved for the Unit 8 paper when the thesis will be moved to the end of the introduction.
2) You paper is already over the length limit, so nothing else can be added. Some parts could be deleted, for example: "
Samimi and Jenatabadi (2014), point out that" and "
In another article, Sandbrook and Güven (2014) asserted that
." Those phrases add nothing to the paper and are distracting. You would have to explain who they are, so eliminate that phrase and others like it.
3) Keep in mind that your paper is not a literature review. It is an essay in which you are to explain your topic clearly and concisely. Also keep in mind that your topic is one that is difficult to understand and you are not writing for economists or for those with Ph.D.'s. Write in a manner that your average reader can comprehend. Explain concepts clearly in non-jargon type language. Clarity is your goal.
4) The Federal Reserve Bank information at the end of the introduction is not cited.
5) Bullet points should not be used in this paper. Everything should be integrated into the paragraphs using transitions.
6) Subtitles should not be used. This is a short paper, 2 - 2 1/2 pages double spaced, and they are not needed.
7) What does this mean: "
Globalization makes it possible for huge organizations to comprehend economies of scale
"?
8) Do not use the word "we."
9) Since you are discussing globalization, you must explain which country you are discussing. For example, when you say "federal policy," do you mean the United States?
My draft of paper:
Thesis statement:
Globalization has influenced practically every facet regarding today’s lifestyles.
Globalization
Globalization
refers to the action or process of global incorporation as a result of the interchange associated with world perspectives, goods, concepts, as well as other facets of tradition.
Improvements in transportation (like the steam train engine, steamship, aircraft engine, as well as container ships) in addition to telecommunications infrastructure (such as the development of the telegraph along with its contemporary progeny, the world wide web as well as cellular phones) happen to be significant aspects of globalization. Therefore, it creates new interdependence associated with monetary as well as social functions.
Samimi and Jenatabadi (2014), point out that a
lthough a lot of scholars place the beginnings connected with globalization within contemporary days. Some trace its heritage a long time before the Western Age regarding Discovery as well as voyages towards the New World, others even to the 3rd centuries BC
(Samimi, & Jenatabadi, 2014)
.
Large-scale globalization started out in the 1820s. Back in the Nineteenth millennium as well as in the
early
Twentieth century, the connection of the globe's financial system.
Program EssayPlease answer essay prompt in a separate 1-page file..docxdessiechisomjj4
Program Essay
Please answer essay prompt in a separate 1-page file. Responses should be double-spaced, 11 point font or greater with 1-inch margins.
Based on what you’ve learned about the NYU communicative sciences and disorders master’s program through your application process, please name two faculty members whose research or fieldwork you are most interested in and why.
Ist
• Voice and Voice Disorders
• Neurogenic Communicative Disorders
• Dysphagia
Professor Celia Stewart is a tenured Associate Professor in the Department of Communicative Sciences and Disorders at NYU: Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development. She provides classes in Voice Disorders, Interdisciplinary Habilitation of the Speaking Voice, Multicultural and Professional Issues, and Motor Speech Disorders. She maintains a small private practice that specializes in care of the professional voice, transgender voice modification, neurogenic voice disorders, and dysphagia. She has published in the areas of spasmodic dysphonia, transgender voice, dysphagia, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease.
2nd
• Perception of linguistic and talker information in speech
• Relationship between talker processing, working memory, and linguistic processing
• Development of talker processing in children with both typical and impaired language development.
Susannah Levi is an Associate Professor in the Department of Communicative Sciences and Disorders. She examines how information about a speaker affects language processing. Her past research has looked at whether people sound the same when speaking different languages and whether being familiar with a speaker’s voice in one language, helps a listener understand that speaker in a different language. Her current work expands on this to examine whether children, like adults, also show a processing benefit when listening to familiar talkers. She is also exploring whether language processing can be improved for children with language disorders using speaker familiarity.
Dr. Levi received her doctorate from the Department of Linguistics at the University of Washington, completed a postdoctoral research position in the Department of Brain and Psychological Sciences at Indiana University. Prior to coming to NYU, she taught at the University of Michigan. She is currently the Director of the Undergraduate Program in the Department of Communicative Sciences and Disorders.
.
Program Computing Project 4 builds upon CP3 to develop a program to .docxdessiechisomjj4
Program Computing Project 4 builds upon CP3 to develop a program to perform truss analysis. A truss consists of straight, slender bars pinned together at their end points. Truss members are considered to be two force, axial members. Thus, the force caused by each truss member - and the internal force in each member - acts only along it’s axis. In other words, the direction of each member force is known and only the magnitudes must be determined. To analyze a truss we study the forces acting at each individual pin joint. This is known as the Method of Joints. We will call each pin joint a node and the slender bars connecting the nodes will be called members. The previous project computed a unit vector to describe the vector direction of every member of a truss structure. To analyze the structure a few other key inputs must be included like the support reactions and external loads applied to the structure. With all of this information, you will need to make the correct changes to the provided planar (2-D) truss template program to be able to analyze a space (3-D) truss. What you need to do For a planar truss, every node has 2 degrees of freedom, the e1 and e2 directions. Therefore, for every planar truss problem, the total number of degrees of freedom (DOF) in the structure is equal to 2 times the number of nodes. We will consider the first degree of freedom for each node as the component acting in the e1 direction. So for any given node, i, the corresponding degree of freedom is (2·i)-1. For the same node, i, the corresponding value for the second degree of freedom, the component in the e2 direction, is 2-i. This numbering notation can be modified for a space truss. The difference with the space truss is that every node has 3 degrees of freedom, one degree for each of the e1, e2 and e3 directions. The degree of freedom indices are extremely crucial in understanding how to set up the matrices for the truss analysis. For this computing project, you will first need to understand the planar truss program and the inputs that are needed for that program. The first input is the spatial coordinates (x, y, z) of the nodal locations for a truss. It is convenient to label each node with a unique number (also known as the “node number”). Each row of the nodal coordinate array should contain the x and y coordinates of the node. We will use the matrix name of “x” for all nodal coordinates. Please note that “nNode” is an integer value that corresponds to the number of nodes in the truss and must be adjusted for every new truss problem. For Node 1 this matrix array input looks like: x(1,:) = [0,0]; Once the coordinates of the nodes are in the program, you will need to input how those nodes are connected by the members of the truss. In order to describe how the members connect the nodes you will also need to label each member with a “member number”. This connectivity array should contain only the nodes that are joined by a member, with each row containing firs.
Project 1 Resource Research and ReviewNo directly quoted material.docxdessiechisomjj4
Project 1: Resource Research and Review
No directly quoted material may be used in this project paper. Resources should be summarized or paraphrased with appropriate in-text and Resource page citations.
Project 1 is designed to help prepare you for the final project at the end of the semester. You will notice that, for your final project in this course, you will be asked to trace a crime or criminal incident through the adult criminal justice system, from initial arrest to the eventual return to the community following incarceration. As you work on the final project, you will encounter numerous decision points or stages in the system. Project 1 will assist you in preparing for your final project by introducing you to topic research. You may then use the results of this project to support your final project paper.
Project 1 Assignment:
Using the designated topic listed below (see, Topics), you will search the UMUC Library Services databases and the Internet for resource material that explains, clarifies, critiques, etc. the topic.
1. Your Resource Research and Review project must contain four (4) outside sources (not instructional material for this course), at least two of which must come from the UMUC Library data base.
2. Locate books, periodicals, and documents that may contain useful information and ideas on your topic. You may conduct your research with the assistance of a UMUC librarian, reviewing your own personal materials on the topic, using the Internet, visiting an actual library, etc. and reviewing the available items. Then, choose those works that provide a variety of perspectives on your topic.
Note: You can connect to Library Services by using the Library link under RESOURCES in the Classroom task bar, or link directly to the UMUC Library Guide to Criminal Justice Resources link in CONTENT
3. Type the reference “citation” information for the book, article, or document using the American Psychological Association (APA) formatting standards. (There are links to APA format standards under Library Services.)
4. Each reference is to be followed by the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited. Creating an annotated bibliography calls for a variety of intellectual skills: concise exposition, succinct analysis, and informed library research.
5. Write a concise annotation (150 words) for each reference that summarizes the central theme and scope of the book, article, or document. This must include:
a) briefly, in your own words, describe the content of the article
b) compares or contrasts the work with at least one other article in your research review
The topic: Issues with evidence (DNA, eyewitness testimonies, direct vs. circumstantial, etc.)
Format
The project paper should begin with an introductory paragraph and end with a concluding paragraph
Each annotation should contain approximately 150 words
Double space, 12 pt. font, 1” margins
Cover pa.
Professionalism Assignment I would like for you to put together yo.docxdessiechisomjj4
Professionalism Assignment
I would like for you to put together your current resume or update one that you have previously created. Refer to the attached curriculum vitae as an example to assist with the completion of this assignment. A curriculum vitae, or CV, is typically a longer version of a resume which includes conference and journal publications, research, and awards. CVs are usually 2-3 pages, compared to a resume which should usually be limited to a single page. Since most of you will not have publication or conference presentations at this point in your academic career, please leave that section out and submit a more traditional single page resume.
Education
M.S. Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2012
University of Louisville, Louisville, KY
B.S. Electrical Engineering, 2008
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
Experience
Engineering Technician, 2014-Current
Engineering, Manufacturing, and Commercialization Center
Applied Physics Institute
Western Kentucky University
Instructor, 2014 - Current
Electrical Engineering Program
Department of Engineering
Western Kentucky University
Grosscurth PhD Fellow, 2012-2014
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
J.B. Speed School of Engineering
University of Louisville
Graduate Research Assistant, 2011-2012
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
J.B. Speed School of Engineering
University of Louisville
Electrical Engineer, 2009-2012
Applied Physics Institute
Western Kentucky University
Research Associate, 2008-2009
Applied Physics Institute
Western Kentucky University
Research Assistant, 2005-2008
Applied Physics Institute
Western Kentucky University
Publications
Craig Dickson, Stuart Foster,
Kyle Moss
, Anoop Paidipally, Jonathan Quiton, William Ray, and Phillip Womble,
Stochastic Modeling for Automatic Response Technology with Applications to Climate and Energy,
at the 8
th
Kentucky Entrepreneurship and Innovation Conference, Louisville, KY, June 2012
Jeffrey L. Hieb, James H. Graham, Nathan Armentrout, and
Kyle Moss
,
Security Pre-Processor for Industrial Control Systems,
at the 8
th
Kentucky Entrepreneurship and Innovation Conference, Louisville, KY, June 2012
Jeffery Hieb, James Graham, Jacob Schreiver,
Kyle Moss,
Security Preprocessor for Industrial Control Networks,
at the 7
th
International Conference on Information-Warfare and Security, Seattle, Washington, March 2012
Kyle Moss,
Phillip Womble, Alexander Barzilov, Jon Paschal, Jeremy Board,
Wireless Orthogonal Sensor Networks for Homeland Security
at 2007 IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security, Woburn, MA, May 2007
Barzilov, P. Womble, I. Novikov, J. Paschal, Jeremy Board, and
Kyle Moss
,
Network of Wireless Gamma Ray Sensors for Radiological Detection and Identification
at the SPIE Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, FL, April 2007
Alexander Barzilov, Jeremy Board, .
Professor Drebins Executive MBA students were recently discussing t.docxdessiechisomjj4
Professor Drebin's Executive MBA students were recently discussing the benefits of a chart of accounts. Following is a transcript of the discussion. Most of the comments were correct, but two students were off base. Assume the role of Professor Drebin, and identify the two students whose statements are incorrect. Record your answer in Blackboard.
.
Professional Legal Issues with Medical and Nursing Professionals .docxdessiechisomjj4
"Professional Legal Issues with Medical and Nursing Professionals" Please respond to the following:
* From the scenario, analyze the different and overlapping general roles of physicians and nurses as they apply to professional credentialing and subsequent patient safety and satisfaction. Determine the major ways in which these overlapping roles may help play a part in health professional credentialing processes and conduct, and identify and analyze the ethical role these influences play in health care.
Analyze the major professional roles played by physicians and nurses as they apply to physicians’ conduct in the medical arena and to nurses in the role of adjuncts to physicians. Evaluate the degree and quality of care that physicians, nurses, and medical technologists provide in their primary roles, including, but not limited to, patient safety and satisfaction as required in 21st Century U.S. hospitals.
.
Prof Washington, ScenarioHere is another assignment I need help wi.docxdessiechisomjj4
Prof Washington, Scenario
Here is another assignment I need help with. I know the scenario is the same as before but now we need to come up with the project management plan. The Scenario is
You have been asked to be the project manager for the development of an information technology (IT) project. The system to be developed will allow a large company to coordinate and maintain records of the professional development of its employees. The company has over 30,000 employees who are located in four sites: Florida, Colorado, Illinois, and Texas. The system needs to allow employees to locate and schedule professional development activities that are relevant to their positions. Sophisticated search capabilities are required, and the ability to add scheduled events to the employees’ calendars is desired. The system needs to support social networking to allow employees to determine who is attending conferences and events. This will promote fostering relationships and ensure coverage of conferences that are considered of high importance.
Once an activity has been completed, employees will use the system to submit the documentation. The system should support notifications to management personnel whenever their direct reports have submitted documentation. The system should also notify employees if their deadline to complete professional development requirements is approaching and is not yet satisfied.
Project Scope Management Plan
For the given scenario, create a project scope management plan that will detail how the project scope will be defined, managed, and controlled to prevent scope creep. The plan may also include how the scope will be communicated to all stakeholders.
Project Scope
After you have the project scope management plan developed, define the project scope.
.
Prof James Kelvin onlyIts just this one and simple question 1.docxdessiechisomjj4
Prof James Kelvin only
It's just this one and simple question
1. This week we begin focusing on PowerPoint. When you create a PowerPoint presentation, there are many elements included such as: theme, transitions, images, font, color, content layout, etc. List and explain four guidelines you learned about how to create a successful PowerPoint presentation. Additionally, describe some common mistakes that are made when PowerPoint presentations are created.
.
Product life cycle for album and single . sales vs time ( 2 pa.docxdessiechisomjj4
Product life cycle for album and single .
sales vs time ( 2 pages not less with chart for each album and singles
Album
introduction,
growth
, maturity
, decline .
Singles
introduction,
growth
, maturity
, decline
.
Produce the following components as the final draft of your health p.docxdessiechisomjj4
Produce the following components as the final draft of your health promotion program written proposal;
1. Introduction to the Program project.
2. Epidemiological and Needs Assessments Summary
3. Risk Factors, Goals, Objectives and Educational Plans
4. Marketing Plans and Proposed Budget
5. Evaluation Plans
6. Leadership Needs and Collaborative Strategies
.
Produce a preparedness proposal the will recommend specific steps th.docxdessiechisomjj4
Produce a preparedness proposal the will recommend specific steps that could potentially reduce (mitigate) the loss of life and property resulting from you climate impact or natural hazard. The proposal should target a specific person, agency, municipality or organization responsible for emergency mitigation efforts. Seven sections should be labelled as indicated in bold and address the following:
Specifically Identify and state who is the intended audience for your proposal (Target audience)
Identify and describe the climate impact or natural hazard (Hazard)
Identify and explain the risk associated with your specific geographic location (Location)
Describe the atmospheric and geologic conditions or processes that give rise to the impact or hazard (Earth processes)
Describe ways in which human and environmental processes contribute to the impact or hazard (Human processes)
Discuss past impact/hazard events and mitigation or communication policies and their effectiveness (Past events/policies)
Recommend ethically and socially responsible ways to improve current mitigation and communication policies (Proposal)
Make sure and answer according to the bolded labels (Target audience, Hazard, etc.) Responses should be brief, except for your Proposal recommendation. If you have completed the Milestones as directed the majority of this information should already exist!
1. The preparedness proposal should focus on COMMUNICATING the science information to the target audience
2. The proposal MUST include at least two data sources supporting your recommendations and be represented in a graphical format
3. The proposal must be double spaced, size 12 font
4. The proposal must list references/citations where appropriate
1.5-2page.
China Gansu
mudslides. Read mileston I write fist. here will have the information you need use in that paper.
.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Stability of Language in ChildhoodA Multiage, Multidomain, .docx
1. Stability of Language in Childhood:
A Multiage, Multidomain, Multimeasure, and Multisource Study
Marc H. Bornstein and Diane L. Putnick
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland
The stability of language across childhood is traditionally
assessed by exploring longitudinal relations
between individual language measures. However, language
encompasses many domains and varies with
different sources (child speech, parental report, experimenter
assessment). This study evaluated individ-
ual variation in multiple age-appropriate measures of child
language derived from multiple sources and
stability between their latent variables in 192 young children
across more than 2 years. Structural
equation modeling demonstrated the loading of multiple
measures of child language from different
sources on single latent variables of language at ages 20 months
and 48 months. A large stability
coefficient (r � .84) obtained between the 2 language latent
variables. This stability obtained even when
accounting for family socioeconomic status, maternal verbal
intelligence, education, speech, tendency to
respond in a socially desirable fashion, and child social
competence. Stability was also equivalent for
children in diverse childcare situations and for girls and boys.
Across age, from the beginning of language
acquisition to just before school entry, aggregating multiple
age-appropriate methods and measures at
each age and multiple reporters, children show a strong stability
2. of individual differences in general
language development.
Keywords: language development, stability, preschool
Language Development by Individual and Group:
Two Developmental Psychologies
Development is in many ways synonymous with growth and
change. In the realm of language development, growth and
change
are especially salient. As the toddler emerges out of the infant
and
the child out of the toddler, one of the most prominent and
readily
observable developmental characteristics is growth and change
in
the child’s language. But the coin in this realm, as in other
realms
of development, has two sides. The complements of growth and
change in development are continuity and stability. Although
development may be commonly identified with change, some
features of human development are theorized to remain (more or
less) consistent over time. Furthermore, transformation versus
constancy in developmental science is crossed with two
similarly
related and complementary temporal concerns: group average
per-
formance across time and individual variation around that
average
(Cairns, 1979; Hartmann, Pelzel, & Abbott, 2011; Wohlwill,
1973). In developmental study, group-mean-level consistency or
inconsistency (continuity/discontinuity) is often contrasted with
individual-order consistency or inconsistency (stability/instabil-
ity). This article is centrally concerned with stability through
3. time
in the important developmental domain of child language.
Individual Variation
Within any group at every age, human beings tend to vary
dramatically among themselves on any given psychological
char-
acteristic (construct, structure, function, or process). It is com-
monly understood that variation among individuals in diverse
characteristics appears in normal (Gaussian) distributions in the
population. So, to continue our example, at virtually every age,
children vary in terms of individual differences in their
language
(e.g., Bornstein & Haynes, 1998; Feldman et al., 2000; Fenson
et
al., 2000, 1994, 1993, Thal & Bates, 1990). Bornstein, Cote, et
al.
(2004) reported that 20-month-olds around the world have a
range
in their reported productive vocabulary from as few as one
spoken
word to as many as 487 spoken words (see also Feldman et al.,
2000). Similarly, Le Normand, Parisse, and Cohen (2008)
reported
standard deviations near 200 words (suggesting a normal range,
�2 SD, of 0 to over 1,000 words) for children at 48 months. The
first question addressed in this article concerned variation
associ-
ated with domains, measures, and sources of child language.
Developmental Stability and Its Moderators
Developmental science is centrally concerned with a critical
issue about this individual variation: its stability (Bornstein &
Bornstein, 2008). Stability describes consistency in the relative
4. standing or ranks of individuals in a group on some
characteristic
through time. Stability in language obtains when some children
This article was published Online First October 17, 2011.
Marc H. Bornstein and Diane L. Putnick, Child and Family
Research,
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and
Human
Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda,
Maryland.
This research was supported by the Intramural Research
Program of the
National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child Health
and Human
Development. We thank D. Breakstone, O. M. Haynes, and J.
Jager.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Marc H.
Bornstein, Child and Family Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver
National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National
Institutes of
Health, Rockledge 1, Suite 8030, 6705 Rockledge Drive, MSC
7971,
Bethesda, MD 20892-7971. E-mail: [email protected]
Developmental Psychology In the public domain
2012, Vol. 48, No. 2, 477– 491 DOI: 10.1037/a0025889
477
5. display a relatively high level of language at one point in time
vis-à-vis their peers and continue to display a high level at a
later
point in time, where other children display consistently low
levels
at both times. Instability in language obtains when individual
children in a group do not maintain their relative order through
time. Longitudinal developmental designs are requisite to
address-
ing questions about stability.
The study of individual stability is important for several
reasons.
One is that findings of stability tell us about the overall
develop-
mental course of a given characteristic. Whether individuals
main-
tain their order on some characteristic through time not only
informs about individual variation but also contributes to under-
standing more about the origins, nature, and future of the
charac-
teristic as well (Appelbaum & McCall, 1983; McCall, 1981).
Past
performance is often the best predictor of future performance
(Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Bundy, 2001). Two additional
reasons
that understanding stability is important are that child
characteris-
tics— especially stable ones—signal developmental status to
oth-
ers, and they affect the child’s environment (Lerner & Busch-
Rossnagel, 1981). For example, children’s vocalizations and
words
used during social interactions have been employed to quantify
how children socialize with others (Eckerman, Davis, & Didow,
1989; Guralnick, 1980; Howes & Matheson, 1992).
6. Furthermore,
interactants often adjust to match another’s consistent
characteris-
tics, so adults modify their language to harmonize with the lan-
guage of children. For example, mothers fine tune the semantic
and syntactic contents of their utterances in concert with their
children’s level of language understanding (Bellinger, 1980;
Clarke-Stewart, Vanderstoep, & Killian, 1979; Cross, 1977,
1978).
The mean length of mothers’ utterances tends to match the mean
length of those of their young children (McLaughlin, White,
McDevitt, & Raskin, 1983). Last, some degree of stability is
prerequisite to establishing that a measure constitutes a suitable
individual-differences metric. To be meaningful, a
characteristic
normally needs to show some consistency across time
(Hartmann
et al., 2011). In a nutshell, developmentalists are broadly
interested
not only in how characteristics manifest themselves but also in
their group and individual developmental course—their
continuity
and stability through time.
Although stability is unequivocally central in developmental
science, it has many instantiations and interpretations
(Bornstein &
Bornstein, 2008; Hartmann et al., 2011; Wohlwill, 1973).
Notably,
stability itself varies, and variation in stability generically and,
here, of language specifically, reflects many factors. Two
concern
content, three concern procedure, and two concern time.
Estimates
of language stability vary with all these factors: the domain and
measure of child language; the method, source, and context; the
7. age of the child; and the temporal interval between assessments.
In
this article, we revisit the issue of stability in language develop-
ment across early childhood and, faithful to these three
consider-
ations, we do so out of a multiage, multidomain, multimeasure,
and multisource framework. Here, we briefly (not exhaustively)
review and illustrate the extant literature in language stability
pertinent to these three considerations in the approximate age
range we studied, and we describe how the present effort
attempts
to advance our understanding of stability in early child language
development.
With respect to content, child language comprises many do-
mains (phonology, lexicon, grammar, pragmatics, and so forth),
and individual measures (expressive or receptive vocabulary,
num-
ber of different word roots [DWRs], or mean length of utterance
[MLU] from child speech) typically target only one.
Empirically,
then, stability studies usually examine consistency of single
mea-
sures of a single domain of language. However, some contents
and
procedures yield more stable estimates than others, and
generally,
the less information that is available, the lower the stability
esti-
mate (Hartmann et al., 2011).
With respect to procedural considerations, method, source, and
context all moderate stability. Moreover, method is crossed with
source in most designs. The three principal options to study
child
8. language include assessing children directly by recording what
children say, seeking out those people closest to children (like
their
parents) to report about them, and interviewing or testing
children
directly through experimentation. Each source proffers valid in-
sights on a child’s language, but each also offers a unique per-
spective with its own limitations and its own implications that
can
be expected to yield different stability estimates. Brief
discussion
of each illustrates why.
Observation of what children themselves naturally and sponta-
neously say has the undeniable appeal of ecological validity and
is
direct and objective. However, records of free speech can
under-
estimate a child’s language, and numerous decisions about
record-
ing and analysis (when to observe, how frequently, where, under
what conditions, and with whom) necessarily frame the
resulting
picture of child language (Bornstein, Painter, & Park, 2002).
Aside
from a few notable exceptions (Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, &
Theakston, 2007, who used a “dense” database), researchers
usu-
ally sample only a small fraction of the child’s everyday life, so
stabilities based on naturalistic sampling may be constrained.
(Stability relies on correlation, which can be attenuated by
restric-
tion of range.) Other limitations of observation are that it
cannot
access much about children’s comprehension and that a lack of
production masks comprehension skill.
9. An alternative approach to child language employs reporters,
and much of the classic information about child language devel-
opment since Darwin (1877) has derived from parental reports
(e.g., Dromi, 1987; Leopold, 1949; Weir, 1962). Diaries, inter-
views, and questionnaires (or checklists) can provide sources of
data not readily available to observation or testing. Parental
reports
offer comprehensive information about children because they
come from observers who know the child best and who are with
the child all the time (e.g., Thomas, Chess, Birch, Hertzog, &
Korn, 1963). They have provided revealing information for
rapid
overall evaluation (Dale, Bates, Reznick, & Morisset, 1989)
when
contextual information is informative or required (Gopnik &
Melt-
zoff, 1986) and in cases of rare occurrence (Bowerman, 1985).
Language checklists are efficient and economical and can be
based
on extensive sampling across a wide range of situations and
times
(E. Bates, Bretherton, & Snyder, 1988; Thal & Bates, 1990).
All that said, reports tend to be unsystematic and are often
retrospective; they may include subjective components
reflective
of extraneous reporter characteristics (e.g., employment status,
achievement orientation, personality, parity, and so forth), and
they place multiple demands on untrained parents to detect, ob-
serve, and interpret various aspects of communication; parents
qua
reporters may underestimate children, or they may be
overgener-
ous (J. E. Bates & Bayles, 1984). Who is reporting makes a
difference as well. Children spend time with many adults,
10. includ-
478 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
ing mothers, fathers, and childcare providers (Clarke-Stewart &
Allhusen, 2002; Parke, 2002), and the situations and activities
in
which children spend time with these different people vary. Dif-
ferent conversants and different situations and activities can be
expected to give rise to the use of different language forms. As
a
consequence, any one adult familiar with a particular child may
know that child’s communicative abilities, but only on the basis
of
his or her own unique contacts with the child, and asked to
report
about that child’s communicative ability, different reporters
will
not necessarily agree (De Houwer, Bornstein, & Leach, 2004).
Each of these factors can modify estimations of the child
(Achen-
bach, McConaughy, & Howell, 1987; J. E. Bates & Bales, 1984;
Bornstein, Gaughran, & Homel, 1986; Kazdin, 1988; Verhulst &
Koot, 1992). Moreover, commonly used fixed-item checklists
are
representative indexes of children, not exhaustive diaries of
their
knowledge, and do not give a complete picture of each child’s
language (E. Bates et al., 1994).
Standardized tests, the last method typically used to assess child
language, include related items or tasks, and children receive
scores based on the number they complete successfully (relative
to
11. other children the same age). In testing, the context is normally
controlled, and assessing children in such a structured way is
seemingly equal and fair. However, child performance may be
affected, in part at least, by the testing method as well as by
noncognitive factors, such as personality, motivation, adaptive
functioning, and self-efficacy (Sternberg et al., 2001; Zigler,
Abel-
son, & Seitz, 1973). Young children sometimes prove to be poor
participants in formal assessments, often reluctant to interact
with
strangers or unwilling to cooperate during testing. There are
man-
ifold difficulties inherent in administering formal tests to
infants
and toddlers. Structured tests have also been criticized as
providing
only a limited picture of the richness and complexity of the
child’s
language. Also, testing might show that some capacity or
perfor-
mance is possible, but it does not show whether the capacity or
performance is typical. For these reasons, questions inevitably
arise about the generalizability of standardized test results in
terms
of what they reveal about the child’s language as it occurs and
is
used in everyday communication (Leonard, Prutting, Perozzi, &
Berkeley, 1978; Owens, 1995).
Beside the method and source of information, another proce-
dural characteristic can be expected to moderate stability:
whether
assessments are made across consistent or inconsistent contexts
(the former enhances stability and the latter attenuates
stability).
For example, free play with parents might elicit one set of
12. verbal
skills from children, whereas structured interactions, such as at
a
meal or while learning, might elicit quite a different set
(Bornstein,
Tamis-LeMonda, & Haynes, 1999).
Finally, with respect to temporal parameters, a characteristic
may not be stable at one age in the life course but may stabilize
at
a later age. Generally, infancy and early childhood are thought
to
be less stable or predictive periods in life (Bayley, 1949), and
people are thought to become increasingly consistent in relation
to
one another as they age (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000;
Sternberg
et al., 2001). Furthermore, the shorter the interassessment
interval,
normally, the greater the stability estimate of a characteristic
(the
Guttman, 1954, simplex).
In summary, different assessment contents, procedures, and
times used in measuring child language can contribute to
different
stability estimates; however, if applied conjointly as we do
here,
these different parameters might also complement one another
to
bring into focus a more coherent picture of the child. Because
no
one approach to developmental assessment is superior to all
others
under all situations, in this study of language stability in young
13. children, we investigated the shared contribution of diverse ap-
proaches.
A Latent Variable of Child Language
The second question addressed in this article concerned whether
these different paths to child language converge on a consistent
picture. This study combined several domains, measures, and
sources to extract latent variables of child language at each of
two
ages. The main advantage of using a latent variable to measure
the
stability of language is that the latent variable captures shared
variance among its indicators. Thus, any variance uniquely
asso-
ciated with, for example, rater bias, systematic measurement
error,
or random error for a particular indicator is relegated to its
error
term. The resulting latent variable is a purer measure of the
construct that incorporates the perspectives of multiple raters
and
domains of child language, so stability of that construct can be
assessed more precisely (Kline, 1998).
The data available to date on concurrent relations between
different approaches to language measurement are fragmentary
but
suggestive. As the number of possible permutations across
studies
in this field is large, any summary sketch can only convey a
sense
of the extant literature. Nonetheless, concurrent convergence
among measures on the same children tends to be high: Parent
reports correlate with spontaneous child speech (Bornstein &
Haynes, 1998; Corkum & Dunham, 1996; Dale et al., 1989;
14. Miller,
Sedey, & Miolo, 1995), parent checklists and reports correlate
with
laboratory measures and experimenter assessments (E. Bates &
Carnevale, 1993; Bornstein & Haynes, 1998; Chaffee, Cunning-
ham, Secord-Gilbert, Elbard, & Richards, 1990; Dale, 1991;
Fen-
son et al., 1994; Miller et al., 1995; O’Hanlon & Thal, 1991;
Saudino et al., 1998), parent diaries correlate with checklists
(Reznick & Goldfield, 1994), and observed child speech
correlates
with experimenter assessments (Bornstein & Haynes, 1998). To
address the second question posed in this study we determined
whether and how well several different measures from different
sources converge on a single latent variable of general child
language at each of two ages.
Stability of Child Language, Third Variables,
and Gender
In this study, the same children were first seen at 20 months and
again at 48 months of age. The third question concerned
stability
between language latent variables at these two ages. Because of
the
plethora of methodological permutations, the extant body of
work
on the stability of language does not submit to easy summary
either, but a series of examples published over the last quarter
century serves to convey a sense of this literature. All of the
following studies (arrayed chronologically) fall in the
approximate
age range of the present investigation and reported significant
(if
varying levels of) temporal stability of individual differences
for a
15. diversity of language measures: Sparrow, Balla, and Cicchetti
(1984) for the Communication Domain of the Vineland
Adaptive
Behavior Scales (VABS) between 3 years and 4 years, 11
months;
479STABILITY OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDHOOD
Olszewski (1987) for verbal fantasy play in 3-year-old to 5-
year-
old children; E. Bates et al. (1988) for referential style between
13
months and at 50 words; Reznick (1990) for vocabulary compre-
hension to vocabulary production between 14 and 20 months;
Blake, Quartaro, and Onorati (1993) for MLU between 18
months
and 57 months; Beals and De-Temple (1993) for language level
to
oral production and comprehension between 3 and 5 years; Mar-
tlew and Sorsby (1995) for letter naming to level of emergent
writing and familiarity with the alphabetic system between 4
and
5 years; Pine, Lieven, and Rowland (1996) for observational
and
checklist measures of vocabulary between 1 years and 2 years;
Gavin and Giles (1996) for MLU in children 31 months to 46
months; Burgess (1997) for phonological awareness skills
between
3 years and 5 years; Bornstein et al. (1999) for vocabulary pro-
duction across 2 contexts between 13 months and 20 months;
Feldman et al. (2000) for phrases understood, vocabulary
compre-
hension, vocabulary production, and total gestures to
vocabulary
16. production, irregular word forms, overregularized words, length
of
the three longest sentences, and sentence complexity from 12
months to 24 months; Dickinson and Tabors (2001) for oral
language and literacy between 3 years and 14 years; Storch and
Whitehurst (2002) for oral and code-related skills to literacy be-
tween 4 years and 10 years; Winsler, René de León, Wallace,
Carlton, and Willson-Quayle (2003) for the private speech of
3-year-olds and 4-year-olds over a 6-month interval; and Born-
stein, Hahn, and Haynes (2004) for age-appropriate maternal
ques-
tionnaires, maternal interviews, teacher reports, experimenter
as-
sessments, and transcripts of children’s spontaneous speech
from 1
year, 1 month, to 6 years, 10 months. In overview, temporal
intercorrelations of individual differences across a variety of
tasks
and intervals for a number of different language variables and
metrics show significant, but variable, stability.
These studies purport to report stability of specific language
measures, but as a collection, they suffer certain noteworthy
short-
falls. Some draw from the same reporter (other than the child),
so
shared source variance may inflate stability correlations. Many
reuse the same measures and so provide only a narrow view of
language at the same time as they capitalize on practice effects
and
shared method variance. Most do not take other endogenous or
exogenous factors into consideration to assign stability to the
child
more unambiguously (unmeasured third variables may carry a
bivariate association). Bornstein et al. (1999) attempted to
account
17. for such parameters; they reported stability of both word types
and
MLU in children’s spontaneous speech from 13 months to 20
months, taking into consideration maternal word types and
verbal
responsiveness. Likewise, Aram (2005) reported stability of
liter-
acy measures between 5 1⁄2 and 8 years that held beyond family
measures of socioeconomic status (SES), maternal literacy, and
literacy tools at home. Furthermore, stability study doubtless
suf-
fers the “file drawer” problem, it being unlikely that
nonsignificant
stabilities have appeared in the published literature (Rosenthal,
1979).
Stability of a target characteristic (such as language) is usually
ascribed to consistency of that characteristic in the individual.
However, stability might also be attributable to other stable en-
dogenous (genetic, biological, maturational) characteristics in
the
individual that are related to the target characteristic, or
stability in
the target characteristic might be attributable to a stable
environ-
ment that supports consistency in the target characteristic
(Born-
stein, Putnick, & De Houwer, 2006; Roberts & DelVecchio,
2000).
(Many characteristics like language are sensitive to experience;
Bornstein et al., 1999; Hart & Risley, 1992, 1995.) With respect
to
endogenous characteristics, children’s social competence as
well
as maternal verbal intelligence have been implicated in child
18. language (Colledge et al., 2002; Dionne, Dale, Boivin, &
Plomin,
2003; Hardy-Brown, Plomin, & DeFries, 1981; Irwin, Carter, &
Briggs-Gowan, 2002; McGregor & Capone, 2004; Pinker, 2007;
Winsler et al., 2003). With respect to exogenous factors, on the
one
hand, maternal education and parenting, especially language ad-
dressed to the child, is acknowledged to be relatively stable
(Bel-
sky & Jaffe, 2006; Bornstein, Tamis-LeMonda, Hahn, &
Haynes,
2008; Dallaire & Weinraub, 2005; Holden & Miller, 1999), but
on
the other hand, young children today experience changing
rearing
and language environments, as from one to another daycare set-
tings, in “before and after” (wrap around) childcare, in the num-
bers of children and caregivers, and so forth (National Institute
of
Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care
Research
Network, 2002; Peisner-Feinberg et al., 2001). Only some
children
in the age range of this study were at home full time, and the
language environments that children are exposed to can be
highly
variable in terms of caregivers, other children, and so forth, re-
gardless of child SES.
The fourth question therefore asked whether child language is
stable in itself or whether some third variable covaried with
child
language and accounted for child language stability. To address
this question, we collected and analyzed a number of covariates
and recalculated stability. Covariate analyses took into account
family SES, maternal verbal intelligence, education, speech, and
19. tendency to respond in a socially desirable fashion, as well as
children’s own social competence. Furthermore, we assessed
whether children in stable versus unstable childcare situations
(and
therefore stable vs. unstable language environments) exhibited
similar levels of language stability.
Finally, early language development is thought to differ in girls
and boys (Bauer, Goldfield, & Reznick, 2002; Feldman et al.,
2000; Fenson et al., 1994; Huttenlocher, Haight, Bryk, Seltzer,
Lyons, 1991; Van Hulle, Goldsmith, & Lemery, 2004): Girls
might have a linguistic advantage based on differential develop-
mental timetables, gender-typed interests, and learning
opportuni-
ties (Bornstein, Hahn, et al., 2004). It might be that gender
differ-
ences are also manifest in stability. Therefore, the fifth question
addressed in this article concerned gender and asked whether
stability in child language is equivalent in girls and boys.
The Present Study
This study adds to the extant child language literature by as-
sessing multiple domains using age-appropriate measures and
sources to evaluate stability between latent variables of general
language from the end of infancy to the start of formal
schooling.
Systematic multimethod investigation of stability with a
relatively
large sample is still rare in child language research, and Sroufe
(1979) has described an organizational perspective on develop-
ment that posits that the best way to study developmental
consis-
tency is to examine age-appropriate, different yet conceptually
related behaviors. We assessed the fit of several structural
models
20. to the data: one for the common convergence of multiple
measures
from different sources on single latent variables of child
language
480 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
at 20 months and 48 months and the stability between those
latent
variables and a second for stability of the language latent
variables,
controlling multiple covariates. We also evaluated separate
stabil-
ity fits for children with stable and unstable childcare situations
and for girls and boys.
Method
Participants
All language assessments in the two longitudinal waves were
completed for 192 firstborn children (87 girls and 105 boys).
Children averaged 20.07 months (SD � 0.20) at the first assess-
ment and 48.53 months (SD � 0.93) at the second assessment.
All
but five children were born at term (within 3 weeks of the due
date); the four preterms and one postterm did not emerge as
outliers and so were retained in the analyses. All children were
typically developing healthy monolingual English speakers.
Chil-
dren varied in the number of hours they spent in nonparental
childcare per week (M � 25.20, SD � 21.02, range � 0 –72 at
20
months, and M � 26.52, SD � 19.90, range � 0 –74 at 48
21. months).
This analysis draws on a published longitudinal database (Born-
stein, Hahn, et al., 2004; Bornstein & Haynes, 1998) that used
two
cohorts. Data for the first cohort at 20 months were collected
between 1989 and 1993 and for the second cohort between 1995
and 1999.
Language emerges in the 2nd year of life, so we began this
investigation of language stability at that time. In the 2nd year,
children typically exhibit rapid increases in receptive and
expres-
sive language when they begin to understand and to say sound
sequences that function as true naming; they shift from context-
restricted purely performative uses of words or phrases to
flexible
usage across contexts; general semantic meanings used to
express
possession, location, and action regularize; and word
combinations
appear. In the child’s 4th year, language in all domains has
blossomed, and children are sophisticated in individual
language
and as conversants, having acquired the ability to communicate
verbally about their thoughts, beliefs, and desires; yet, most
chil-
dren this age have still not experienced the homogenizing influ-
ences and intellectual and social rigors of mandatory formal
schooling. As a consequence, the period bracketed by children’s
2nd and 4th birthdays seemed to us to constitute a formative
time
to investigate the nature of stability in child language.
Mothers averaged 31.34 years (SD � 5.93) at the first assess-
ment. Over half (65.8%) of mothers had completed a standard
college or university degree. Most mothers were working at the
22. times of the two visits (64.58% at 20 months and 62.90% at 48
months), and hours of employment averaged 21.70 (SD � 18.74;
range � 0 – 60) at the first visit and 21.64 (SD � 19.38; range
�
0 – 65) at the second visit. Most (94.3%) families were intact,
and
family SES ranged from 20.50 to 66.00 (M � 51.79, SD �
12.01)
on the Hollingshead (1975) four-factor index of social status.
On
average, families were middle to upper middle class, but the
sample included families from nearly the full range of SES.
Fam-
ilies of girls and boys did not differ on any of the sociodemo-
graphic variables. We recruited English-speaking, European
American families in the United States because research in child
language with English-speaking European Americans provides a
familiar reference point; they are also currently the majority
cul-
tural group in the United States (Tilton-Weaver & Kakihara,
2008;
U.S. Census Bureau, 2001, Population Division). Our
community
sample was socioeconomically heterogeneous in terms of
maternal
education and family SES but ethnically homogenous as a first
step in understanding child language and its stability before em-
barking on more complex studies and analyses with diverse
sam-
ples. By including only European American children, we inten-
tionally avoided ethnicity variation and an ethnicity–SES
confound that might cloud any findings.
Procedures
23. At both 20 and 48 months, multiple measures of child language
were obtained. We chose the following measures to represent
one-to-two indicators of child language per source (child
observa-
tion, maternal report, experimenter assessment) as well as
diverse
age-appropriate domains of language (utterance length, vocabu-
lary, receptive communication, sentence structure, adaptive
com-
munication, word associations, and written communication).
Twenty months: Child observation. Children’s language
was derived from transcripts of their spontaneous speech in a
free-play interaction with their mothers at home. The first 10
min
available from video records after the start of free play were
transcribed verbatim by professional transcribers naı̈ ve to all
fac-
tors in the study. Each transcript was then checked against the
record for accuracy by another researcher. Utterances that were
unintelligible to transcribers or whose content transcribers
could
not agree on were marked as unintelligible. Transcripts were
then
coded to permit their analysis using computerized language
anal-
ysis (CLAN), following the conventions of the codes for the
human analysis of transcripts (CHAT; MacWhinney, 2000). Free
and bound morphemes were parsed to allow calculation of MLU
in
morphemes. Following CHAT rules, an utterance was defined as
a
unit of speech representing a complete thought as indicated by
intonation and/or pauses. Multiple utterances per turn are
possible
in a conversation. Two measures of each child’s language were
24. calculated. For MLU, the complexity of speech was assessed
based
on a count of morphemes in each complete and intelligible
utter-
ance, averaged across all utterances for a child. For DWRs, a
count
of the number of different lexical items (ignoring inflections)
was
divided by the total number of min in the session. The mean
number of morphemes in young children’s utterances has proven
to be a reliable index of their grasp of language (Bornstein &
Haynes, 1998), and MLU is a reliable indicator of verbal com-
plexity as well as grammatical development in child speech.
Blake
et al. (1993) reported that child MLU showed high convergent
validity with measures of syntax (.88) and grammar clauses
(.82),
and Pan, Rowe, Spier, and Tamis-LeMonda (2004) reported that
DWR (types) had high convergent validity with other
vocabulary
measures.
Twenty months: Maternal report. The VABS—Interview
Edition, Survey Form (VABS; Sparrow et al., 1984) were used
to
obtain mothers’ estimates of their children’s receptive and
expres-
sive communication skills. This semistructured interview with
mother was carried out by trained staff. The Communication
Domain of the VABS is the sum of raw scores for the
Receptive,
Expressive, and Written subdomains. However, because of the
floating baseline and ceiling on the VABS, mothers of 20-month
children were unlikely to be asked questions from the Written
481STABILITY OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDHOOD
25. subdomain; 91% of the sample scored 0. The Receptive
subdomain
of the VABS Communication Domain is based on responses to
up
to 13 items designed to assess children’s ability to attend to,
listen
to, and understand communications and to follow instructions.
The
Expressive subdomain is based on responses to up to 31 items
designed to assess children’s preverbal and early speech activity
and use of speech in interaction and in expressing abstract and
complex concepts. The split-half reliability coefficient for the
Communication Domain was .92 for a standardization sample of
200 children in their 2nd year, and test–retest reliability was .92
for
70 children between 6 months and 35 months of age (Sparrow et
al., 1984).
Mothers also completed the Early Language Inventory (ELI; E.
Bates et al., 1988) at home. This checklist, a forerunner of the
MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (CDI; Fen-
son, Thal, & Bates, 1990; Fenson et al., 1994, 1993), provides a
measure of children’s expressive vocabulary. Mothers indicated
which words of 643 (including nouns, action verbs, and
adjectives
that are commonly used by children of this age) they had heard
their child spontaneously produce. Fenson et al. (1994, 1993)
reported high (rs above .90) 6-week test–retest reliability for
vocabulary production on the MacArthur CDI–Words and Sen-
tences. The total number of words that mothers reported that
their
children produced on the ELI was calculated for each child.
26. Twenty months: Experimenter assessment. An experi-
menter administered the Verbal Comprehension Scale A and the
Expressive Language Scale of the Reynell Developmental Lan-
guage Scales—Second Revision (RDLS; Reynell & Gruber,
1990). The RDLS assesses language comprehension and produc-
tion in children aged 1 year, 6 months, through 6 years. In the
Verbal Comprehension Scale A, the child is asked to
demonstrate
an understanding of increasingly difficult verbal expressions
rang-
ing from labeled objects to higher order concepts. The
Expressive
Language Scale uses two subscales (appropriate to this age
level):
structure and vocabulary. From the child’s spontaneous expres-
sions during the visit, language structure is assessed on a scale
that
ranges from vocalizations other than crying to the use of
complex
sentences. In the vocabulary subscale, the child is asked to
name
familiar objects and actions from pictures. Split-half reliability
coefficients for the Comprehension and Expressive Scales for
children between the ages of 2 years and 2 years, 5 months, are
both .93 (Reynell & Gruber, 1990). Children’s raw scores for
comprehension and production were used in the analyses.
Forty-eight months: Child observation. Measures of chil-
dren’s spontaneous language were derived from transcripts of a
video-recorded storytelling session. The goal of the activity, to
“tell a story about a bear family,” was explained to the child. A
set
of toy props was introduced in a consistent order (bear family,
living room, kitchen, park with rabbit and duck, policeman, and
doctor), and each prop was verbally labeled on presentation to
facilitate familiarization. The props were arranged in a standard
27. configuration within easy reach of the child who was seated at a
low table. The child played with the props for 10 min. At the
end
of the play time, the child was prompted to tell a story about the
bear family. If the child’s story did not appear to be coming to
an
end after 5 min, the experimenter prompted the child by asking
how the story ends. If the child produced a fragment of a story
(i.e.,
a single act or event), and then fell into silence, the
experimenter
prompted the child with a question: “What happens next?” A
total
of three such prompts was allowed. If the child did not
spontane-
ously offer a story, the experimenter followed with a series of
prompts intended to coax the child into telling a story (e.g.,
“What
is the papa bear doing?”). For the final prompt, the
experimenter
told a standard beginning of a story, and the child was
encouraged
to finish the story. The child’s MLU and DWR were calculated
over the entire storytelling session in the same manner
described
for 20 months.
Forty-eight months: Maternal report. As at 20 months, the
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales—Interview Edition, Survey
Form (VABS; Sparrow et al., 1984) Communication Domain
was
used to obtain mothers’ estimates of their children’s
communica-
tion skills. Mothers were asked to indicate to what extent their
children had mastered a variety of verbal skills in the
28. Communi-
cation Domain, including Receptive, Expressive, and Written
lan-
guage skills. The Receptive and Expressive subdomains were
identical to those at 20 months. The Written subdomain is based
on
responses to up to 23 items designed to assess children’s written
language skills. The split-half reliability coefficient for the
Com-
munication Domain was .93 for a standardization sample of 200
4-year-old children, and test–retest reliability was .86 for 74
chil-
dren between 36 months and 59 months of age (Sparrow et al.,
1984). The raw Communication Domain was used in analyses.
Forty-eight months: Experimenter assessment. An exper-
imenter administered two verbal subtests of the Wechsler Pre-
school and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Revised (WPPSI–R;
Wechsler, 1989). The WPPSI–R is an individually administered
intelligence test for children from 3 years to 7 years, 3 months.
It
consists of 12 subtests that are divided into Verbal and Perfor-
mance scales. Two Verbal subtests (Information and
Similarities)
were administered on the basis of their correlations with Verbal
IQ
scores (rs ranged from .71 to .82; Wechsler, 1989). The
Informa-
tion subtest consists of 27 items that measure the child’s knowl-
edge of objects and events by having the child point to pictures
or
provide a short verbal response to spoken questions. In the
Simi-
larities subtest, children point to six pictures of items that share
a
common feature, complete six sentences involving similar
29. items,
and explain how eight objects are related. Raw scores were
used.
In a standardization sample of 200 48-month-old children, split-
half reliability coefficients were .88 for Information and .89 for
Similarities.
Covariates
We assessed the possibilities that family SES and mothers’
verbal intelligence and education influenced child language,
moth-
ers’ speech during mother– child interactions influenced child
speech, mothers’ tendency to respond in a socially desirable
fash-
ion influenced maternal report, and child social competence
influ-
enced experimenter assessments. We evaluated these several
mea-
sures for use as covariates. Family SES and maternal education
were computed using the Hollingshead (1975) scale.
Maternal verbal intelligence. The mother was administered
the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Revised (PPVT–R Form
L;
Dunn & Dunn, 1981). This instrument provides a standardized
index of maternal vocabulary intelligence. In adult
standardization
samples, split-half reliability was .88, alternate-forms reliability
was .81, short-term alternate-forms reliability was .68, and
validity
482 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
30. coefficients with full IQ scale scores ranged from .58 to .72
(Dunn
& Dunn, 1981).
Maternal speech. Maternal speech was derived from tran-
scripts of the free-play session at 20 months and a mother–
child
picture-book reading session at 48 months. Mothers’ MLU and
DWR were derived in exactly the same way as for children (see
above).
Maternal social desirability. The Social Desirability Scale
(SDS; Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) uses 33 items to assess adults’
tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable fashion
(Johnson, Shavitt, & Holbrook, 2011). Mothers completed this
social desirability scale to check for reporting bias on the
VABS
and ELI. The SDS has significant test–retest reliability (r � .89)
and internal consistency (� � .88; Crowne & Marlowe, 1960).
Child social competence. At 20 months, observed child
sociability was used as the measure of social competence. In a
child solitary play session, three behaviors were double coded
(11% of the tapes) by trained coders: frequency of vocalizations
directed to an experimenter (� � .82), frequency of positive
vocalizations with no specific object (� � .92), and amount of
time
the child spent within 2 ft (0.9144 m) of the experimenter (� �
.74). Based on a behavioral coding system developed by Mullen,
Snidman, and Kagan (1993), an aggregate sociability index was
computed by standardizing and averaging the three measures. At
48 months, child anxiety and hyperactivity– distractibility were
used as measures of (lack of) social competence. Mothers rated
their children on the nine-item Anxious–Fearful scale and the
four-item Hyperactive–Distractible scale from Behar and String-
field’s (1974) Preschool Behavior Questionnaire. Items were
31. rated
on a 3-point scale (doesn’t apply, applies sometimes, and
certainly
applies) and summed to form the scales. Internal consistency
(�)
was .63 for the Anxious–Fearful scale and .77 for the
Hyperactive–
Distractible scale.
Results
Preliminary Analyses and Analytic Plan
Prior to data analysis, variable distributions were examined for
univariate normality (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Most
variables
approximated the normal distribution, but ELI and DWR at 20
months were reexpressed using log10 and cube-root transforma-
tions, respectively, to improve their distributions. Descriptive
sta-
tistics are presented in the variables’ original metrics to aid
inter-
pretation. Despite attempts to approximate univariate normality,
problems emerged with multivariate skewness � 17.86 (z �
9.34,
p � .001) and multivariate kurtosis � 160.25 (z � 5.60, p �
.001).
Therefore, we employed LISREL 8.72 (Jöreskog & Sörbom,
2005)
to compute asymptotic covariance matrices, we used robust
maximum-likelihood estimation, and we report the normal
theory
weighted-least-squares chi-square (�2). We also report the
com-
parative fit index (CFI), nonnormed fit index (NNFI), and root-
mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) as indicators of
32. model fit. A model was considered to have good fit if the chi-
square test was nonsignificant ( p � .05), the CFI and NNFI
were
at or above .90 (Bentler, 1990; Marsh, Balla, & Hau, 1996), and
the RMSEA was .06 or smaller (Hu & Bentler, 1999), but we
gave
greater weight to the incremental fit indices than to chi-square
because the chi-square value is known to be sensitive to sample
size (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002) and the size of the correlations
in
the model (Miles & Shelvin, 2006). Standardized path
coefficients
are presented in text and figures.
After fitting an initial model on the full sample, we performed
multiple-group models by caregiving situation and child gender
to
assess whether the full model fits for children in low and high
numbers of caregiving situations and for girls and boys. For
multiple-group models, we report the difference in chi-square
statistics and CFI values (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002) for two
nested models (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). If the change in
chi-square (��2) between the unconstrained and constrained
mod-
els was nonsignificant ( p � .05), and the change in CFI � .01
(Cheung & Rensvold, 2002; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000), the
model was deemed to fit equally well in pairs of groups. For
correlations and standardized path coefficients, we adopt
conven-
tional magnitudes of r corresponding to small, medium, and
large
effect sizes as .10, .30, and .50, respectively (Cohen & Cohen,
1983, p. 61).
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Language
33. Measures at 20 to 48 Months
Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics and correlations
among the 20-month and 48-month language measures. The
standard deviations and ranges in Table 1 indicate that there
was considerable variation in performance on all language
measures. At both 20 and 48 months, children in the sample
varied from no spontaneous speech and below-average recep-
tive and expressive communication to long sentences, diverse
vocabulary, and well above-average receptive and expressive
communicative skills. Despite being capable of speech, two
children at 48 months failed to spontaneously produce any
words in the storytelling task. These children scored well within
the normal range on concurrent maternal report and experi-
menter assessments of language and did not emerge as outliers
in analyses. Excluding these scores did not change the results of
the study, and part of language competence is being able to
think of something to say; therefore, we decided that the 0
scores for MLU and DWR reflected true aspects of each child’s
language, and we retained the two children in the sample.
Correlations among the 20-month and 48-month measures in-
dicate medium to large convergent validity within ages (average
correlation � .55, SE � .07, at 20 months, and average correla-
tion � .23, SE � .07, at 48 months) as well as medium average
stability from 20 months to 48 months across all measures
(aver-
age correlation � .27, SE � .07). The average correlation across
measures from the same source (bold cells in Table 1) was .30
(SE � .07).
Stability of Language From 20 to 48 Months
We tested an initial structural equation model with the six
language indicators at 20 months, loading on a single latent
vari-
34. able of 20-month language, the five language indicators at 48
months loading on a single latent variable of 48-month
language,
and the stability coefficient running from 20-month language to
48-month language. Although all paths were significant (except
for
the loading of 48-month DWR on the 48-month language
factor),
483STABILITY OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDHOOD
this initial model was a relatively poor fit to the data, �2(43) �
157.02, p � .001; CFI � .93; NNFI � .91; RMSEA � .11, 90%
CI [.092, .013]. Modification indices suggested that four
concep-
tually meaningful error covariances were warranted. Therefore,
we
added error covariances between MLU and DWR at both waves
to
account for shared source variance associated with direct obser-
vation, ELI and VABS at 20 months to account for shared
source
variance associated with maternal report, and WPPSI–R Verbal
Information and Similarities at 48 months to account for shared
method variance.
After accounting for these four error covariances, the model
fit was acceptable, �2(39) � 73.91, p � .001; CFI � .98;
NNFI � .97; RMSEA � .066, 90% CI [.041, .090]. The final
model of the stability of child language between the two latent
variables is presented in Figure 1. All paths were significant at
p � .01 (except for the loading of 48-month DWR on the
35. Table 1
Language Measures at 20 and 48 Months: Descriptive Statistics
and Correlations
Language measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
20 months
1. MLU —
2. DWR .50��� —
3. VABS Communication .31��� .57��� —
4. ELI .37��� .64��� .74��� —
5. Reynell Comprehension .21� .37��� .52��� .51��� —
6. Reynell Expression .40��� .76��� .69��� .79���
.54��� —
48 months
7. MLU .15� .22�� .29��� .31��� .26�� .31��� —
8. DWR .09 .13 .17� .18� .15� .15� .40��� —
9. VABS Communication .16� .39��� .45��� .45���
.35��� .42��� .14 .01 —
10. WPPSI–R Information .05 .13 .35��� .33��� .41���
.33��� .24��� .14 .30��� —
11. WPPSI–R Similarities .06 .26��� .41��� .40���
.37��� .38��� .16� .04 .29��� .55��� —
M 1.37 2.29 41.47 132.11 19.26 17.33 5.43 8.12 78.48 16.92
11.42
SD 0.33 1.52 8.31 111.09 7.12 6.02 1.74 3.27 6.55 3.51 4.78
Range 0–2.88 0–8.40 25–65 0–466 5–42 1–36 0–13.35 0–15.88
62–102 1–25 1–23
Note. Values in bold are 20- to 48-month stability coefficients
for scales from the same sources. Italicized stability
coefficients are homotypic stabilities
of the same measures across time. MLU � mean length of
utterance in morphemes; DWR � different word roots; VABS �
36. Vineland Adaptive Behavior
Scales; ELI � Early Language Inventory; WPPSI-R � Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence—Revised.
� p � .05. �� p � .01. ��� p � .001.
MLU MLU
.40***
36***18*** 34***
.84*** .87***
VABS
DWR
VABS
DWR.79***
.36
.17
.18 .34***
.38*** .97***
ELI
VABS
Communication
VABS
Communication
38. WPPSI-R
Verbal
Similarities
.57***
.94***
.33***
.25
.67***
.80
.75***
Reynell
Expression.12***
Figure 1. Model of stability between the two general child
language latent variables from 20 months to 48
months. MLU � mean length of utterance; DWR � different
word roots; VABS � Vineland Adaptive Behavior
Scales; ELI � Early Language Inventory; WPPSI–R � Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—
Revised. �� p � .01. ��� p � .001.
484 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
48-month language latent variable). The robust standardized
estimate of language stability from 20 months to 48 months was
39. .84, p � .001.
Stability of Language From 20 to 48 Months,
Controlling Covariates
As a check against threats to the validity of the model, we
explored whether several covariates were associated with child
language measures. We correlated (a) family SES, maternal
verbal
intelligence, and education with all 11 language measures; (b)
maternal MLU and DWR with child MLU and DWR,
respectively;
(c) maternal social desirability bias with maternal reports on the
VABS and ELI; (d) observed child sociability at 20 months with
20-month MLU, DWR, and the Reynell scales; and (e) child
social
competence (mother-rated child hyperactivity– distractibility
and
anxiety) with 48-month MLU, DWR, and the WPPSI–R scales.
Maternal verbal intelligence was correlated with WPPSI–R
Verbal
Information, r(190) � .25, p � .001; maternal education was
correlated with the subtests of the WPPSI–R, rs(188) � .20 to
.26,
ps � .001; family SES was correlated with the subtests of the
WPPSI–R, rs(185) � .29 to .40, ps � .001; maternal DWR at 20
months was correlated with children’s DWR, r(190) � .17, p �
.05; and children’s hyperactivity-distractibility at 48 months
was
correlated with MLU, r(182) � .20, p � .01, and both
subtests
of the WPPSI–R, rs(182) � .33 to .37, ps � .001. No
other
potential covariates were associated with the child language
mea-
sures. Prior to recomputing the final model in Figure 1, we
40. residu-
alized 20-month DWR and 48-month MLU, VABS Communica-
tion, and WPPSI–R Verbal Information and Verbal Similarities
for
their associations with the above covariates. The same pattern
of
relations observed in the uncontrolled model held when
residual-
ized variables were used, �2(39) � 67.31, p � .01; CFI � .98;
NNFI � .97; RMSEA � .060, 90% CI [.033, .086]. In the
residualized model, the robust standardized estimate of
language
stability from 20 months to 48 months was .79 ( p � .001).
Metric Equivalence Across Childcare Situations
To assess whether child language was stable for children in
relatively stable versus unstable language environments, for
each
child we counted the number of distinct childcare situations be-
tween the ages of 20 months and 48 months and recalculated
stability in low and high caregiving variability groups. Mothers’
reports were coded into different caregiving situations based on
the
identity of the caregiver, location of care, number of hours, and
number of other children present. A change in any one of these
variables constituted a new caregiving situation. For example, a
change from one caregiver to another was counted as a new
situation, even though the location, number of hours, and
number
of other children might remain the same. Preschool entry was
included as a new caregiving situation. The number of distinct
caregiving situations was used as an indicator of variability of
the
child’s language environment. Between 20 and 48 months, chil-
dren were in 0 (maternal care only) to 10 different caregiving
41. situations. We defined low caregiving variability as 0 –2
situations
(n � 101) and high caregiving variability as 3–10 situations (n
�
85) across the 28-month interval and used this variable in a
multiple-group model. We then tested whether the uncontrolled
final model in Figure 1 fit equally well for children in low and
high
numbers of childcare situations. The difference in fit between
(a)
a model with all loadings and the stability coefficient
constrained
to be equal in the low and high caregiving variability groups
and
(b) a model with all paths free to vary in the low and high
groups
was nonsignificant, ��2(10) � 12.23, ns, �CFI � .00,
indicating
that the meanings of the language latent variables and the
stability
of language were similar for children in relatively consistent
and
relatively variable childcare situations and (presumably)
language
environments.
Metric Equivalence in Girls and Boys
Last, we tested whether the uncontrolled final model in Figure 1
fit equally well for girls and boys. The difference in fit between
(a)
a model with all loadings and the stability coefficient
constrained
to be equal in girls and boys and (b) a model with all paths free
to
42. vary in girls and boys was nonsignificant, ��2(10) � 13.33, ns,
�CFI � .00, indicating that the meanings of the language latent
variables and the stability of language were similar for girls and
boys. Figure 2 shows the scatter plot of the language latent
variable
scores at 20 months and 48 months for girls and boys.
Discussion
In overview, clear evidence emerged for strong stability of
individual variation in general language across early childhood.
Stability obtained independent of child sociability and childcare
history, maternal intelligence, education, speech, and social
desir-
ability of responding, as well as family SES. Stability was also
similar in girls and boys. When multiple domains, measures,
and
sources are used, child language emerges as a robust and stable
individual-differences characteristic. This study points to the
value
r(190) = 84 p < 001r(190) = .84, p < .001
Figure 2. Scatterplot of 20-month and 48-month language latent
variable
scores by child gender.
485STABILITY OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDHOOD
of using multiple informants and diverse components of
language
measured in different ways to obtain a picture of stable
language
development in children. Multiple assessments take more
43. aspects
of language into account and give more precise estimates.
Interindividual Variability
It comes as no surprise that children in their 2nd and 4th years
varied in each of several language measures. At 20 months,
chil-
dren’s MLU, vocabulary, adaptive communication, and compre-
hension all varied widely. For example, on the ELI at 20
months,
one child was reported to speak no words, while another was
reported to speak 466 words. At 48 months, children’s
storytelling,
adaptive communication, and verbal intelligence also varied
widely. For example, children’s MLU in the storytelling task
ranged from 0 to over 13 morphemes. Often, problems in distri-
butions of dependent variables and narrow ranges in abilities of
participants make it difficult to obtain high correlations. Our
findings move away from restriction of range that may have
plagued previous work. So, on the first question posed in this
study, child language at different ages shows substantial
interin-
dividual variability in all the forms we measured.
Language Latent Variable
Surprisingly little is still known about covariance among differ-
ent language measures at the phenotypic level of analysis
because
so few studies use a multimethod approach. In one exception,
seven diverse measures of language proved to be intercorrelated
and were used to create a general factor of language (Colledge
et
al., 2002). On the second question posed in this study, we found
five to six different language measures from three data sources
44. satisfactorily converged on consistent and coherent pictures of
orderliness in language at each of two times more than 2 years
apart across early childhood. Our findings show that the number
of
DWRs and MLU in children’s conversation, mothers’ checklist
reports and ratings of child language, and assessed expression
and
comprehension by an experimenter shared significant amounts
of
variance at 20 months and again at 48 months. These findings
are
presumptive of an underlying latent variable for language in
chil-
dren at each age. The only exception to this common variance
among potentially disparate measures and sources of language
was
for 48-month number of DWRs. It may be that the number of
different words a child produces in an experimental storytelling
task is not closely related to other indicators of child language
in
the preschool years because most typically developing children
at
that age command a substantial vocabulary. Preschool children
who speak a smaller number of words in the storytelling task
may
do so because they are not sure what kind of story they are
supposed to tell or because they cannot think of anything to say,
not because they lack a minimum vocabulary to complete the
task
(as shown by the other language measures).
A multimeasure approach to child language has been applied
productively in the past for predicting continued language delay
(Olswang, Rodriguez, & Timler, 1998; Paul, 1996, 1997; Thal &
Katich, 1996). Moreover, Wetherby, Allen, Cleary, Kublin, and
Goldstein (2002) reported their strongest relations between
45. parent
reports and face-to face evaluations of child language for a
speech
composite, as opposed to single measures (see also Lyytinen,
Poikkeus, Laakso, Eklund, & Lyytinen, 2001).
Stability in Child Language
The extent to which variation in language represents a
consistent
attribute in the child was addressed by examining stability (qua
an
individual-differences construct) across age. On the third
question
posed in this study, our longitudinal evaluation showed that the
language latent variable at 20 months was highly stable with the
language latent variable at 48 months. Heterotypic stability be-
tween different individual measures of child language may
repre-
sent conservative (i.e., lower bound) estimates of stability of
individual variation because of the variance introduced by
differ-
ences in assessment measurements and procedures used at
differ-
ent times. Homotypic stability between the same individual
mea-
sures of child language may represent liberal (i.e., upper bound)
estimates of stability of individual variation because of shared
source and method variance, practice effects, and the like.
Aggre-
gating across the individual stabilities in Table 1 produced a
heterotypic estimate (average correlation of all dissimilar
measures
across time in Table 1) of .28 and a homotypic estimate
(average
46. correlation of the 3 consistent measures across time) of .25,
whereas the model of child language latent variables produced a
stability estimate of .84. Clearly, assessing stability in the
common
variance across different domains, measures, and sources of
child
language improves the stability estimate considerably.
There are several advantages of using a latent variable (Kline,
1998) that could contribute to the high level of stability we
observed. First, the latent variables incorporate the perspectives
of
multiple reporters and domains of language development.
Second,
the latent variable is a purer measure of the underlying
construct
that associates only the shared variance among indicators. Any
measurement error or unique variance that is not associated with
the other variables that load on the latent variable is relegated
to
the error term. Third, the model accounts for systematic source
and
measurement variance (i.e., correlated error terms) that remove
this “noise” from the latent variable. Fourth, the latent variables
at
each age are allowed to have different age-appropriate
indicators
and different loadings for the same indicators. Language ability
at
20 months and 48 months manifests differently. For example,
successful communication at 20 months is largely indicated by
comprehension, vocabulary, and the ability to combine words.
At
48 months, successful communication is indicated by the
abilities
to relate complex and novel ideas verbally, to understand how
47. words are related to one another, and to communicate in contex-
tually and culturally appropriate ways. Using latent variables al-
lows for the measurement of language ability to vary across
time
(as the construct does).
We would be remiss if we failed to point out that even such a
strong stability result (r � .84) leaves substantial common vari-
ance unaccounted for (
30%). Here, theoretical perspective
comes into play. Focusing on instability would lead to the
singular
but limited view that development is disorderly. Focusing
alterna-
tively on stability risks overlooking change in the developing
organism. Next to stability, children still change in their status
relative to one another over their 2nd and 3rd years in terms of
their general language. They also manifestly change in terms of
their group average language skills. The life-span perspective in
486 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
developmental science specifies that human beings are open
sys-
tems, and the plastic nature of psychological functioning
ensures
both stability and instability across the life course. Like many
developmental processes, language is Janus-like, with both
stable
and unstable, continuous and discontinuous, aspects.
The large stability coefficient that emerged in this study might
lead researchers and practitioners to conclude that language
ability
48. is set by 20 months of age. This is not necessarily the case.
Ours
was a sample of typically developing children without
significant
language disabilities or delays. Children in this age range who
require intervention have been shown to make significant
progress
in their language abilities in response to treatment (Bickford-
Smith, Wijayatilake, & Woods, 2005; Kouri, 2005; Whitehurst
et
al., 1991). Furthermore, even in our normative sample,
individual
children increased and decreased in their relative standing by as
much as 1.5 standard deviations across time. Overall,
underlying
language ability appears to be highly stable, and those children
who are highly verbal at 20 months tend to be the same children
who are highly verbal at 48 months, but the language abilities
of
individual children relative to their peers can still change across
time. Moreover, child language in general increases
dramatically
in mean level across this same period.
Development is generally governed by genetic and biological
factors in combination with environmental influences and
experi-
ences. Thus, stability of any individual characteristic could be
attributable to factors in the individual, or stability might
emerge
through the individual’s transactions with a consistent environ-
ment, or both. Cairns and Hood (1983) logically outlined
several
factors that feasibly support individual stability in the context
of a
developing system. First, specific and stable biological
49. variables
may contribute to stability. Such variables include genetic, hor-
monal, and morphological characteristics that might endure
across
developmental periods. Biological forces generally tend to rein-
force homeostasis in the individual (Bornstein & Bornstein,
2008),
and the role of the individual as an active agent in his or her
own
(stable) development (Lerner, 1982; Lerner & Busch-Rossnagel,
1981) means that individuals contribute to stability in their
devel-
opment by virtue of physical, socioemotional, cognitive, or
behav-
ioral characteristics that evoke consistent reactions in others.
Thus,
individual 43 context relational processes tilt to promote stabil-
ity. For example, a verbally precocious child may elicit richer
language input and interaction, thereby maintaining the child’s
linguistic advantage. In the psychological domain of the child,
temperament, customarily defined as constitutionally based
indi-
vidual differences in positive and negative reactivity to stimula-
tion, is hypothesized to be consistent over time and to influence
social others (Rothbart & Bates, 2006; Wachs & Kohnstamm,
2001). Here we measured a facet of temperament, child social
competence, and determined that stability of language obtained
over and above its associations with language. Child stability
also
obtained separate from maternal verbal IQ. Notably, as Cairns
and
Hood (1983) went on to observe, “[I]t cannot be safely assumed
that biological or genetic-based differences will persist,
unmodi-
fied by social encounters or interchanges in which the
individual
50. engages” (p. 309).
A second factor that Cairns and Hood (1983) identified as
potentially contributing to stability encompasses the social net-
work in which development transpires. Here, we included
family
SES, maternal education and language, and children’s childcare
histories as representative of diverse milieu surrounding the
child.
All other factors being equal, similarities from one time to the
next
will be greatest when the social network in which development
is
enveloped remains constant. The extent to which stability
reflects
attributes of the individual or depends on circumstances is
some-
what clarified by the multiple-covariate and childcare
experience
follow-up analyses we brought to bear on our original stability
findings. Over half the mothers reported that they were working
and that their children were in the care of other people. Stability
in
child language obtained at a high level separate from each and
even in the face of nontrivial vicissitudes in children’s
caregiving
environments.
In sum, with respect to our fourth question, in this study of the
stability of child language we brought a number of covariates to
bear to address several alternative endogenous and exogenous
explanations, and we found that strong stability obtained in the
child separate and apart from them all. The fact that stability of
child language remained so high (r � .79) even under multiple
controls indicates that general language is a highly conserved
51. and
robust individual characteristic.
Gender
In answer to our fifth question, we found no systematic differ-
ences in stability between girls and boys; language in girls and
boys is equally stable apart from reported mean differences in
language level in girls and boys. The fact that stability of
language
in childhood transcends child gender further underscores the ro-
bustness of the basic result (see also Bornstein, Hahn, &
Haynes,
2004) and suggests that the mechanisms underlying language
stability are similar for girls and boys.
Limitations
Despite its size and multivariate design, this study of child
language is limited by the nature of the sample and the domains,
measures, and sources it used. Children were all essentially the
same ages at each of the two assessments; mothers who partici-
pated were primiparous at recruitment; and the families were all
English-speaking European Americans. Different patterns of
sta-
bility could emerge in later born children, in children initially
and
terminally assessed at other ages, in families of different
language
and ethnic composition, or with features of child language
differ-
ent from those we measured. Note, too, the contexts for
language
samples at the two ages (e.g., play and bear story) differed.
From
one point of view, this procedural variation undercuts stability;
52. from another, our findings are conservative.
Various language factors in the child (temperament), in mothers
(reports child language), and in the environment (SES) might
change little across our time span of data collection and carry
stability. So, using multiple measures and multiple sources
could
overestimate the stability of child language. By controlling for
family SES; mothers’ verbal intelligence, education, speech,
and
social desirability bias; and child social competence, we
attempted
to achieve a conservative estimate of child language stability
that
takes these several factors into consideration.
Conclusions
Stability assessment provides insight into individual variation
and its development as well as the nature of the characteristic
that
487STABILITY OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDHOOD
is stable. Specifically, whether children maintain their rank
order
through time in terms of their language informs about individual
children and contributes to understanding the nature and
develop-
ment of language. Insofar as language is ontogenetically stable,
we
know that children who do well or poorly at one time are likely
to
do well or do poorly again later. So, in language, a major
53. predictor
of developmental status at a given age is language at an earlier
age,
other things being equal.
The relatively high level of developmental stability observed in
such a key achievement as general language prompts empirical,
practical, and clinical implications. Empirically, our approach
rec-
ommends the simultaneous investigation of multiple
perspectives
for other domains of child development in studies of stability.
In
that way, similarities and differences among all sources of
infor-
mation can be compared and their implications adequately
evalu-
ated. Practically, whatever their developmental origins,
meaning-
ful individual differences in child language appear already
established before the end of the second year. This finding sug-
gests that however and whichever experiential factors may be
involved in motivating language development in very young
chil-
dren, maximizing their influence in the first 2 years of life may
be
advantageous for optimizing future child language. Clinically,
our
approach to estimate child language as a latent variable is not a
quick tool for early diagnosis or screening; most clinicians do
not
have the benefit of a rich array of measures or the technical
support
at hand to estimate latent variables. The present empirical
findings
contribute to clinical practice, however, insofar as we
54. distinguish
between language screening and the accuracy that the multiple
domain, measure, and source approach yields to defining a
latent
variable. A screening instrument may be practically valuable,
but
the latent variable provides its knowledge base as well as a
more
fundamental understanding of human development. Finally, to
be
stable does not mean to be immutable or impervious to interven-
tion. Change is an identifying characteristic of development,
and
children change in both their relative standing and their mean
level
of language as they grow. Language ability is ultimately modifi-
able and plastic.
It is generally acknowledged that no single approach to mea-
suring phenomena in child development is best, that no one rep-
resentation of a developmental phenomenon predominates.
Rather,
assessment selection needs to be guided by tradition,
tractability,
goal, and convenience. Those who study developmental
phenom-
ena often advocate the wisdom of applying multiple assessments
and employing converging operations of different strategies tar-
geted to the same phenomenon. In this study, we used multiple
ages, domains, measures, and sources to capture and evaluate
individual variation and stability in child language. Employing
observations, reports, and assessments together overcomes
short-
falls associated with reliance on any single source. Multiple as-
sessments also represent individuals better than do single
assess-
55. ments, and converging operations are necessary to evaluate
whether the child’s responses reveal an inferred capacity and
reveal that apparent performance is not simply an artifact of a
given procedure. The agreement emergent among these diverse
perspectives points to the value of evaluating stable individual
variation in child language. One of the fundamental conceptual
issues that has framed debates in theory and research across the
history of developmental science has been the question of
stability.
General language capacity in young children is discontinuous in
terms of its demonstrable growth in mean level through time;
our
study documents the very robust stability of general language
capacity in young children in terms of individual order.
References
Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987).
Child/
adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of
cross-
informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological
Bulletin,
101, 213–232. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.213
Appelbaum, M. I., & McCall, R. B. (1983). Design and analysis
in
developmental psychology. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of
child
psychology: Vol. 1. History, theory, and methods (pp. 415–
476). New
York, NY: Wiley.
Aram, D. (2005). Continuity in children’s literacy
achievements: A longi-
56. tudinal perspective from kindergarten to school. First Language,
25,
259 –289. doi:10.1177/0142723705050339
Bates, E., Bretherton, I., & Snyder, L. (1988). From first words
to gram-
mar: Individual differences and dissociable mechanisms.
Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Bates, E., & Carnevale, G. F. (1993). New directions in research
on
language development. Developmental Review, 13, 436 – 470.
doi:
10.1006/drev.1993.1020
Bates, E., Marchman, V., Thal, D., Fenson, L., Dale, P.,
Reznick, J. S., . . .
Hartung, J. (1994). Developmental and stylistic variation in the
compo-
sition of early vocabulary. Journal of Child Language, 21, 85–
123.
doi:10.1017/S0305000900008680
Bates, J. E., & Bayles, K. (1984). Objective and subjective
components in
mothers’ perceptions of their children from age 6 months to 3
years.
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 30, 111–130.
Bauer, D., Goldfield, B., & Reznick, J. (2002). Alternative
approaches to
analyzing individual differences in the rate of early vocabulary
devel-
opment. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 313–335. doi:10.1017/
S0142716402003016
57. Bayley, N. (1949). Consistency and variability in the growth of
intelligence
from birth to eighteen years. The Pedagogical Seminary and
Journal of
Genetic Psychology, 75, 165–196.
Beals, D. E., & De-Temple, J. M. (1993). Home contributions to
early
language and literacy development. In D. Leu & C. Kinzer
(Eds.),
Forty-second yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp.
207–
215). Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference
Behar, L., & Stringfield, S. (1974). A behavior rating scale for
the pre-
school child. Developmental Psychology, 10, 601– 610.
doi:10.1037/
h0037058
Bellinger, D. (1980). Consistency in the pattern of change in
mother’s
speech: Some discriminant analyses. Journal of Child Language,
7,
469 – 487. doi:10.1017/S0305000900002798
Belsky, J., & Jaffee, S. (2006). The multiple determinants of
parenting. In
D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental
psychopathology: Vol.
3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 38 – 85). New
York, NY:
Wiley.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural
58. models. Psy-
chological Bulletin, 107, 238 –246. doi:10.1037/0033-
2909.107.2.238
Bickford-Smith, A., Wijayatilake, L., & Woods, G. (2005).
Evaluating the
effectiveness of an early years language intervention.
Educational Psy-
chology in Practice, 21, 161–173.
doi:10.1080/02667360500205859
Blake, J., Quartaro, G., & Onorati, S. (1993). Evaluating
quantitative
measures of grammatical complexity in spontaneous speech
samples.
Journal of Child Language, 20, 139 –152. doi:10.1017/
S0305000900009168
Bornstein, M. H., & Bornstein, L. (2008). Psychological
stability. In W. A.
Darity, Jr. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of social sciences
(2nd ed.,
Vol. 8, pp. 74 –75). Detroit, MI: Macmillan.
Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Maital, S., Painter, K., Park, S.,
Pascual, L.,
488 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
. . . Vyt, A. (2004). Cross-linguistic analysis of vocabulary in
toddlers:
Spanish, Dutch, French, Hebrew, Italian, Korean, and English.
Child
Development, 75, 1115–1139. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
59. 8624.2004.00729.x
Bornstein, M. H., Gaughran, J. M., & Homel, P. (1986). Infant
tempera-
ment: Theory, tradition, critique, and new assessments. In C. E.
Izard &
P. B. Read (Eds.), Measuring emotions in infants and children:
Vol. 2.
Cambridge studies in social and emotional development (pp.
172–199).
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C.-S., & Haynes, O. M. (2004).
Specific and
general language performance across early childhood: Stability
and
gender considerations. First Language, 24, 267–304.
doi:10.1177/
0142723704045681
Bornstein, M. H., & Haynes, O. M. (1998). Vocabulary
competence in
early childhood: Measurement, latent construct, and predictive
validity.
Child Development, 69, 654 – 671.
Bornstein, M. H., Painter, K. P., & Park, J. (2002). Naturalistic
language
sampling in typically developing children. Journal of Child
Language,
29, 687– 699. doi:10.1017/S030500090200524X
Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & De Houwer, A. D. (2006).
Child
vocabulary across the second year: Stability and continuity for
reporter
60. comparisons and a cumulative score. First Language, 26, 299 –
316.
doi:10.1177/0142723706059238
Bornstein, M. H., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Hahn, C.-S., &
Haynes, O. M.
(2008). Maternal responsiveness to young children at three
ages: Lon-
gitudinal analysis of a multidimensional, modular, and specific
parenting
construct. Developmental Psychology, 44, 867– 874.
doi:10.1037/0012-
1649.44.3.867
Bornstein, M. H., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Haynes, O. M.
(1999). First
words in the second year: Continuity, stability, and models of
concurrent
and predictive correspondence in vocabulary and verbal
responsiveness
across age and context. Infant Behavior & Development, 22,
65– 85.
doi:10.1016/S0163-6383(99)80006-X
Bowerman, M. (1985). Beyond communicative adequacy: From
piecemeal
knowledge to an integrated system in the child’s acquisition of
language.
In K. Nelson (Ed.), Children’s language (Vol. 5, pp. 369 –398).
Hills-
dale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Burgess, S. (1997). The role of shared reading in the
development of
phonological awareness: A longitudinal study of upper class
children.
61. Early Child Development and Care, 191–199. doi:10.1080/
0300443971270116
Cairns, R. B. (1979). Social development: The origins and
plasticity of
interchanges. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
Cairns, R. B., & Hood, K. E. (1983). Continuity in social
development: A
comparative perspective on individual difference prediction. In
P. B.
Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and
behavior
(pp. 301–358). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Cameron-Faulkner, T., Lieven, E., & Theakston, A. (2007).
What part of
no do children not understand? A usage-based account of
multiword
negation. Journal of Child Language, 34, 251–282. doi:10.1017/
S0305000906007884
Chaffee, C. A., Cunningham, C. E., Secord-Gilbert, M., Elbard,
H., &
Richards, J. (1990). Screening effectiveness of the Minnesota
Child
Development Inventory Expressive and Receptive Language
Scales:
Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value. Psychological
Assessment:
A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 80 – 85.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-
of-fit
indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation
Mod-
62. eling, 9, 233–255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
Clarke-Stewart, K. A., & Allhusen, V. D. (2002). Nonparental
caregiving.
In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3. Being
and
becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 215–252). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Clarke-Stewart, K. A., Vanderstoep, L. P., & Killian, G. A.
(1979).
Analysis and replication of mother– child relations at two years
of age.
Child Development, 50, 777–793. doi:10.2307/1128945
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple
regression/correlation
analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Colledge, E., Bishop, D. V. M., Koeppen-Schomerus, G., Price,
T. S.,
Happé, F. G. E., Eley, T. C., . . . Plomin, R. (2002). The
structure of
language abilities at 4 years: A twin study. Developmental
Psychology,
38, 749 –757. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.749
Corkum, V., & Dunham, P. (1996). The Communicative
Development
Inventory—WORDS Short Form as an index of language
production.
Journal of Child Language, 23, 515–528.
Cross, T. G. (1977). Mothers’ speech adjustments: The
contribution of
63. selected child listener variables. In C. Snow & C. Ferguson
(Eds.),
Talking to children: Language input and acquisition (pp. 151–
188).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Cross, T. G. (1978). Mothers’ speech and its association with
rate of
linguistic development in young children. In N. Waterson & C.
Snow
(Eds.), The development of communication (pp. 199 –216). New
York,
NY: Wiley.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social
desirability
independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting
Psychology, 24,
349 –354. doi:10.1037/h0047358
Dale, P. S. (1991). The validity of a parent report measure of
vocabulary
and syntax at 24 months. Journal of Speech and Hearing
Research, 34,
565–571.
Dale, P. S., Bates, E., Reznick, S., & Morisset, C. (1989). The
validity of
a parent report instrument of child language at twenty months.
Journal
of Child Language, 16, 239 –249.
doi:10.1017/S0305000900010394
Dallaire, D. H., & Weinraub, M. (2005). The stability of
parenting behav-
iors over the first 6 years of life. Early Childhood Research
64. Quarterly,
20, 201–219. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2005.04.008
Darwin, C. (1877). A biographical sketch of an infant. Mind,
os-2, 285–
294. doi:10.1093/mind/os-2.7.285
De Houwer, A., Bornstein, M. H., & Leach, D. B. (2005).
Assessing early
communicative ability: A cross-reporter cumulative score for
the Mac-
Arthur CDI. Journal of Child Language, 32, 735–758.
doi:10.1017/
S0305000905007026
Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (Eds.). (2001). Beginning
language with
literacy: Young children learning at home and school.
Baltimore, MD:
Brookes.
Dionne, G., Dale, P. S., Boivin, M., & Plomin, R. (2003).
Genetic evidence
for bidirectional effects of early lexical and grammatical
development.
Child Development, 74, 394 – 412. doi:10.1111/1467-
8624.7402005
Dromi, E. (1987). Early lexical development. Cambridge,
England: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test–
Revised Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
65. Eckerman, C. O., Davis, C. C., & Didow, S. M. (1989).
Toddlers’ emerg-
ing ways of achieving social coordination with peers. Child
Develop-
ment, 60, 440 – 453. doi:10.2307/1130988
Feldman, H. M., Dollaghan, C. A., Campbell, T. F., Kurs-Lasky,
M.,
Janosky, J. E., & Paradise, J. L. (2000). Measurement properties
of the
MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories at ages
one and
two years. Child Development, 71, 310 –322. doi:10.1111/1467-
8624.00146
Fenson, L., Bates, E., Dale, P., Goodman, J., Reznick, J. S., &
Thal, D.
(2000). Measuring variability in early child language: Don’t
shoot the
messenger. Child Development, 71, 323–328. doi:10.1111/1467-
8624.00147
Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., Bates, E., Thal, D. J., &
Pethick, S. J.
(1994). Variability in early communicative development.
Monographs
of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(Serial
No. 242),
1–173.
Fenson, L., Dale, P., Reznick, J. S., Thal, D., Bates, E.,
Hartung, J., . . .
Reilly, J. (1993). The MacArthur Communicative Development
Inven-
tories: User’s guide and technical manual. San Diego, CA:
Singular.
66. 489STABILITY OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDHOOD
Fenson, L., Thal, D., & Bates, E. (1990). Normed values for the
“Early
Language Inventory” and three associated parent report forms
for lan-
guage assessment (Technical report). San Diego, CA: San Diego
State
University.
Gavin, W. J., & Giles, L. (1996). Sample size effects on
temporal reliability
of language sample measures of preschool children. Journal of
Speech
and Hearing Research, 39, 1258 –1262.
Gopnik, A., & Meltzoff, A. N. (1986). Relations between
semantic and
cognitive development in the one-word stage: The specificity
hypothe-
sis. Child Development, 57, 1040 –1053. doi:10.2307/1130378
Guralnick, M. (1980). Social interactions among preschoolers.
Exceptional
Children, 46, 248 –253.
Guttman, L. (1954). A new approach to factor analysis: The
radex. In P. F.
Lazarsfeld (Ed.), Mathematical thinking in the social sciences
(pp.
258 –348). Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Hardy-Brown, K., Plomin, R., & DeFries, J. C. (1981). Genetic
67. and
environmental influences on rate of communicative
development in the
first year of life. Developmental Psychology, 17, 704 –717.
doi:10.1037/
0012-1649.17.6.704
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1992). American parenting of
language-learning
children: Persisting differences in family– child interactions
observed in
natural home environments. Developmental Psychology, 28,
1096 –
1105. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.6.1096
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the
everyday
experiences of young American children. Baltimore, MD:
Brookes.
Hartmann, D. P., Pelzel, K. E., & Abbott, C. (2011). Design,
measurement,
and analysis in developmental research. In M. H. Bornstein &
M. E.
Lamb (Eds.), Developmental science: An advanced textbook
(6th ed., pp.
107–195). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Holden, G. W., & Miller, P. C. (1999). Enduring and different:
A meta-
analysis of the similarity in parents’ child rearing.
Psychological Bulle-
tin, 125, 223–254. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.223
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). The four-factor index of social
status. Unpub-
68. lished manuscript, Department of Sociology, Yale University.
Howes, C., & Matheson, C. C. (1992). Sequences in the
development of
competent play with peers: Social and social pretend play.
Developmen-
tal Psychology, 28, 961–974. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.961
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit
indexes in
covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new
alterna-
tives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/
10705519909540118
Huttenlocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Seltzer, M., & Lyons, T.
(1991).
Early vocabulary growth: Relation to language input and
gender. De-
velopmental Psychology, 27, 236 –248. doi:10.1037/0012-
1649.27.2.236
Irwin, J. R., Carter, A. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2002). The
social-
emotional development of “late-talking” toddlers. Journal of the
Amer-
ican Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1324 –
1332. doi:
10.1097/00004583-200211000-00014
Johnson, T. P., Shavitt, S., & Holbrook, A. L. (2011). Survey
response
styles across cultures. In D. Matsumoto & F. J. R. van de Vijver
(Eds.),
Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (pp. 130 –175).
Cam-
69. bridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Jöreskog, K., & Sörbom, D. (2005). LISREL 8.72. Lincolnwood,
IL:
Scientific Software International.
Kazdin, A. E. (1988). The diagnosis of childhood disorders:
Assessment
issues and strategies. Behavioral Assessment, 10, 67–94.
Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural
equation mod-
eling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Kouri, T. A. (2005). Lexical training through modeling and
elicitation
procedures with late talkers who have specific language
impairment and
developmental delays. Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Re-
search, 48, 157–171. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/012)
Le Normand, M.-T., Parisse, C., & Cohen, H. (2008). Lexical
diversity and
productivity in French preschoolers: Developmental, gender,
and socio-
cultural factors. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 22, 47–58.
doi:
10.1080/02699200701669945
Leonard, L. B., Prutting, C. A., Perozzi, J., & Berkeley, R.
(1978).
Non-standardized approaches to the assessment of language
disorders.
Asha, 20, 371–379.
70. Leopold, W. F. (1949). Speech development of a bilingual child.
Evanston,
IL: Northwestern University Press.
Lerner, R. M. (1982). Children and adolescents as producers of
their own
development. Developmental Review, 2, 342–370.
doi:10.1016/0273-
2297(82)90018-1
Lerner, R. M., & Busch-Rossnagel, N. A. (1981). Individuals as
producers
of their development: Conceptual and empirical bases. In R. M.
Lerner
& N. A. Busch-Rossnagel (Eds.), Individuals as producers of
their
development: A life-span perspective (pp. 1–36). New York,
NY: Aca-
demic Press.
Lyytinen, P., Poikkeus, A.-M., Laakso, M.-L., Eklund, K., &
Lyytinen, H.
(2001). Language development and symbolic play in children
with and
without familial risk for dyslexia. Journal of Speech, Language,
and
Hearing Research, 44, 873– 885. doi:10.1044/1092-
4388(2001/070)
MacWhinney, B. (2000). The CHILDES project: Tools for
analyzing talk.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & Hau, K.-T. (1996). An evaluation
of
71. incremental fit indices: A clarification of mathematical and
empirical
properties. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.),
Advanced
structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques (pp. 315–
353).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Martlew, M., & Sorsby, A. (1995). The precursors of writing:
Graphic
representation in preschool children. Learning and Instruction,
5, 1–19.
doi:10.1016/0959-4752(94)00014-G
McCall, R. B. (1981). Nature-nurture and the two realms of
development:
A proposed integration with respect to mental development.
Child De-
velopment, 52, 1–12. doi:10.2307/1129210
McGregor, K. K., & Capone, N. C. (2004). Genetic and
environmental
interactions in determining the early lexicon: Evidence from a
set of
tri-zygotic quadruplets. Journal of Child Language, 31, 311–
337. doi:
10.1017/S0305000904006026
McLaughlin, B., White, D., McDevitt, T., & Raskin, R. (1983).
Mothers’
and fathers’ speech to their young children: Similar of
different? Journal
of Child Language, 10, 245–252.
doi:10.1017/S0305000900005286
Miles, J., & Shelvin, M. (2007). A time and a place for
72. incremental fit
indices. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 869 – 874.
doi:
10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.022
Miller, J. F., Sedey, A. L., & Miolo, G. (1995). Validity of
parent report
measures of vocabulary development for children with Down
syndrome.
Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 1037–1044.
Mullen, M., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1993). Free-play
behavior in
inhibited and uninhibited children. Infant Behavior and
Development,
16, 383–389. doi:10.1016/0163-6383(93)80043-8
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Early Child
Care Research Network. (2002). The relation of child care to
cognitive
and language outcomes. Child Development, 71, 960 –980.
O’Hanlon, L., & Thal, D. (1991, November). MacArthur
CDI/Toddlers:
Validation for language impaired children. Paper presented at
the meeting
of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association,
Atlanta, GA.
Olswang, L., Rodriguez, B., & Timler, G. (1998).
Recommending inter-
vention for toddlers with specific language learning difficulties:
We may
not have all the answers, but we know a lot. American Journal
of
73. Speech-Language Pathology, 7, 23–32.
Olszewski, P. (1987). Individual differences in preschool
children’s pro-
duction of verbal fantasy play. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 69
– 86.
Owens, R. E. J. (1995). Language disorders: A functional
approach to
assessment and intervention (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
Pan, B. A., Rowe, M. L., Spier, E., & Tamis-LeMonda, C.
(2004). Mea-
suring productive vocabulary of toddlers in low-income
families: Con-
490 BORNSTEIN AND PUTNICK
current and predictive validity of three sources of data. Journal
of Child
Language, 31, 587– 608. doi:10.1017/S0305000904006270
Parke, R. D. (2002). Fathers and families. In M. H. Bornstein
(Ed.),
Handbook of parenting (2nd ed.,Vol. 3, pp. 27–73). Mahwah,
NJ:
Erlbaum.
Paul, R. (1996). Clinical implications of the natural history of
slow ex-
pressive language development. American Journal of Speech–
Language
Pathology, 5, 5–21.
74. Paul, R. (1997). Understanding language delay: A reply to van
Kleek,
Gillam, and Davis. American Journal of Speech–Language
Pathology,
6, 40 – 49.
Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., Burchinal, M. R., Clifford, R. M.,
Culkin, M. L.,
Howes, C., Kagan, S. L., & Yazejian, N. (2001). The relation of
preschool child-care quality to children’s cognitive and social
develop-
mental trajectories through second grade. Child Development,
72, 1534 –
1553. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00364
Pine, J. M., Lieven, E. V., & Rowland, C. (1996). Observational
and
checklist measures of vocabulary composition: What do they
mean?
Journal of Child Language, 23, 573–590.
Pinker, S. (2007). The language instinct: How the mind creates
language.
New York, NY: Morrow.
Reynell, J. K., & Gruber, C. P. (1990). Reynell developmental
language
scales: U.S. edition. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological
Services.
Reznick, J. S. (1990). Visual preference as a test of infant word
compre-
hension. Applied Psycholinguistics, 11, 145–166. doi:10.1017/
S0142716400008742
75. Reznick, J. S., & Goldfield, B. A. (1994). Diary vs.
representative checklist
assessment of productive vocabulary. Journal of Child
Language, 21,
465– 472. doi:10.1017/S0305000900009351
Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order
consistency
of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative
review of
longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3–25.
doi:10.1037/
0033-2909.126.1.3
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The “file drawer problem” and tolerance
for null
results. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 638 – 641.
doi:10.1037/0033-
2909.86.3.638
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In N.
Eisenberg, W.
Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology:
Vol. 3.
Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99
–166).
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Saudino, K. J., Dale, P. J., Oliver, B., Petrill, S. A., Richardson,
V., Rutter,
M., . . . Plomin, R. (1998). The validity of parent-based
assessment of
the cognitive abilities of 2-year-olds. British Journal of
Developmental
Psychology, 16, 349 –362. doi:10.1111/j.2044-
835X.1998.tb00757.x
76. Sparrow, S. S., Balla, D. A., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1984).
Vineland Adaptive
Behavior Scales Survey Form manual (Interview ed.). Circle
Pines, MN:
American Guidance Service.
Sroufe, L. A. (1979). The coherence of individual development:
Early care,
attachment, and subsequent developmental issues. American
Psycholo-
gist, 34, 834 – 841. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.834
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Bundy, D. A. (2001). The
predictive
value of IQ. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 1– 41. doi:10.1353/
mpq.2001.0005
Storch, S. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2002). Oral language and
code-related
precursors to reading: Evidence from a longitudinal structural
model.
Developmental Psychology, 38, 934 –947. doi:10.1037/0012-
1649.38.6.934
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate
statistics (5th
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Thal, D., & Bates, E. (1990). Continuity and variation in early
language
development. In J. Colombo & J. Fagan (Eds.), Individual
differences in
infancy (pp. 359 –383). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Thal, D., & Katich, J. (1996). Predicaments in early