This document provides an overview of Indian art and culture from ancient to modern periods. It discusses the evolution of cave architecture from Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves from early periods to the Gupta period. It also describes the development of stupa and temple architecture over time, including the Nagara and Dravidian styles. Additionally, it outlines the cultural contributions of various South Indian dynasties like the Cholas, Pallavas, and Vijayanagara in areas of religion, literature, art, and architecture. Sculpture, crafts, dances, and philosophies from different eras are also summarized.
The Story of the Indic Cosmology and the Celestial Time KeepersAjai Singh
This document discusses the Indic cosmology and calendar system, which were based on careful astronomical observations over centuries. The Indians developed a lunisolar calendar using the motions of the sun and moon. They tracked various cycles like the day, fortnight, month, year, etc. Their calendar provided efficient timekeeping and was useful for agriculture. The Indians had a strong tradition of scholarship in astronomy and mathematics, with many famous astronomers and long time periods of study. Their calendar system aligned with their view of a very ancient and ongoing universe and solar system.
The document describes two trails at the University of Limerick campus: the Art Trail and the Flora and Fauna Trail. It provides an overview of the trails and notes that a mobile application will be developed to guide users along the trails, identifying points of interest and providing information. The application will allow users to view the trails on maps, like and share content, and access location services to find their position on the trails.
This document contains a table of contents with page numbers but no titles for the contents. It lists 43 unnamed sections or chapters without any other descriptive information about the document's topic or purpose.
This document provides background information on the historical and cultural context of Melaka, Malaysia. It then focuses on the Fui Chew Association located at 94 Jalan Hang Kasturi in Melaka. The association building exhibits features of Southern Chinese shophouse architectural styles. The document describes the building's layout, spatial organization, architectural elements, materials, and current conservation efforts. It aims to document the building's history and significance within the local cultural landscape.
This document outlines the Next Generation Science Standards for elementary through high school. It begins with introductions for each grade level (K-5) followed by the performance expectations and core ideas for each standard. These are organized by physical sciences, life sciences, earth and space sciences, and engineering design. The document then provides the storylines and standards for middle school and high school levels with the same organization.
This document contains 245 recipes from Indian cuisine organized by category. The recipes include dishes like aloo palak, gobi manchurian, shahi paneer, samosa, masala vada, various chutneys, halwas, laddoos, burfis, dosas, curries, gravies, pickles, and more. It provides instructions for making traditional Indian snacks, sweets, curries, rice dishes, breads, and drinks. The recipes are presented in a simple format with lists of ingredients and directions for preparation.
This document contains 245 recipes from Indian cuisine categorized by dish type (curries, breads, desserts etc). The recipes provide instructions for making traditional Indian foods like samosas, dosas, halwa, chutneys, curries and more. Each recipe includes a list of ingredients and step-by-step cooking method. The document serves as a guide for people wanting to learn how to cook authentic Indian dishes at home.
This document contains recipes for 51 Indian dishes including appetizers, main courses, desserts, and snacks. The recipes cover both savory dishes like aloo palak (potato spinach curry) and gobi manchurian (cauliflower fritters) as well as sweet treats such as gulab jamun (milk balls in rose-flavored syrup), kaju barfi (cashew fudge), and boondi (chickpea flour fritters). The document provides ingredients and instructions for each recipe so readers can make a variety of traditional Indian food at home.
The Story of the Indic Cosmology and the Celestial Time KeepersAjai Singh
This document discusses the Indic cosmology and calendar system, which were based on careful astronomical observations over centuries. The Indians developed a lunisolar calendar using the motions of the sun and moon. They tracked various cycles like the day, fortnight, month, year, etc. Their calendar provided efficient timekeeping and was useful for agriculture. The Indians had a strong tradition of scholarship in astronomy and mathematics, with many famous astronomers and long time periods of study. Their calendar system aligned with their view of a very ancient and ongoing universe and solar system.
The document describes two trails at the University of Limerick campus: the Art Trail and the Flora and Fauna Trail. It provides an overview of the trails and notes that a mobile application will be developed to guide users along the trails, identifying points of interest and providing information. The application will allow users to view the trails on maps, like and share content, and access location services to find their position on the trails.
This document contains a table of contents with page numbers but no titles for the contents. It lists 43 unnamed sections or chapters without any other descriptive information about the document's topic or purpose.
This document provides background information on the historical and cultural context of Melaka, Malaysia. It then focuses on the Fui Chew Association located at 94 Jalan Hang Kasturi in Melaka. The association building exhibits features of Southern Chinese shophouse architectural styles. The document describes the building's layout, spatial organization, architectural elements, materials, and current conservation efforts. It aims to document the building's history and significance within the local cultural landscape.
This document outlines the Next Generation Science Standards for elementary through high school. It begins with introductions for each grade level (K-5) followed by the performance expectations and core ideas for each standard. These are organized by physical sciences, life sciences, earth and space sciences, and engineering design. The document then provides the storylines and standards for middle school and high school levels with the same organization.
This document contains 245 recipes from Indian cuisine organized by category. The recipes include dishes like aloo palak, gobi manchurian, shahi paneer, samosa, masala vada, various chutneys, halwas, laddoos, burfis, dosas, curries, gravies, pickles, and more. It provides instructions for making traditional Indian snacks, sweets, curries, rice dishes, breads, and drinks. The recipes are presented in a simple format with lists of ingredients and directions for preparation.
This document contains 245 recipes from Indian cuisine categorized by dish type (curries, breads, desserts etc). The recipes provide instructions for making traditional Indian foods like samosas, dosas, halwa, chutneys, curries and more. Each recipe includes a list of ingredients and step-by-step cooking method. The document serves as a guide for people wanting to learn how to cook authentic Indian dishes at home.
This document contains recipes for 51 Indian dishes including appetizers, main courses, desserts, and snacks. The recipes cover both savory dishes like aloo palak (potato spinach curry) and gobi manchurian (cauliflower fritters) as well as sweet treats such as gulab jamun (milk balls in rose-flavored syrup), kaju barfi (cashew fudge), and boondi (chickpea flour fritters). The document provides ingredients and instructions for each recipe so readers can make a variety of traditional Indian food at home.
This document provides guidance for trainers conducting an intercultural training workshop at Jacobs University. It includes an overview of the workshop structure, descriptions and instructions for various activities, and tips for trainers. The workshop aims to help participants understand diversity and cultural differences, and adapt to the multicultural environment at Jacobs University. It is divided into two parts - the first focuses on diversity and culture, the second on thriving in the Jacobs academic and social environment. The trainer's manual provides detailed instructions and materials to help guide trainers in conducting interactive and engaging sessions to facilitate learning for participants.
Trabajo desarrollado por estudiantes del Colegio Concepción, en el marco del Proyecto de Innovación Pedagógica del departamento de Ingles, que reúne ensayos reflexivos en torno a la realidad socio-cultural de la Región del Bio Bio.
This document provides a summary of the 18 major Hindu scriptures known as the Puranas. It includes an introduction and overview of the contents and stories contained within each Purana. Some of the key topics covered in the Puranas include the creation of the universe, descriptions of Hindu deities and their appearances, various incarnations of God, and stories about ancient Hindu kings and sages. The document is intended to be a concise yet informative reference for the major teachings and narratives encompassed by the Puranic scriptures.
This document is an academic paper that discusses the role of flowers in Thai culture and history. It is divided into three units. The first unit provides a literature review of evidence about flower usage in Thai history found in sources like mural paintings, traditional songs, literature, and textiles. The second unit discusses field research on the role of flowers in daily Thai life, such as gift giving, floral arts, medicinal uses, and religious symbolism. The third unit examines the role of flowers in special occasions and events. Overall, the paper analyzes how flowers have been deeply ingrained in Thai culture through various artistic, social, and religious traditions.
This sūrah discusses various topics related to faith, including God's oneness, revelation, resurrection, and the unity between Abraham's faith and Muhammed's message. It outlines God's will and man's will to accept or deny guidance. It explains the mission of prophets and God's law for those who deny them. It also discusses rejecting faith after accepting it. The sūrah presents these topics within the context of God's signs in the universe and blessings bestowed on mankind, as well as scenes of the Day of Judgment. It uses parables, examples, and stories to make its message clear and impact hearts and minds. Throughout, it emphasizes gratitude to God for His blessings.
This document is a table of contents for a publication with sections on travel and various other topics ranging from page 3 to page 22. The table of contents lists section titles but does not include any details on what each section is about.
The Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant seeks to address issues in metaphysics through a "critique" of pure reason. Kant analyzes how reason leads to antinomies or contradictions when discussing concepts that transcend possible experience. The book introduces transcendental idealism as a solution to these contradictions. It examines concepts of space, time, causality, and proposes that we can only know phenomena, not things as they are in themselves. The work aims to establish boundaries of knowledge and bring order to metaphysical inquiries.
This document is a table of contents that lists chapter titles for a book or document. The chapter titles are not included, just page numbers. It appears to be a 35 chapter document based on the number of page references listed.
The document discusses several key Islamic beliefs about the afterlife:
1) It provides proof from the Quran and hadiths for the Islamic belief in resurrection and judgement.
2) It describes the blowing of the horn and different opinions on how many times it will blow before the Day of Judgement.
3) It describes the gathering of all humans and jinn on the Plain of Resurrection and mentions some groups of people who will be resurrected or gathered together.
4) It discusses the standing before Allah for judgement, the concept of intercession, and places like al-Hawd (pool) and as-Sirat (bridge) that believers must cross.
This document is a thesis exploring how modern musical technologies can be applied to enhance compositions of Chinese traditional music. It discusses international and domestic research in electronic music, defines electronic music, and analyzes the musical functions and aesthetic features of sound technology in electroacoustic composition. It then examines features of contemporary Chinese electronic music composition, and how sound technology can reflect the aesthetics of Chinese cultural elements. The thesis also includes a comprehensive analysis of a work titled "The Samsara of Seasons" that integrates modern music technologies and traditional Chinese music performance.
This document provides an overview of 10 different caste or social groups found in India, including:
- Anglo-Indians, people of mixed British and Indian ancestry with a unique culture and history dating back to British rule.
- Ezhava, a historically disadvantaged caste from Kerala with their own unique traditions in arts, medicine, and spirituality.
- Mappila, a Muslim community from Kerala with a long history along the Malabar coast and cultural practices like Oppana folk songs.
- Several other groups are also outlined like Chakkala Nair, Devadiga, Kaniyar, and Saliya, providing brief histories and cultural details for each. The
This document outlines the lectures in a Pakistan Studies course, covering topics like the ideology of Pakistan, major political developments in British India, the Khilafat Movement, Allama Iqbal's presidential address, constitution making in Pakistan from 1947-1973, political history, geography, natural resources, industrial development, education, foreign policy, and Pakistan's relations with the Muslim world. The ideology of Pakistan evolved over time through the historical experiences of Muslims in South Asia, with philosophical explanations by Allama Iqbal, translation into political reality by Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and legal sanction through the Objectives Resolution passed by Pakistan's Constituent Assembly in 1949.
Abstract
Local Building training center is a project that not only encourages local building craft but aspire enhancement of the traditional and cultural building domain of Bangladesh through architecture. Local Building training Center is where local community people will be taught the proper use of local materials. And using local materials will be provided training on how to build low-cost and weather-based homes .
Dinajpur district experiences extremes of weather. Macro climate of the area is a significant factor to influence building orientation, materials, component, shapes, size, structure, construction methodology. Each building has a relation with the nature, so one must be well aware to make a structure with local materials. The sole reason behind choosing this project. Because people living in rural areas are the ones who need knowledge about making their own house,. They are people who make home with aspirations and dreams but those dreams get washed away because of lack of knowledge. Wheres they are capable of doing better with traditional materials and methods.
Building training center for promoting local resources and technology can work like a guidance to rural people to be aware of their own capacity and spread their knowledge to others . Appropriate building techniques are those which are affordable and use materials which are available and techniques which can easily be learnt.
This project. create a Learning field that will interest people After training from local building training center, people in the local community will develop their skills to explore the possibilities to be more environment-friendly and create a sustainable society. also scope of contribution to promote local technology in rural sectors.
Keyword : Building training, ,Local materials , community , rural development ,climate and Environment .
This lesson plan outlines a class that will last 100 minutes. It includes the following sections:
1. A warm-up section lasting 10 minutes where the lecturer will greet students, check attendance, arrange seating, and ask questions to engage students. Students will participate by responding to questions and arranging their seating.
2. A 30 minute review of the previous lesson where the lecturer will collect and provide feedback on homework, review key points, and introduce the new lesson. Students will provide examples and ideas.
3. The main new lesson section lasting 100 minutes. This includes pre-teaching the chapter outlines and concepts to students.
The lesson plan provides detailed instructions for what the lecturer and students will do during
The document reviews literature on pedagogic approaches to using technology for learning. It begins by providing background on drivers for change in how learners use technology today. Research shows that learners increasingly use social software and web 2.0 tools for communication, social networking, and creating/sharing digital content. However, students primarily use these tools outside of school for social purposes rather than educational purposes. The review explores theories of learning and pedagogical approaches and their implications for using technology, as well as gaps and biases in the existing literature.
This document outlines the layout for a project, including the name, advisor, purpose, hypothesis, materials, guidelines, objective plan, expected outcomes, and references. The purpose section lists 5 points about the goals of the project. The objective plan details the processing time over 8 weeks and includes a budget section. The expected outcomes section lists 5 anticipated results.
The document provides an overview of thinking activities completed by Krishna Patel for their MA Sem 1 to 4 coursework. It includes summaries and analyses of literary works such as A Grain of Wheat, Robinson Crusoe, Frankenstein, and Hamlet. Various literary theories and critics are discussed, including archetype criticism, colonialism, postcolonialism, Aristotle's Poetics, and T.S. Eliot. Methods of language teaching and novels such as Paradise Lost, The Scarlet Letter, and Waiting for Godot are also analyzed.
This document provides a summary of the archaeology and rock art of the Eastern Sierra and Great Basin frontier regions. It begins with an introduction describing the scope, purpose and background of the study. Subsequent chapters cover the environmental background of the study area, the anthropological and linguistic prehistory of native groups, the chronology of human occupation based on dating methods, settlement patterns and territories, and a linguistic analysis of rock art styles. The document synthesizes archaeological data from over 100 sites to develop a cultural sequence and evaluate models of population movements and cultural developments in the region over thousands of years.
This document is a book about phrasal verbs. It is divided into chapters that focus on different aspects of phrasal verbs, such as separable and nonseparable phrasal verbs, phrasal verbs used with do/does/did, three-word phrasal verbs, present and past continuous phrasal verbs, and pronunciation of two-word and three-word phrasal verbs. Each chapter provides examples of commonly used phrasal verbs to help readers understand and learn how to use these multi-word verbs.
NEET Chemistry is divided into three sections, namely, Physical, Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. Compared to Biology and Physics, Chemistry is considered to be the most scoring section. If prepared thoroughly, chemistry can help students to secure a meritorious position in the exam. Out of a total 720 marks (180 questions), NEET Chemistry comprises 180 marks (45 Questions). Therefore, it is essential for students to prepare well for the Chemistry section.Nearly 36% of weightage in NEET Chemistry section is allotted to Physical and Inorganic Chemistry while 28% of weightage is allotted to Organic Chemistry Syllabus as per previous trends, in some instances, equal marks-distribution is seen between all three sections. In order to enhance your chemistry preparation, it’s crucial to have thorough planning considering all your strengths, weaknesses and time availability for exam preparation.The chemistry section of NEET is considered to be the scoring section. The questions are NCERT-based predominantly. While all chapters of the NEET Chemistry syllabus must be thoroughly read and understood to excel at NEET, there are some chapters in the syllabus that are most important and must be prioritized. As per previous years’ trends, questions from the following chapters are said to have appeared the most. These numbers are subject to change every year. Take a look at the most important chapters of NEET Chemistry so far –
Equilibrium
p-block elements
Hydrocarbons
D and f block elements
Coordination compounds
Chemical bonding & molecular structure
Electrochemistry
Solutions
Organic chemistry – Some basic principles and techniques
Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
In addition, to the above-mentioned chapters, candidates are also required to thoroughly learn and comprehend other chapters covered in the NEET Syllabus to be able to answer any question asked in NEET.This is a list of do or die chapters for NEET Chemistry 2023: Chemical bonding, Structure of atom, Equilibrium, Hydrocarbon, Coordination compounds, Thermodynamics, GOC, Electrochemistry, Amine, Name Reaction, Chemical kinetics, Biomolecules, Aldehyde ketone, Polymers, d and f block, p-block (class 12)NCERT theoretical concepts must be mastered. 2. Solve NCERT exemplar questions and also solve coaching modules 3. Organic chemistry – the process of reactions must be understood, which only helps to learn reactions on the same lines just as easily. Practice consistently 4. Inorganic chemistry – prepare notes for important reactions and practice thoroughly. Refer NCERT for this 5. Physical chemistry – make note of all equations soon after covering a chapter 6. Maintain a separate section in notes for reactions and their working 7. Make key notes and revise regularly 8. Solve previous years’ question papers, sample papers 9. Take up a mock test every dayRevise Inorganic Chemistry on a regular basis, complete all NCERT chapters. Make formula charts in Physical Chemistry and revise it from ti
This document provides guidance for trainers conducting an intercultural training workshop at Jacobs University. It includes an overview of the workshop structure, descriptions and instructions for various activities, and tips for trainers. The workshop aims to help participants understand diversity and cultural differences, and adapt to the multicultural environment at Jacobs University. It is divided into two parts - the first focuses on diversity and culture, the second on thriving in the Jacobs academic and social environment. The trainer's manual provides detailed instructions and materials to help guide trainers in conducting interactive and engaging sessions to facilitate learning for participants.
Trabajo desarrollado por estudiantes del Colegio Concepción, en el marco del Proyecto de Innovación Pedagógica del departamento de Ingles, que reúne ensayos reflexivos en torno a la realidad socio-cultural de la Región del Bio Bio.
This document provides a summary of the 18 major Hindu scriptures known as the Puranas. It includes an introduction and overview of the contents and stories contained within each Purana. Some of the key topics covered in the Puranas include the creation of the universe, descriptions of Hindu deities and their appearances, various incarnations of God, and stories about ancient Hindu kings and sages. The document is intended to be a concise yet informative reference for the major teachings and narratives encompassed by the Puranic scriptures.
This document is an academic paper that discusses the role of flowers in Thai culture and history. It is divided into three units. The first unit provides a literature review of evidence about flower usage in Thai history found in sources like mural paintings, traditional songs, literature, and textiles. The second unit discusses field research on the role of flowers in daily Thai life, such as gift giving, floral arts, medicinal uses, and religious symbolism. The third unit examines the role of flowers in special occasions and events. Overall, the paper analyzes how flowers have been deeply ingrained in Thai culture through various artistic, social, and religious traditions.
This sūrah discusses various topics related to faith, including God's oneness, revelation, resurrection, and the unity between Abraham's faith and Muhammed's message. It outlines God's will and man's will to accept or deny guidance. It explains the mission of prophets and God's law for those who deny them. It also discusses rejecting faith after accepting it. The sūrah presents these topics within the context of God's signs in the universe and blessings bestowed on mankind, as well as scenes of the Day of Judgment. It uses parables, examples, and stories to make its message clear and impact hearts and minds. Throughout, it emphasizes gratitude to God for His blessings.
This document is a table of contents for a publication with sections on travel and various other topics ranging from page 3 to page 22. The table of contents lists section titles but does not include any details on what each section is about.
The Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant seeks to address issues in metaphysics through a "critique" of pure reason. Kant analyzes how reason leads to antinomies or contradictions when discussing concepts that transcend possible experience. The book introduces transcendental idealism as a solution to these contradictions. It examines concepts of space, time, causality, and proposes that we can only know phenomena, not things as they are in themselves. The work aims to establish boundaries of knowledge and bring order to metaphysical inquiries.
This document is a table of contents that lists chapter titles for a book or document. The chapter titles are not included, just page numbers. It appears to be a 35 chapter document based on the number of page references listed.
The document discusses several key Islamic beliefs about the afterlife:
1) It provides proof from the Quran and hadiths for the Islamic belief in resurrection and judgement.
2) It describes the blowing of the horn and different opinions on how many times it will blow before the Day of Judgement.
3) It describes the gathering of all humans and jinn on the Plain of Resurrection and mentions some groups of people who will be resurrected or gathered together.
4) It discusses the standing before Allah for judgement, the concept of intercession, and places like al-Hawd (pool) and as-Sirat (bridge) that believers must cross.
This document is a thesis exploring how modern musical technologies can be applied to enhance compositions of Chinese traditional music. It discusses international and domestic research in electronic music, defines electronic music, and analyzes the musical functions and aesthetic features of sound technology in electroacoustic composition. It then examines features of contemporary Chinese electronic music composition, and how sound technology can reflect the aesthetics of Chinese cultural elements. The thesis also includes a comprehensive analysis of a work titled "The Samsara of Seasons" that integrates modern music technologies and traditional Chinese music performance.
This document provides an overview of 10 different caste or social groups found in India, including:
- Anglo-Indians, people of mixed British and Indian ancestry with a unique culture and history dating back to British rule.
- Ezhava, a historically disadvantaged caste from Kerala with their own unique traditions in arts, medicine, and spirituality.
- Mappila, a Muslim community from Kerala with a long history along the Malabar coast and cultural practices like Oppana folk songs.
- Several other groups are also outlined like Chakkala Nair, Devadiga, Kaniyar, and Saliya, providing brief histories and cultural details for each. The
This document outlines the lectures in a Pakistan Studies course, covering topics like the ideology of Pakistan, major political developments in British India, the Khilafat Movement, Allama Iqbal's presidential address, constitution making in Pakistan from 1947-1973, political history, geography, natural resources, industrial development, education, foreign policy, and Pakistan's relations with the Muslim world. The ideology of Pakistan evolved over time through the historical experiences of Muslims in South Asia, with philosophical explanations by Allama Iqbal, translation into political reality by Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and legal sanction through the Objectives Resolution passed by Pakistan's Constituent Assembly in 1949.
Abstract
Local Building training center is a project that not only encourages local building craft but aspire enhancement of the traditional and cultural building domain of Bangladesh through architecture. Local Building training Center is where local community people will be taught the proper use of local materials. And using local materials will be provided training on how to build low-cost and weather-based homes .
Dinajpur district experiences extremes of weather. Macro climate of the area is a significant factor to influence building orientation, materials, component, shapes, size, structure, construction methodology. Each building has a relation with the nature, so one must be well aware to make a structure with local materials. The sole reason behind choosing this project. Because people living in rural areas are the ones who need knowledge about making their own house,. They are people who make home with aspirations and dreams but those dreams get washed away because of lack of knowledge. Wheres they are capable of doing better with traditional materials and methods.
Building training center for promoting local resources and technology can work like a guidance to rural people to be aware of their own capacity and spread their knowledge to others . Appropriate building techniques are those which are affordable and use materials which are available and techniques which can easily be learnt.
This project. create a Learning field that will interest people After training from local building training center, people in the local community will develop their skills to explore the possibilities to be more environment-friendly and create a sustainable society. also scope of contribution to promote local technology in rural sectors.
Keyword : Building training, ,Local materials , community , rural development ,climate and Environment .
This lesson plan outlines a class that will last 100 minutes. It includes the following sections:
1. A warm-up section lasting 10 minutes where the lecturer will greet students, check attendance, arrange seating, and ask questions to engage students. Students will participate by responding to questions and arranging their seating.
2. A 30 minute review of the previous lesson where the lecturer will collect and provide feedback on homework, review key points, and introduce the new lesson. Students will provide examples and ideas.
3. The main new lesson section lasting 100 minutes. This includes pre-teaching the chapter outlines and concepts to students.
The lesson plan provides detailed instructions for what the lecturer and students will do during
The document reviews literature on pedagogic approaches to using technology for learning. It begins by providing background on drivers for change in how learners use technology today. Research shows that learners increasingly use social software and web 2.0 tools for communication, social networking, and creating/sharing digital content. However, students primarily use these tools outside of school for social purposes rather than educational purposes. The review explores theories of learning and pedagogical approaches and their implications for using technology, as well as gaps and biases in the existing literature.
This document outlines the layout for a project, including the name, advisor, purpose, hypothesis, materials, guidelines, objective plan, expected outcomes, and references. The purpose section lists 5 points about the goals of the project. The objective plan details the processing time over 8 weeks and includes a budget section. The expected outcomes section lists 5 anticipated results.
The document provides an overview of thinking activities completed by Krishna Patel for their MA Sem 1 to 4 coursework. It includes summaries and analyses of literary works such as A Grain of Wheat, Robinson Crusoe, Frankenstein, and Hamlet. Various literary theories and critics are discussed, including archetype criticism, colonialism, postcolonialism, Aristotle's Poetics, and T.S. Eliot. Methods of language teaching and novels such as Paradise Lost, The Scarlet Letter, and Waiting for Godot are also analyzed.
This document provides a summary of the archaeology and rock art of the Eastern Sierra and Great Basin frontier regions. It begins with an introduction describing the scope, purpose and background of the study. Subsequent chapters cover the environmental background of the study area, the anthropological and linguistic prehistory of native groups, the chronology of human occupation based on dating methods, settlement patterns and territories, and a linguistic analysis of rock art styles. The document synthesizes archaeological data from over 100 sites to develop a cultural sequence and evaluate models of population movements and cultural developments in the region over thousands of years.
This document is a book about phrasal verbs. It is divided into chapters that focus on different aspects of phrasal verbs, such as separable and nonseparable phrasal verbs, phrasal verbs used with do/does/did, three-word phrasal verbs, present and past continuous phrasal verbs, and pronunciation of two-word and three-word phrasal verbs. Each chapter provides examples of commonly used phrasal verbs to help readers understand and learn how to use these multi-word verbs.
NEET Chemistry is divided into three sections, namely, Physical, Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. Compared to Biology and Physics, Chemistry is considered to be the most scoring section. If prepared thoroughly, chemistry can help students to secure a meritorious position in the exam. Out of a total 720 marks (180 questions), NEET Chemistry comprises 180 marks (45 Questions). Therefore, it is essential for students to prepare well for the Chemistry section.Nearly 36% of weightage in NEET Chemistry section is allotted to Physical and Inorganic Chemistry while 28% of weightage is allotted to Organic Chemistry Syllabus as per previous trends, in some instances, equal marks-distribution is seen between all three sections. In order to enhance your chemistry preparation, it’s crucial to have thorough planning considering all your strengths, weaknesses and time availability for exam preparation.The chemistry section of NEET is considered to be the scoring section. The questions are NCERT-based predominantly. While all chapters of the NEET Chemistry syllabus must be thoroughly read and understood to excel at NEET, there are some chapters in the syllabus that are most important and must be prioritized. As per previous years’ trends, questions from the following chapters are said to have appeared the most. These numbers are subject to change every year. Take a look at the most important chapters of NEET Chemistry so far –
Equilibrium
p-block elements
Hydrocarbons
D and f block elements
Coordination compounds
Chemical bonding & molecular structure
Electrochemistry
Solutions
Organic chemistry – Some basic principles and techniques
Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
In addition, to the above-mentioned chapters, candidates are also required to thoroughly learn and comprehend other chapters covered in the NEET Syllabus to be able to answer any question asked in NEET.This is a list of do or die chapters for NEET Chemistry 2023: Chemical bonding, Structure of atom, Equilibrium, Hydrocarbon, Coordination compounds, Thermodynamics, GOC, Electrochemistry, Amine, Name Reaction, Chemical kinetics, Biomolecules, Aldehyde ketone, Polymers, d and f block, p-block (class 12)NCERT theoretical concepts must be mastered. 2. Solve NCERT exemplar questions and also solve coaching modules 3. Organic chemistry – the process of reactions must be understood, which only helps to learn reactions on the same lines just as easily. Practice consistently 4. Inorganic chemistry – prepare notes for important reactions and practice thoroughly. Refer NCERT for this 5. Physical chemistry – make note of all equations soon after covering a chapter 6. Maintain a separate section in notes for reactions and their working 7. Make key notes and revise regularly 8. Solve previous years’ question papers, sample papers 9. Take up a mock test every dayRevise Inorganic Chemistry on a regular basis, complete all NCERT chapters. Make formula charts in Physical Chemistry and revise it from ti
This document discusses challenges facing professional stock investors managing large portfolios. Due to the immense size of their funds, these investors can only purchase large, heavily traded companies. This limits their ability to outperform the market through smaller investments. The document argues academics are wrong that the market cannot be beaten, and that small individual investors can have an advantage over professionals through more flexible investment strategies.
The Kautilya Arthashastra - Chanakya.pdfSumni Uchiha
This document provides a summary of the introduction to the translated work "The Arthashastra" by L.N. Rangarajan.
1) Arthashastra is the science of politics and statecraft that covers topics like administration, law and order, taxation, revenue, expenditure, foreign policy, defence, and war. Its main objectives are to promote the welfare of subjects, acquire wealth, and enlarge territory by conquest.
2) Kautilya was not the originator of Arthashastra. His work is based on earlier treatises from five schools of thought that are mentioned.
3) The introduction provides background on dharma, artha, kama
This document is an excerpt from Daymond John's book The Power of Broke which discusses the value of starting a business with limited resources and relying on creativity, determination, and authenticity over money and flash. The excerpt makes three key points:
1. True innovation comes from grassroots efforts, not top-down initiatives fueled by money. Many successful businesses, art forms, and trends originate organically from singular visions.
2. For relationships and businesses to succeed long-term, they must be built on authentic connections and genuine passion, not superficial displays of wealth, status, or sex appeal.
3. Overreliance on money can undermine creativity and lead companies to make changes for the wrong reasons
Technical Trading Tactics - John L. Person(1)_050520072816.pdfSumni Uchiha
This book provides a complete guide to technical trading tactics. It begins with an introduction to futures and options markets, explaining basic terminology and mechanics. The book then covers various technical analysis techniques including candlestick charts, chart patterns, volume and open interest analysis, and pivot point analysis. It discusses how to implement various trading strategies using these technical indicators and emphasizes the importance of mental discipline for traders. The book also includes a primer on options and concludes with the author's top ten trading principles. The goal is to share techniques that have worked for successful traders to help both new and experienced investors improve their trading.
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1. Indian Art & Culture by Teju, NextGen IAS
Print-Friendly PDF – Table of Contents
1. Cave Architecture............................................................................................................................14
1.1 Origin..................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.2 History ................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.3 Types of Caves ...................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Buddhist Caves ...........................................................................................................................................................................................15
1.3.2 Hindu Caves.................................................................................................................................................................................................15
1.3.3 Jain Caves......................................................................................................................................................................................................16
1.3.4 Cave Architecture during Gupta Period............................................................................................................................................20
1.4 Evolution of Buddhist Cave Architecture........................................................................................... 22
1.4.1 Phase 1...........................................................................................................................................................................................................22
1.4.2 Phase 2...........................................................................................................................................................................................................23
1.4.3 Phase3............................................................................................................................................................................................................23
1.4.4 Phase 4...........................................................................................................................................................................................................23
1.5 Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves ............................................................................................................ 23
2. Stupa Architecture..........................................................................................................................24
2.1 Stupa...................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.1 Stupa Architecture in North India.......................................................................................................................................................27
2.1.2 Stupa Architecture in South India.......................................................................................................................................................27
2.1.3 Differences between the North Indian and South Indian Stupas...........................................................................................27
Structure of Stupa –terminology..................................................................................................................... 28
2.1.4 Basic structure of stupa...........................................................................................................................................................................28
2.2 Stupa Architecture in different periods ............................................................................................. 29
2.3 Different kinds of stupas ..................................................................................................................... 31
2.4 Classification of Stupas based on form and function....................................................................... 32
2.4.1 Sanchi Stupa................................................................................................................................................................................................32
2.4.2 Amaravati Stupa.........................................................................................................................................................................................32
2.4.3 Bharhut stupa..............................................................................................................................................................................................33
2.4.4 Gandhara stupa..........................................................................................................................................................................................33
2. 2.4.5 Sungas, Kushans and Satavahanas.....................................................................................................................................................33
2.4.6 Amaravathi School of Art .......................................................................................................................................................................34
2.4.7 Differences between Mathura and Gandhara art .........................................................................................................................35
3. Temple Architecture .......................................................................................................................35
3.2 Temples Architecture @ Pre-Gupta Period........................................................................................ 36
3.3 Temple Archiecture @ Gupta Dynasty ............................................................................................... 36
3.3.1 Evolution of Gupta Style Temple Architecture...............................................................................................................................36
3.3.2 Important Temples @ Gupta Style of Temple Architecture .....................................................................................................38
3.4 Rock-Cut temple architecture ............................................................................................................. 40
3.4.1 Monolithic Temples ..................................................................................................................................................................................40
3.4.2 Important sites of Rock-cut Temples of the Gupta Period.......................................................................................................40
3.5 Stages of Temple Architecture............................................................................................................ 41
3.5.1 First Stage.....................................................................................................................................................................................................41
3.5.2 Second stage...............................................................................................................................................................................................42
3.5.3 Third stage....................................................................................................................................................................................................42
3.5.4 Fourth Stage ................................................................................................................................................................................................42
3.5.5 Fifth Stage.....................................................................................................................................................................................................43
3.6 Styles of Temple Architecture............................................................................................................. 43
3.6.1 Nagara School of Architecture.............................................................................................................................................................43
3.6.2 Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture............................................................................................................................................48
3.6.3 Differences between Nagara and Dravida Style of temple architecture .............................................................................48
3.7 Temple Architecture in South India.................................................................................................... 48
3.7.1 Stage I - Mahendra Group.....................................................................................................................................................................49
3.7.2 Stage II - Narasimha Group...................................................................................................................................................................49
3.7.3 Stage III - Rajasimha Group...................................................................................................................................................................49
3.7.4 Stage IV - Nandivarman Group............................................................................................................................................................49
3.7.5 Other Schools of Temple Architecture in South India ................................................................................................................49
4. Indo-Islamic Architecture...............................................................................................................52
4.2 Mosque.................................................................................................................................................. 52
4.3 Tomb...................................................................................................................................................... 52
4.4 Secular Architecture............................................................................................................................. 53
4.5 The Sultanate Period............................................................................................................................ 53
3. 4.5.1 Imperial Style...............................................................................................................................................................................................53
4.5.2 Provincial Style............................................................................................................................................................................................55
5. Sculpture and Architecture During Various Periods...................................................................57
5.1 Vedic Age .............................................................................................................................................. 57
5.1.1 City-states and timber construction...................................................................................................................................................57
5.2 Indus Valley Civilization....................................................................................................................... 58
5.2.1 Main features of architecture of Indus Valley Civilization.........................................................................................................58
5.2.2 Great Bath.....................................................................................................................................................................................................58
5.2.3 Granary @ Harappa..................................................................................................................................................................................58
5.2.4 Assembly Hall..............................................................................................................................................................................................59
5.2.5 Citadels ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................59
5.2.6 City Planning................................................................................................................................................................................................59
5.2.7 Wells ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................59
5.3 Mughal Period ...................................................................................................................................... 60
5.3.1 Features of Mughal Architecture.........................................................................................................................................................60
5.3.2 Babur ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................60
5.3.3 Humayun.......................................................................................................................................................................................................60
5.3.4 Akbar ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.3.5 Humayun’s Tomb.......................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.3.6 Agra Fort .......................................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.3.7 Fatehpur Sikri ..............................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.3.8 Panch Mahal ................................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.3.9 Buland Darwaza..........................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.3.10 Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti ............................................................................................................................................................62
5.3.11 Jahangir ....................................................................................................................................................................................................62
5.3.12 Shah Jahan ..............................................................................................................................................................................................62
5.3.13 Aurangzeb...............................................................................................................................................................................................64
5.4 Colonial period ..................................................................................................................................... 64
5.4.1 Portuguese colonists................................................................................................................................................................................65
5.4.2 British Architectural Monuments.........................................................................................................................................................66
5.4.3 New Changes in Colonial Architecture and Sculptures..............................................................................................................67
5.4.4 Danish Influence in Indian Sculpture.................................................................................................................................................68
6. Cultural Contributions....................................................................................................................69
4. 6.1 Cultural Contributions in Gupta Age.................................................................................................. 69
6.1.1 Sanskrit language and literature..........................................................................................................................................................69
6.1.2 Development of Scientific Knowledge..............................................................................................................................................70
6.1.3 Art and Architecture .................................................................................................................................................................................71
6.1.4 Painting..........................................................................................................................................................................................................73
6.1.5 Coins...............................................................................................................................................................................................................73
6.2 Cultural Contributions of Sungas ....................................................................................................... 74
6.2.1 Religion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................74
6.2.2 Literature.......................................................................................................................................................................................................75
6.2.3 Progress of Art............................................................................................................................................................................................75
6.3 Cultural Contributions of Kushans...................................................................................................... 76
6.3.1 Progress of Literature...............................................................................................................................................................................76
6.3.2 Religion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................77
6.3.3 Development of Art..................................................................................................................................................................................77
6.3.4 Other Contributions..................................................................................................................................................................................78
6.4 Cultural Contributions of Rajputs....................................................................................................... 78
6.4.1 Religious Conditions.................................................................................................................................................................................78
6.4.2 Art and Architecture .................................................................................................................................................................................79
6.4.3 Sculpture.......................................................................................................................................................................................................80
6.4.4 Cave Art.........................................................................................................................................................................................................80
6.4.5 Painting..........................................................................................................................................................................................................80
6.4.6 Literature and Education ........................................................................................................................................................................80
7. Cultural Contributions of South Indian Dynasties ......................................................................82
7.1 Cultural Contributions of Kakatiyas ................................................................................................... 82
7.1.1 Literary Contribution of Kakatiyas.......................................................................................................................................................82
7.1.2 Artistic Excellence ......................................................................................................................................................................................83
7.2 Cultural Contributions of Hoyasalas................................................................................................... 83
7.2.1 Literature – Sanskrit..................................................................................................................................................................................83
7.2.2 Music and Dance .......................................................................................................................................................................................84
7.2.3 Architecture..................................................................................................................................................................................................84
7.3 Cultural Contributions of Satavahanas .............................................................................................. 85
7.3.1 Religion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................85
7.3.2 Language and Literature.........................................................................................................................................................................86
5. 7.3.3 Art and Architecture .................................................................................................................................................................................87
7.3.4 Expansion of Indian Culture ..................................................................................................................................................................87
7.4 Cultural Contributions of Pallavas...................................................................................................... 88
7.4.1 Cultural Contribution of the Pallavas.................................................................................................................................................88
7.4.2 Religion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................88
7.4.3 Literature.......................................................................................................................................................................................................91
7.4.4 Art and Architecture .................................................................................................................................................................................92
7.4.5 Spread of Indian Culture.........................................................................................................................................................................93
7.5 Cultural Contributions of Chalukyas .................................................................................................. 94
7.5.1 Cultural Conditions ...................................................................................................................................................................................94
7.5.2 Religion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................94
7.5.3 Language and Literature.........................................................................................................................................................................95
7.5.4 Art and Architecture .................................................................................................................................................................................96
7.6 Cultural Contributions of Cholas ........................................................................................................ 97
7.6.1 Art and architecture..................................................................................................................................................................................97
7.6.2 Sculpture.......................................................................................................................................................................................................99
7.6.3 Portraits ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 100
7.6.4 Paintings..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
7.6.5 Music ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
7.6.6 Dance........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
7.6.7 Drama.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
7.7 Cultural Contributions of Vijayanagara Empire ..............................................................................102
7.7.2 Religion and Art ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
7.7.3 Architecture and Sculpture................................................................................................................................................................. 104
7.7.4 Literature.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
7.8 Cultural Contributions of Rashtrakutas ...........................................................................................107
7.8.1 Religious Conditions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 107
7.8.2 Language and Literature...................................................................................................................................................................... 108
7.8.3 Art ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 108
7.9 Sangam Age ........................................................................................................................................109
7.9.1 Sangam Literature.................................................................................................................................................................................. 109
7.9.2 Sangams flourished in Pandyan Kingdom.................................................................................................................................... 110
7.9.3 Epics............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 111
6. 8. Indo-Islamic Culture .....................................................................................................................112
8.2 Social Customs and Etiquette............................................................................................................113
8.3 Language and Literature....................................................................................................................114
8.4 Religion................................................................................................................................................114
8.5 Art and Architecture...........................................................................................................................115
8.6 Painting ...............................................................................................................................................115
8.7 Music....................................................................................................................................................116
9. Cultural Contribution Of Mughal Empire...................................................................................116
9.1 Social Conditions ................................................................................................................................116
9.1.1 Different Classes...................................................................................................................................................................................... 117
9.1.2 Social Classes............................................................................................................................................................................................ 117
9.2 Religious beliefs and Practices..........................................................................................................117
9.3 Fairs and Festivals...............................................................................................................................118
9.4 Position of Women.............................................................................................................................118
9.5 Coins ....................................................................................................................................................118
9.6 Cultural conditions.............................................................................................................................119
9.7 Literature.............................................................................................................................................120
9.7.1 Persian......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 120
9.7.2 Hindi............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 121
9.7.3 Urdu ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 121
9.8 Education.............................................................................................................................................121
9.9 Painting ...............................................................................................................................................122
9.10 Music....................................................................................................................................................123
9.11 Calligraphy ..........................................................................................................................................124
9.12 Sculpture .............................................................................................................................................124
9.12.1 Decorative Carving............................................................................................................................................................................ 125
9.12.2 Mosaics And Inlay Decorations.................................................................................................................................................... 125
9.13 Jewellery..............................................................................................................................................125
9.14 Gardens................................................................................................................................................126
10. Bhakti Movement..........................................................................................................................127
7. 10.1 Causes for the rise of Bhakti movement..........................................................................................127
10.2 Features of Bhakti movement...........................................................................................................128
10.2.1 Sankaracharya..................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
10.2.2 Ramanuja Dr........................................................................................................................................................................................ 130
10.2.3 Namadeva ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 130
10.2.4 Ramananda.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 130
10.2.5 Vallabhacharya ................................................................................................................................................................................... 130
10.2.6 Chaitanya .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 131
10.2.7 Kabir........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 131
10.2.8 Nanak ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 131
10.3 Effects of Bhakti movement..............................................................................................................131
10.3.1 Religious effects................................................................................................................................................................................. 131
10.3.2 Social effects........................................................................................................................................................................................ 132
10.3.3 Cultural effects.................................................................................................................................................................................... 132
10.3.4 Political effects.................................................................................................................................................................................... 132
11. Sufism.............................................................................................................................................132
11.1 The Sufi thought.................................................................................................................................133
11.2 The Hindu Impact on Sufism.............................................................................................................134
11.3 Sufi Orders...........................................................................................................................................136
11.3.1 Chistis..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 136
11.3.2 Suhrawadi............................................................................................................................................................................................. 136
11.3.3 Qadri....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 136
11.3.4 Naq Shbandi........................................................................................................................................................................................ 136
11.3.5 Rasahniya order.................................................................................................................................................................................. 136
11.3.6 Mahadawi ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 136
11.3.7 Qalandariya.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 136
11.3.8 Shattari................................................................................................................................................................................................... 136
12. Indian Philosophy .........................................................................................................................136
12.1 Vedic ....................................................................................................................................................136
12.2 The Jain precepts and Philosophy ....................................................................................................137
12.2.1 5 instruments of knowledge ......................................................................................................................................................... 137
12.3 Buddhist Philosophy ..........................................................................................................................138
14. 20.2.6 Brij Festival ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 208
20.2.7 Sonepur Cattle Fair ........................................................................................................................................................................... 208
20.2.8 Tarnetar Mela...................................................................................................................................................................................... 208
20.2.9 Poush Mela .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 208
21. Sculpture........................................................................................................................................209
21.1 Harappan Civilization.........................................................................................................................209
21.2 Mauryan...............................................................................................................................................209
21.2.1 Yaksh and Yakshini (Sculpture) .................................................................................................................................................... 209
21.3 Post-Mauryan .....................................................................................................................................210
21.4 Gupta ...................................................................................................................................................210
21.5 Pala.......................................................................................................................................................210
21.6 Chola ....................................................................................................................................................211
One Stop Solution for Indian Art and Culture preparation with
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1. Cave Architecture
• Often called as Rock-cut architecture
• Earliest evidence @ 3rd century BC ➔Barabar
caves, Bihar
• Purpose ➔ used by Buddhist and Jain monks
as places of worship and residence
1.1 Origin
• Caves were excavated out of rocks
• Varshavasa➔ residences for Buddhists monks
during rainy season.
• Medium to propagate principles of different
religions
• Western India ➔ Chaityas and Viharas of Bud-
dhists
1.2 History
15. • Oldest rock-cut architecture➔Barabar caves,
Bihar built around 3rd
Century BC
• Earliest cave temples Bhaja Caves, Karla Caves,
Bedsa Caves, Kanheri Caves and Ajanta Caves
➔Caves are related to Buddhism
1.3 Types of Caves
1. Buddhist caves
2. Hindu caves
3. Jain caves
1.3.1 Buddhist Caves
1. Chaitya caves
2. Vihara caves
Chaitya Caves
• Places of worship used by the Buddhist monks
• It has an object of worship called ‘Stupa’
• In Hinayana period (earlier Buddhism ) sym-
bolic worship is observed so any sculpture of
Buddha and related deities are not carved on
the Stupa
• In Mahayana (later Buddhism), Buddha relat-
ed deities and jataka Stories are carved and
painted.
• On the Stupa, Buddha in various posture is also
carved.
Vihara Caves
• Places of residence in Buddhist caves. Also
called as monastery.
• Found both in Hinayana and Mahayana sects
• Hinayana Vihara are with carving of Stupa
without image of Buddha
• Mahayana Vihara have sculptures related to
Buddhism
1.3.2 Hindu Caves
• Continuation of the Buddhist cave architec-
ture
• Period of excavation is from 4th
century to 8th
century A.D
16. • Major themes depicted are associated with
Hinduism like Dasavatara, Ramayana and Ma-
habharata
1.3.3 Jain Caves
• Generally dated between 6th
century A.D. and
12th century A.D
• Depict the stories related to Tirthankaras of
Jain Pantheon
• The sculptures are highly ornamented. It is the
culmination of cave architecture in India.
Sudama / Nyagodh Cave
• Barabar hills @ Bihar
• Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves represent the
earliest example of rock-cut architecture
• 3rd
Century→Maurya Period
• Ashoka dedicated some cave chambers to
Ajivikas
• Circular vaulted chamber with a rectangular
mandapa
Lomasa Rishi Cave
• Also called the Grotto of Lomas Rishi
• Barabar and Nagarjuni hills [Rock cut caves]
@ Bihar
• 3rd
Century BC ➔ Built during Ashoka periodas
a part of sacred architecture of Ajivikas
• The hut-style facade at the entrance to the cave
is the earliest survival of the ogee shaped
"chaitya arch"or chandrashala
17. Frieze of Elephants
• Carved out of a gigantic rounded granite rock
• The form was clearly a reproduction in stone
of buildings in wood and other vegetable
materials
Nagarjuni hills
• 3 caves discovered➔ Gopi cave ,Mirza Mandi,
VedathikaKubha
• Dedicated to monks of Ajivika sect by Da-
saratha (grandson of Ashoka)
• Largest cave➔ Gopi cave or Milkmaid’s cave
Bhaja Cave
• Oldest Deccan Cave
• Deep upsidal wall
• Octagonal pillars
• Location – Lonavala, Maharashtra
• Curved ribs – barrel vaulting of wooden build-
ings
• Gate – façade like a gable
• End – small stupa
• Belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect
• Hinayana faith
• Has wooden ceiling over Chaitya-griha
18. • Stupa has a hole on top, for inserting wooden
umbrella
Karle Cave
• Great Chaitya hall
• Pillars – square stepped plinth
• Capitals of horses/elephants to support roof
which has ribs to represent barrel vaulting
• Sangharama➔ monastery
• Related with the Mahasaṃghika sect of Bud-
dhism
• Location ➔ Karle, Maharashtra
Ellora Cave
• Locally known as ‘Verul Leni’
• Cut by Buddhists➔ Rock cut monastery
• Famous for the largest monolithic excavation
in the world- the great Kailasa
• Sahayadri ranges of Deccan
• UNESCO World heritage site
• Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments
• Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic
rock excavation in the world, the Kailasha tem-
ple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated to
Shiva
Elephanta cave
• Located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai
• 7 cave excavations in the Elephanta group
• Trimurti of Shiva
19. • Carved from solid basalt rock
• UNESCO World Heritage Site
Cave temple of Mandagapattu
• Tirumurti Temple
• Built by Mahendravarman I
• 1st
cave temple of Tamil Nadu
• Holds a significant position in the history of ar-
chitecture of the Pallavas
PanchaPandava cave
• Located in Mamallapuram
• UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Bas relief
• Connected to the Arjuna’s penance and it is a
raw and unfinished structure
Arjuna’s Penance
• Also known as ‘Descent of Ganga’
• Built by Pallavas
• Open-air rock relief
• Story of the descent of the sacred riv-
er Ganga to earth from the heavens led
by Bhagiratha
Udayagiri and Kandhagiri caves of Od-
isha
• Built by Jains
20. • Hathigumpha, Ranigumpha and
Ganeshagumpha caves
• Located near Bhubaneshwar
• Most of these caves were carved out as resi-
dential blocks for Jain monks during the
reign of Kharavela
• Udayagiri ➔ 18 caves
• Khandagiri ➔ 15 caves
• Ranigumpha @ Udayagiri ➔ double storeyed
monastery
1.3.4 Cave Architecture during Gupta
Period
• The greatest development of cave architec-
ture was seen during Gupta period
Ajanta Caves
• Location ➔Aurangabad, Maharashtra
• Discovered in 19th
century
• Built on Perpendicular Cliff
• Since the caves are on perpendicular side
there are not many chaityas
• 25 viharas + 4 chaityas
• Outlines ➔red colourand then other colours
• Blue colour is not seen in Ajanta
• Theme ➔ Jataka stories
• Fahien and HiuenTsang are mentioned in
Ajanta
• 5 caves➔ Hinayana Buddhism
• 25 caves➔ Mahayana Buddhism
Bagh Caves
• Location➔ Bagh, M.P
• Group of 9 rock-cut monuments
21. • Caves ➔Buddhist Viharas
• Cave 4➔Rang Mahal (Palace of Colors)
• Excavated by Satavahanas
Ellora Caves
• Total no. of caves➔ 34
• Depicts 3 religions➔ Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism
• Hinduism ➔ 17 caves
• Buddhism➔ 12 caves
• Jainism ➔ 5 caves
• Location➔ Aurangabad, Maharashtra
• Contribution by Rashtrakuta is seen in these
caves
• 3 storeyed caves are also present
Junagadh Caves
• Location ➔ Gujarat
• Buddhist religion
• Uparkots➔ 30-50 ft high artificial platforms
connected by a staircase to the hall
Nashik Caves
• Location → Maharashtra
• 25 caves
• Hinayana Buddhism
• 1st
Century AD
• Also called as Pandava Leni / Trirashmi
• Spiritual presence of Buddha is denoted by a
throne and footprints
• Most of the caves are Viharas
• 18th
cave → Chaitya
Montperir Caves/ Mandapeshwar
• Location → Mount Poinsur in Borivali, Maha-
rashtra
• River Dhaisa
• 8th
century cut rock dedicated to Shiva
• Only Brahmanical Cave to be converted into
a Christian Cave (Portuguese)
Chaitya Cave 19 of Ajanta Group
22. • Standing image of Buddha
• Mahayana Buddhism
• 2 life size Yaksha images on either sides of the
chaitya vatayana (arch)
Vihara Cave 16
• Excavation of this cave was caused by
Varahadeva
• Varahadeva ➔ minister of Vakataka king
Harisena
• Cave 16 ➔Monastery
Vihara Cave 17
• Brahmi inscription ➔ cave 17 excavated under
Harisena
• Cave 17 ➔ monastery
• Cave 17 is similar to 16 except wheel of life
“Bhava Chakra”
Udayagiri Cave temple
• Near Sanchi, M.P.
• Tall statue of Vishnu's Boar Avatar
• This image was in the personal temple of
Chandragupta II
• Total ➔20 caves
• 1 cave➔ Jainism
• 19 caves➔ Hinduism
1.4 Evolution of Buddhist Cave Ar-
chitecture
1.4.1 Phase 1
23. • It began with the construction of Lomarishi
and Sudama caves in Barabar Hills by Ashoka.
• These were simple caves and the cave ran
parallel to the rock face after entry. There
was one large rectangular room followed by
a smaller circular room.
1.4.2 Phase 2
• The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Kon-
ditve.
• The cave was cut perpendicular to the rock
face and the inner room now contained a
stupa and a circumambulatory path around
it.
1.4.3 Phase3
• The next stage was when rows of pillars were
built parallel to the walls creating a circum-
ambulatory passage right after entering. The
central roof was high, vaulted and side roof was
low and half-vaulted. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa
caves are examples.
• Sometimes cells, rock cut beds were cut
around the central hall. An example is Bedsa
caves.
1.4.4 Phase 4
• During the Kshatrapa-Satvahana kings, caves
got royal patronage and became more elabo-
rate and ornamented.
• The basic features of previous phase continued.
• A variety of mithun couples were carved on
the gates, the pillars came to have elaborate
capitals, the side roof became flat.
• Multi-storeyed caves came up.
• Double storeyed viharas came up at Karle
and triple storeyed at Ajanta. Other examples
are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri caves,
Pitalkhora.
1.5 Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves
• Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is
easy to cut but not good for sculpting. But
24. Buddhist caves were cut into hard rocks and
were better for sculpting.
• The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or
rock cut shrines. Later, however, some cells
were enlarged into shrines. The Buddhist caves
on the other hand had clear halls and the
shrine area.
✓ The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the
rock permitted. There was no planning. The
Buddhist cave structure on the other hand
was well laid out.
✓ The Jaina caves were simple and reflected
the asceticism of jina monks.
✓ The cells were tiny (not tall enough to stand,
not long enough to stretch while sleeping, small
entrances so as to bend very low).
✓ The only luxury was occasional shelves cut into
rocks and sloping floor acting as a pillow but
actually designed to keep of water from accu-
mulating.
✓ Only the outer portions were carved sometimes.
✓ The Buddhist caves on the other hand were
an elaborate and spacious affair.
✓ The Jaina caves are of two types - those with-
out pillars in verandah or those with pillars.
✓ Without pillars had cells cut along three sides of
the verandah. Pillars were square at top and
bottom and octagonal at middle.
✓ In terms of similarities, the sculptures use simi-
lar motifs like animals, plants.
✓ The honeysuckle style is similar too. Examples of
such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.
2. Stupa Architecture
25. • Buddhism was the earliest Indian religion to
require large communal spaces for worship.
• This led to three types of architectural forms
the stupa, the vihara and the chaitya.
• Many religious Buddhist shrines came up be-
tween the 1st century BC – 1st
century AD.
• The term stupa has been referred to in Rig
Veda but not in the context as we know it.
• The term then referred to the fire coming out
of the sacrificial altar.
• Stupa, originally the focus of a popular cult of
the dead, is a large burial mound containing a
relic of the Buddha.
• It celebrates the Buddha’s parinirvana (end of
cycle of suffering), symbolizes his eternal body,
and is an object of worship.
• Not many stupas have survived from these
early times but the Great Stupa at Sanchi
in Madhya Pradesh with its majestic four
gateways has survived intact.
• There is evidence of community patronage of
landowners, merchants, officials,monks, nuns
and artisans associated with these Buddhist
projects.
• Initially stupas were Buddha's relic places. Then
it got extended to his followers as well and
gradually stupa itself became an object of wor-
ship.
• According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka built
84000 stupas.
• Some stupas have been found in Sanchi, Sar-
nath, Deorkothar, Lumbini. Huen Tsang men-
tions
seeing stupas at Tamralipti, Karnasuvarna, Sam-
tata.
2.1 Stupa
• The word Stupa is mentioned in the Rigveda,
Atharvaveda, Vajasaneyi Samhita, Taittriya Sam-
hita, in the Panchavimsata Brahmana.
• Rigveda refers to a Stupa raised by the King
Varuna above the forest in a place having no
foundation.
26. • Pali word “Thupa” means a conical heap, a pile
or a mound or a conical or bell shaped shrine
containing a relic.
• A stupa was a funeral mound which was origi-
nally made of earth but later on with bricks
and stone.
• It was also called “Chaitya” which literally
means a monument on the spot of the funeral
pyre.
• It was usually the practice to plant a tree on the
spot where the dead body was buried or burnt
➔ This sacred tree is called Chaitya Tree.
• Sometimes, a monument was raised on the spot
to enshrine the remains of the dead person in
the form of the burnt bones and ashes.
• After the demise of Buddha and his cremation
at Kushinagar and later the corporeal relics
was distributed among 8 Mahajanapadas.
• Initially 8 Stupas (Saririka Chaityas) were
constructed at 8 centres➔Rajagrihya, Vaishali,
Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa,
Pava and Kushinagara.
• Drona the Brahmin who initiated the distribu-
tion, himself erected a Stupa to enshrine the urn
that was used to divide the relics.
• Mauryas arrived too late for a share of the
relic and were given the wood ashes from
the cremation pyre, and they too built a Stu-
pa in their city of Pipphalavana.
• Thus all together 10 Stupas were erected i.e. 8
on corporeal relics and two on urn and over
wood ashes by Drona and the Mauryas respec-
tively.
• Stupa is the built on the relics of buddha like
his bodily remains and objects used by him.
• They were built by the donations of king spe-
cially of Satavahanas; guilds such as ivory work-
ers; men and women, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
• Jatakas mentions about the existence of
Stupa but does not throw any light on the
structural details of Stupa.
• Sujata Jataka and Bahiya Sutta describes Stu-
pas as raised earthen mounds to commemorate
the deceased ➔ This indicates that most prob-
ably prior to Ashoka most of the stupas were
made of clay.
• Archaeological excavations and findings proved
that during Ashoka’s reign use of bricks and
27. stone for constructional purpose became
popular.
• Predecessorsof Ashoka like Bimbisara and
Ajatsatru both had constructed a number of
Stupas in honour of the Buddha which con-
tained relics of Buddha.
• With the emergence of Mahayana sect it was
not necessary that all the Stupas contained rel-
ics.
• It was taken over by the image worship, with
the transformation from non-iconic to iconic for
changes were also found in the architectural
patterns.
• After Ashoka none of the Mauryan ruler showed
any interest in propagating Buddhism. Then the
Sungas gave a new dimension to the Stupa ar-
chitecture.
• During Sunga and Ikshvakus period enlarge-
ment and additions were made in the existing
Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati.
2.1.1 Stupa Architecture in North India
• There is very little information regarding the
history of the development of Stupa architec-
ture in north.
• The Gupta period is considered as the golden
age of Indian history.
• Guptas were Vaishnavites but were tolerant to-
wards Buddhism.
• It is said that the Stupa at Sarnath was built
during the Gupta period.
2.1.2 Stupa Architecture in South India
• The architectural movement in the south (An-
dhra) flourished under Satavahanas.
• Rock cut architecture of Hinayana sect be-
came more prominent.
2.1.3 Differences between the North Indian and South Indian Stupas
Northern India Southern India
Presence of torana dwara No torana dwara
Circular stupa Non circular stupa
No decorations on hemispheres Decorations present on hemisphere
Buddha depicted by symbols Buddha depicted by symbols as well as in anthropomorphic forms
28. Structure of Stupa –terminology
Anda
• It is the semi-circular mound built on earth.
Harmika
• It is the balcony like structure above anda.
• It is believed to be the livingplace of god.
Yashti
• It is the mast above harmika surmounted by
umbrella.
Railing
• It is around the mound believed to separate the
stupa from surroundingworld and make it sa-
cred.
Chatra
• It is the umbrella built on the top of the dome
Pradakshinapatha
• It is the path for clockwise circumambulation
surrounded by a fence built encircling the stu-
pa.
• Stone balustrade (wooden fence) consisted of
thabas (octagonal upright posts) capped by
uhnisa (continuous caping stone).
• These posts are connected by 3 horizontal rails
called Suchis.
Torana
• Gateways having sculptures depicting Jataka
Tales
Medhi
• Square platform
Aniconist buddha
• It is related with Hinayana or Theraveda Bud-
dhism.
• It prohibits representing Buddha in human
form.
• Instead they use symbol ➔ Example Empty seat
to indicate meditation of Buddha; wheel repre-
sent Dharmachakra and first sermon of Buddha
in sarnath, stupa indicate mahaparinirbana of
buddha.
2.1.4 Basic structure of stupa
• The stupa consists of a square platform knows
as medhi.
• On medhi there is a hemispherical structure
which encloses a casket.
• The medhi is surrounded by vedika(boundary
wall).
• Between the medhi and the vedika was pra-
dakshina path or the circum-ambulatory.
• On the stupa there was harmika followed by
one or more chatris which signified ‘axis mundi’
or axis of the world.
29. 2.2 Stupa Architecture in different
periods
• The shape of the stupa represents the Bud-
dha, crowned and sitting in meditation pos-
ture on a lion throne.
• His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the
square at the spire's base; his body is the vase
shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower
terrace; and the base is his throne.
• The stupa represents the five purified ele-
ments
1. The square base represents earth
2. The hemispherical dome/vase represents
water
3. The conical spire represents fire
4. The upper lotus parasol and the crescent
moon represents air
5. The sun and the dissolving point represents
the element of space
• The core of the stupa was made up of un-
burnt brick and the outer face of burnt brick,
coveredwith thick layer of plaster.
• The stupa was crowned by an umbrella of
wooden fence enclosing a path for pra-
daskshina (circumambulatory
path).
• One of the best examples of the structure of a
stupa in the 3rd
century BC is at Bairat in Raja-
sthan. It is a very grand stupa having a circu-
lar mound with a circumambulatory path.
• The great stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks
duringthe time of Ashoka and later it was cov-