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Learning Objectives
• Understand the concepts of “race” and “ethnicity” as social constructs.
• Analyze evidence about racial inequality and social class in relation to crime.
• Analyze evidence about racial differences in rates of victimization.
• Analyze evidence regarding racial inequality and incarceration rates.
• Explore how the War on Drugs contributes to racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
• Examine crack cocaine and marijuana law enforcement in context of racial discrimination.
• Critically analyze the connections between race and the death penalty.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of racial profiling.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of immigration and crime rates.
Crime, Race, and Ethnicity
4
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 91 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System CHAPTER 4
In April of 2012, law enforcement in Oklahoma arrested one of the region’s foremost drug kingpins. In the home of the alleged drug kingpin, police seized four pounds of marijuana, $276,000 in cash, and two firearms: a revolver and a semiautomatic pistol.
Police believe that the defendant is the “mastermind” (Perez, 2012, p. 1) of a drug-dealing
organization that supplies approximately 40% of the marijuana markets in Oklahoma and
three nearby states: Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. The suspect, drug kingpin Darlene
Mayes, is a White grandmother with thinning silver hair who appears to be in her 60s or
70s. Thus she has been dubbed the “Granny Drug Kingpin” (Perez, 2012).
Studies suggest that when asked to picture a drug dealer, overwhelmingly the American
public visualizes a young man of color (Burston, Jones, & Roberson-Sanders, 1995). How-
ever, evidence from this chapter will demonstrate that drug use and drug crime spans
racial and ethnic groups and that all racial groups seem to commit drug crime in similar
rates. Whether broaching issues of drug crime, or any other type of crime, issues of per-
ception, race, and criminality are central in the study of criminology.
4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System
The American criminal justice system disproportionately impacts people of color, and this disproportionate impact by race is often dramatic and consistent at nearly every level of the system. Research demonstrates that members of poor, disenfranchised
groups receive harsher treatment in all phases of the criminal justice system: They are
more likely to be stopped, investigated, arrested, charged, put on trial, found guilty, and
sent to prison (Tonry, 2011). The disproportionate involvement in the system is cumula-
tive. Police are more likely to arrest someone who has a prior record, prosecutors are more
likely to charge someone who has previously been arrested or spent time in jail. A judge
is more likely to convict and incarcerate a defendant rather than offer probation to some-
one who has .
Jones 1Jones 7Kyle JonesMatthew ZimmermanEnglish 10222 N.docxpriestmanmable
Jones 1
Jones 7
Kyle Jones
Matthew Zimmerman
English 102
22 November 2014[Title]: [Subtitle]
In 2014, we live in a world with a media saturated culture. This is the era of digital news services, of 24-hour news channels, free newspapers, and even media based applications. For the majority of us, the way in which we learn about the world outside our personal perception is through the consumption of news, mainly still through broadcast or print (OFCOM 2007). Various forms of media has fed the public statistics that created a sense of stereotyping for each particular race. For example, the media and those on film, such as politics and leaders of the government, link together race and crime, which conveys a criminal image of the public’s consumption (St. John & Heald-Moore, 1995). Since race and crime are tied together, when one thinks of a crime, hears about a crime, or when crime is being reported, race is usually associated with it. In the American society, a frequent representation of crime is that it is majorly committed by African- Americans. The view of African Americans has been distorted and twisted by the media. Without question, almost everything that is being covered by the media is believed by most of society and it becomes their actual perceptual reality. Broadcast media and other various forms of media has a history for portraying African Americans in a biased manner, as if they were mostly reported involved in crime, drugs, or acts of violence. This has led to many cases of stereotyping, racial profiling, police brutality, prejudice, inhumane acts and has brain washed most of our society into believing that almost every African American is mischievous or a threat to their well-being. African Americans are unjustly, as well as unrealistically depicted on broadcast news and various other types of mass media. These negative connotations affects more than just African- Americans but also every other culture that exists in America.
African Americans have been associated with crime for quite some time. It was not until some in the 1970’s and early 1980s that the popular stereotype of the young black man evolved in the eyes of many from a petty thief or rapist into the notorious , malicious criminal predators, or what Kathery Russel ( 2002) has argued, is the world recognized “ criminalblackman”. Within the last few decades there have been controversial law enforcement practices of racial profiling. Law enforcement officials pursue minorities in an attempt to increase the likely hood of catching illegal activity or the predetermined act of illegal activity, which is part of a consequence from the racial profiling that the media has inflicted upon society. The questionable practices has led to negative effects on blacks. To the African American culture law officials are deemed more criminal or more of a threat than what the media and statistics has condemned blacks to be. The after math, after the many years of harassment, African ...
RUNNING HEAD: Racial bias and double standards 1
Racial bias and double standards 8
Racial Bias and Double Standards
Assignment 3 Week 8
Mark Abbott
Professor PRIMM-BETHEA, ANGELA
11/30/2014
Double standards and racial bias are some of the biggest problems in the United States. Martin Luther King junior had this vision of People being judged by their personality instead of their skin color. He wished that there were no race boxes and that everything was color blind so that people did not face racial bias. It is unfortunate that people still use race as a factor when making decisions. Race preferences are wrong. It should be a thing of done with the past. There is a double regular in America .if you are black it is there was no questioning to be racist, but it is not okay when a white person says an offensive thing to a black person. It is considered to be racial. It’s okay to have organizations that allow black people only, but it would not be okay if an organization only had white people. It’s okay to have racist black entertainment channels in the United States, but it not very much okay to have a channel only for white people. The thought that only black people could present black, and white people only represent whites is outrageous. People should not choose their leaders because of their skin color, but they should consider their beliefs and ambitions.
Applicable Sociological Concepts. The socio-psychological theory lets us understand the human behavior and thoughts. Old-fashioned racism has replaced by a different form of racism. Unlike the old fashioned racism where people could feel the racism around them, the new racism is symbolic and not easy to notice. In fact in the American society many people believe that the racial equality is committed to diversity. Dislike is not a form of racism, but conscious hatred of people due to their race is only insufficient. Racism needs to take into account.
Social-structural theory. Unconscious racism or structured racism needs to be taken account. All Americans share a historical culture whether black, white or Hispania. Blatant prejudice is the traditional form while the subtle discrimination is in modern form and is indirect. The African Americans prefer to call them Americans since they are also of the American community. Unconscious racism changes the moral obligations imposed by the commonwealth and the equality. We are not obliged to impose assumptions that are discriminatory. The determination of who is who and who is not white has fluctuated the over time
Principled politics. Americans are Multiracial, and all have mixed ancestry. They have a sense of self-identity both culturally and socially. After racial segregation there have been inter-racial marriages that allow blacks, whites, and other race.
Running head PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS .docxcharisellington63520
Running head: PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 1
PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 6
Cylvania Allen Pringle
8/11/2015
CJA/344
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
Dr. Joycelyn Ballard
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
I. Introduction
Researchers and policy makers have constantly shown immense interest in how different ethnic groups perceive the police. Of utmost importance is how different ethnic groups experience face to face interactions with those individuals in legal authority especially the police. Such interactions can help researchers and policy makers understand the perceptions different ethnic groups might have towards the police and how these perceptions can influence the prevalence of crime in a jurisdiction (Huo & Tyler, 2000).
The fact that ethnic groups differ in how they perceive the police is already well known. However, what is boggling the researchers interested in this interaction is whether these differences can be attributed to different perceptions of how these individuals were treated, different outcomes of their interaction with the police, or different expectations of fair treatment based on their culture and values?
II. Review of Literature
One thing that remains clear throughout the entire research process is that people view perceptions of fair treatment as more important than getting a favorable outcome from the entire experience. People of all ethnic groups generally form positive impressions, perceptions and attitudes to legal authorities and the decisions made if they feel that they have been dealt with in a fair manner which does not demean them or make them feel discriminated against. This is known as the procedural justice effect, one of the patterns of responses recognized in law circles (Davis, 2000).
It is a well-known fact that the minority ethnic groups usually have bad experiences at the hands of the police. In a multi-cultural country such as the US, the minorities including the Latinos and the African Americans have negative perceptions towards the police as well as negative experiences with the same. These ethnic minorities report that their members constantly face unfair treatment, harassment and at times violation of their human rights at the hands of the police officers.
III. Discussion
They argue that there is discrimination on the part of the police forces based on race. It is a well observed fact that individuals who belong to ethnic groups that are less integrated into the political structure or less efficacious are less inclined to voluntarily indulge with the police as compared to those individuals who come from ‘superior’ ethnic backgrounds (Davis, 2000).
This perception of discrimination can lead to lower rates of compliance amongst the members of these ethnic communities. There is usually a high level of tension that characterizes the relati.
Jones 1Jones 7Kyle JonesMatthew ZimmermanEnglish 10222 N.docxpriestmanmable
Jones 1
Jones 7
Kyle Jones
Matthew Zimmerman
English 102
22 November 2014[Title]: [Subtitle]
In 2014, we live in a world with a media saturated culture. This is the era of digital news services, of 24-hour news channels, free newspapers, and even media based applications. For the majority of us, the way in which we learn about the world outside our personal perception is through the consumption of news, mainly still through broadcast or print (OFCOM 2007). Various forms of media has fed the public statistics that created a sense of stereotyping for each particular race. For example, the media and those on film, such as politics and leaders of the government, link together race and crime, which conveys a criminal image of the public’s consumption (St. John & Heald-Moore, 1995). Since race and crime are tied together, when one thinks of a crime, hears about a crime, or when crime is being reported, race is usually associated with it. In the American society, a frequent representation of crime is that it is majorly committed by African- Americans. The view of African Americans has been distorted and twisted by the media. Without question, almost everything that is being covered by the media is believed by most of society and it becomes their actual perceptual reality. Broadcast media and other various forms of media has a history for portraying African Americans in a biased manner, as if they were mostly reported involved in crime, drugs, or acts of violence. This has led to many cases of stereotyping, racial profiling, police brutality, prejudice, inhumane acts and has brain washed most of our society into believing that almost every African American is mischievous or a threat to their well-being. African Americans are unjustly, as well as unrealistically depicted on broadcast news and various other types of mass media. These negative connotations affects more than just African- Americans but also every other culture that exists in America.
African Americans have been associated with crime for quite some time. It was not until some in the 1970’s and early 1980s that the popular stereotype of the young black man evolved in the eyes of many from a petty thief or rapist into the notorious , malicious criminal predators, or what Kathery Russel ( 2002) has argued, is the world recognized “ criminalblackman”. Within the last few decades there have been controversial law enforcement practices of racial profiling. Law enforcement officials pursue minorities in an attempt to increase the likely hood of catching illegal activity or the predetermined act of illegal activity, which is part of a consequence from the racial profiling that the media has inflicted upon society. The questionable practices has led to negative effects on blacks. To the African American culture law officials are deemed more criminal or more of a threat than what the media and statistics has condemned blacks to be. The after math, after the many years of harassment, African ...
RUNNING HEAD: Racial bias and double standards 1
Racial bias and double standards 8
Racial Bias and Double Standards
Assignment 3 Week 8
Mark Abbott
Professor PRIMM-BETHEA, ANGELA
11/30/2014
Double standards and racial bias are some of the biggest problems in the United States. Martin Luther King junior had this vision of People being judged by their personality instead of their skin color. He wished that there were no race boxes and that everything was color blind so that people did not face racial bias. It is unfortunate that people still use race as a factor when making decisions. Race preferences are wrong. It should be a thing of done with the past. There is a double regular in America .if you are black it is there was no questioning to be racist, but it is not okay when a white person says an offensive thing to a black person. It is considered to be racial. It’s okay to have organizations that allow black people only, but it would not be okay if an organization only had white people. It’s okay to have racist black entertainment channels in the United States, but it not very much okay to have a channel only for white people. The thought that only black people could present black, and white people only represent whites is outrageous. People should not choose their leaders because of their skin color, but they should consider their beliefs and ambitions.
Applicable Sociological Concepts. The socio-psychological theory lets us understand the human behavior and thoughts. Old-fashioned racism has replaced by a different form of racism. Unlike the old fashioned racism where people could feel the racism around them, the new racism is symbolic and not easy to notice. In fact in the American society many people believe that the racial equality is committed to diversity. Dislike is not a form of racism, but conscious hatred of people due to their race is only insufficient. Racism needs to take into account.
Social-structural theory. Unconscious racism or structured racism needs to be taken account. All Americans share a historical culture whether black, white or Hispania. Blatant prejudice is the traditional form while the subtle discrimination is in modern form and is indirect. The African Americans prefer to call them Americans since they are also of the American community. Unconscious racism changes the moral obligations imposed by the commonwealth and the equality. We are not obliged to impose assumptions that are discriminatory. The determination of who is who and who is not white has fluctuated the over time
Principled politics. Americans are Multiracial, and all have mixed ancestry. They have a sense of self-identity both culturally and socially. After racial segregation there have been inter-racial marriages that allow blacks, whites, and other race.
Running head PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS .docxcharisellington63520
Running head: PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 1
PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 6
Cylvania Allen Pringle
8/11/2015
CJA/344
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
Dr. Joycelyn Ballard
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
I. Introduction
Researchers and policy makers have constantly shown immense interest in how different ethnic groups perceive the police. Of utmost importance is how different ethnic groups experience face to face interactions with those individuals in legal authority especially the police. Such interactions can help researchers and policy makers understand the perceptions different ethnic groups might have towards the police and how these perceptions can influence the prevalence of crime in a jurisdiction (Huo & Tyler, 2000).
The fact that ethnic groups differ in how they perceive the police is already well known. However, what is boggling the researchers interested in this interaction is whether these differences can be attributed to different perceptions of how these individuals were treated, different outcomes of their interaction with the police, or different expectations of fair treatment based on their culture and values?
II. Review of Literature
One thing that remains clear throughout the entire research process is that people view perceptions of fair treatment as more important than getting a favorable outcome from the entire experience. People of all ethnic groups generally form positive impressions, perceptions and attitudes to legal authorities and the decisions made if they feel that they have been dealt with in a fair manner which does not demean them or make them feel discriminated against. This is known as the procedural justice effect, one of the patterns of responses recognized in law circles (Davis, 2000).
It is a well-known fact that the minority ethnic groups usually have bad experiences at the hands of the police. In a multi-cultural country such as the US, the minorities including the Latinos and the African Americans have negative perceptions towards the police as well as negative experiences with the same. These ethnic minorities report that their members constantly face unfair treatment, harassment and at times violation of their human rights at the hands of the police officers.
III. Discussion
They argue that there is discrimination on the part of the police forces based on race. It is a well observed fact that individuals who belong to ethnic groups that are less integrated into the political structure or less efficacious are less inclined to voluntarily indulge with the police as compared to those individuals who come from ‘superior’ ethnic backgrounds (Davis, 2000).
This perception of discrimination can lead to lower rates of compliance amongst the members of these ethnic communities. There is usually a high level of tension that characterizes the relati.
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
Annotated Bibliography: Restorative Justice
Ashleigh Myers
Stephen F. Austin State University
Dr. Hill
October 26,2016
- Restorative Justice
Introduction
There are levels of disparity which are synonymous with tacialprejudice and
in the regions of North America which is commonly dominated by the natives. While
cultural differences might end up leading to different understandings of equality within the
society which promotes systemic racism, others might, in turn, lead to complete discrimi
and alienation among people of diverse communities. This paper provides information
restorative justice among the Native Americans, as well distinct sources in which relevant
information regarding the issue in consideration might be sought. Alaskans, Navaho and
Comanche people have been categorically considered'
Annotutions
, ,, / Ni.lr"rr, O. (2009). Criminal Justice in Native America. Journal of Restorative Practices
W ( ^.,,, 234-34s.N) r- aqrolL-.
Urfq
[ ' rn. mission of social work profession has been rooted in the United States since
W
begrnnings in the 19th century. The importance of human relationships has been highly
emphasized, and the need to enhance integrity and competence are fully considered. The
presents a clear account of the fundamental aspects which intemrpt peaceful living in the
and also compares the past with the present occuffences'
Sullivan, D. (2007). Handbook of Restorative Justice: A Global Perspective.(ournal of C
Justicg[Q*. n*n-,lXr1-37,.xp 01,',A k{ A fitu"A'^( (
The practice of restorative justice offers the offenders and victims an alternative
to dealing with crime in most regions. Long-term effects of victimization are felt in the
8(2),
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society today. Restorative justice according to the author has its roots to the indigenous
New Zealand communities. Although principles of restorative justice serve as the fr
most of the Native American legal systems, it is evident that the trend is currently reversed
most people have begun to discover their restorative roots. The Journal compares different
viewpoints with those of other scientists and researchers, to achieve credibility and validity
research.
l' Lut.r.u, T. & Alexander, H. (2006). Validity of the Level of Service, Journal of Cri
I
'1
Justice; Vol. 34 Issue 3, p331-337,7p
\
In Native American culture, silence is considered to be sacred. Every individual
have ample opportunity to make clear reflections, and translations, as well as translating
into words. Anglo-Americans are usually very uncomfortable with silence and hesitation.
Similarly, people of Asian descent may find the Anglo-Americans too direct but consi
blunt, and frank. Openness and the freedom to belong in particular groupings are the desi
most Americans.
Native Americans, the Asian Americans and the Hispanic are considered to be low
and more indirect regarding their associations and social interactions with different group.
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric Due by Saturday May 12th.docxjacqueliner9
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric
Due by Saturday May 12th at 11:59pm via TurnitIn (20% of final grade)
Sociology 3480: Term Paper Rubric
Sources: In addition to your text and/or readings, provide at least 5 outside sources. At least one
outside source must be a peer reviewed/academic journal article. Wikipedia, personal blogs,
and/or .org’s will not be accepted as valid sources.
Note: Electronic copy must be uploaded to Turnitin link to check for citation accuracy
Study – Gather data online (no less than 5 articles). Characterize the social issue you chose for
yourself and show how it fits what is given and said about that topic in news/media. How is this
different than what we have been reading in our text? Cite comparisons.
Consider the social topic you chose relative to course material and answer the following
questions in essay format to summarize your findings.
In general, you should address the following questions in your essay:
What is your social topic?
What are some of the specific areas discussed in your social topic?
What are the different perspectives/opposing viewpoints?
How do most people get their information on your given social topic?
How is it different than you imagined, than what you read about?
What past research has been done on your topic?
Which solutions have worked, what haven’t? (investigate: read articles and refer to your text)
What new or unresolved issues/concerns have developed?
What did you learn by doing this paper?
(Again, use these questions to guide the general direction of your essay. Do not answer these
questions individually).
Surname 6
How Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Influence Police Brutality
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
The social topic of race, ethnicity, and immigration is critical to discuss so that one can understand how these factors influence people in society. Race refers to the classification of individuals based on social or physical qualities. Ethnicity entails people’s categories based on their language, culture, ancestry, and history. In addition, immigration refers to moving and settling in a specific country temporarily or permanently. Many individuals consider race and ethnicity of residents in a particular area before migrating. In most cases, people move to places where they can find others who understand them. Currently, neighborhoods comprise of individuals who belong to the same race or ethnicity. That is why it is hard for whites to settle in areas where the majority of people living there are African Americans. Therefore, race and ethnicity are the two primary determinants of immigration in the United States of America (USA). Although many Americans have encountered police brutality, at some point in their lives, race, ethnicity, and immigration ar.
RUNNING HEAD: ROUGH DRAFT
19
Rough Draft Comment by Nygel: Please remember to complete the title, date and running head throughout the paper.
Lidia Williams
American Military University
Date:
Abstract
Analysis of research regarding the criminal justice and racial profiling reveals that the system basically targets the African males. Recent research conducted by the African Civil Liberation Union (ACLU) and Mary Whinser from the School of Law in the University of Washington clearly reveal that the Criminal Justice System targets the African males when profiled through the race. The two researchers reveal that there although it is argued that racism has greatly decreased in the United States there still exist some racial disparities in various stages of the criminal justice system. The results of the researchers show that there is a need for reviewing the current criminal justice system in order to minimize racism that exists in the system. The current policies that exist in the criminal justice system need to be changed in order to change the face of the system that is seen to target the African males. Comment by Nygel: This is a good, strong abstract.
Keyword: racism, racial disparity, African Americans, statistics
The United States is the world’s leader in mass incarceration. Approximately 700 out of Comment by Nygel: Please begin each paragraph with an indent about 1/2 inch in from the left margin. This is the typical/default Tab.
100,000 Americans are currently incarcerated serving sentences in federal and state prisons
While mass Incarcerations rates in the United States are alarming, the problem of racial
disproportion of African American males within the rates of mass incarceration is equally if not
more problematic, as it sheds light on the unpleasant side of American Justice System. African Comment by Nygel: American justice system
Americans males are disproportionally incarcerated, making them targets for systematic abuse in
the hands of the American Criminal Justice system by way of the criminal justice process. The Comment by Nygel: This does not need to be capitalized. Comment by Nygel: This is a bold statement. I look forward to reading more.
criminal justice system is therefore racist in its practices and processes; it is institutionally
designed to systematically abuse and oppress African Americans males.
Comment by Nygel: There should not be an extra space between paragraphs. This should only happen with headings or subheadings to separate/divide paper into sections.
The criminal justice system is set in place to mitigate crime in a manner accordance with Comment by Nygel: In accordance… Remove manner
Constitutional rights of citizens. By desig ...
Christian Castillo D2 Summer 2018Outline of Complete Research.docxchristinemaritza
Christian Castillo
D2 Summer 2018
Outline of Complete Research Proposal 1
RACE AND CRIME 5
1. Introduction
a. Topic introduction and context.
Racial discrimination, which is the way of targeting accused based on race prominence, could be responsible for the increase in rate of crime arrest. Subcultural theorists argue that poor people, also referred to as have-nots, normally reside in areas where the social respect is subject to violence and physical strength and this habit promote crime. More to this, race impacts who gets arrested, and some pieces of evidence show that minorities are disproportionate form crime statistics (Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2012). It is official that high rates of arrest, conviction, and incarceration of these minorities may be as a result of criminal justice actors. It is interesting to note that race and social stratification are related in the aspect that nonwhite form lower class and this poorer class lack the genuine ways to obtain goods and they choose to join crime.
b. Significance
Physical injury and death are grouped as homicide, and known as the biggest cause of death amongst the youths. According to the “U.S Public health” brutality is a chief health issues which is challenging the Americans. Crime is intertwined with acts of violence. Secondly, crime is associated with loss, such as vandalism, arson, and environmental destruction. Crimes also pose economic cost through expense linked with transfer of property through robbery, during crime, criminal violence brings about additional medical cost of attending to the victims. There is another form of cost: cost of protection, which includes funds used to guard dogs and surveillance systems. According to studies, race has a huge impact on crime, thus scientists and scholars have tried to uncover what triggers people with different skin color to engage in criminal acts. All these implications make it important to study the relation of race to crime with a mind of reducing the cost.
c. Research question and hypothesis.
Arguably, black people are more likely to engage in criminal activities than white people. Does this stereotype have any relevance to it? A black man in the US today has three times a higher chance of going to prison as well. There has to be a relationship that supports both statements. Comment by Microsoft Office User: State your hypothesis clearly.
d. Proposed research design
The research will use data collected by different institution to evaluate the relationship between crime and race. It will describe offending action of different races within the sample population and this will be used for descriptive purpose. Second, the explanation will predict race pattern in relation to crime. The analysis builds on existing records of crime documenting racial pattern. Comment by Microsoft Office User: How will the data be collected for analysis? Existing statistics?
e. Roadmap
The remainder of this research paper stereotypes the conce ...
1Writing Activity 4 Final DraftShaland.docxlorainedeserre
1
Writing Activity 4 : Final Draft
Shalanda Moore
ENG 215 - Research & Writing
Dr. Mary Rose Kasraie
September 1, 2019
Prosecutors on aggregate don’t seem to seek the death penalty more for black people than white people, though there are some gaping disparities in a few states and in some counties. Instead, the real racial bias when it comes to the death penalty pertains to the race of the victim. Killers of black people rarely get death sentences. White killers of black people get death sentences even less frequently. And far and away, the type of murder most likely to bring a death sentence is a black man who kills a white woman.
The Bureau of Justice Statistics reports 208,000 people are in state prisons for drug offenses. Of this number, 32 percent are white, and 68 percent are African American or Hispanic.
The link to other forms of profiling suggests that there is something scientific and efficient about racial profiling. The reality is very different. Race is a social construct; not knowable by sight. Racial profiles are both over-inclusive in the sense that many, indeed most, of the people who fit into the category are entirely innocent, and under-inclusive in that many other criminals or terrorists who do not fit the profile will escape police attention. Racial profiling also faces the problems of predictability and evasion; the more predictable police profiles become, the easier it is for perpetrators to adapt to circumvent the profile. The ineffectiveness of racial profiling is illustrated by consistently low hit or arrest rates for policing actions based on racial profiling. There is surprising consistency in data coming out of the USA, the UK and Europe demonstrating similar ‘hit' or arrest rates across racial groups. In several studies, ethnic minorities are less likely to be arrested or have contraband or other ‘seizable' evidence found following a search. This refutes the proposition that minorities are more likely to be involved in crime and illustrates that racial profiling represents an ineffective use of police resources.
Narrow definitions of racial profiling describe situations where actions are based solely on the basis of a person's race or ethnicity. In practice, this has allowed police forces to deny the existence of racial profiling, where activities are legally justifiable but nonetheless racially biased such as the use of pretext traffic stops. Broader definitions recognise that decisions are usually made on a number of factors including race. This wider definition reflects the fact that racial profiling may occur irrespective of whether this is a deliberate policy of targeted minority groups or routine institutional practices. Patterns of profiling can also be seen in discriminatory treatment after a stop has taken place, such decisions to go on to search, more intrusive searches, citations and arrests.
Racial profiling is the use by the police of generalisations based on race, ethnicity, religion ...
Running head Overpopulation and violence 1Overpopulation and v.docxjeanettehully
Running head: Overpopulation and violence 1
Overpopulation and violence 9Overpopulation and Violence: The poison of America
Roger F. Lewis
St. Thomas University
Table of Contents
Abstract 3
Overpopulation and Violence: The poison of America 4
Literature Review 6
Data 8
Data Analysis/Findings 8
References 10
Tables 12
Figures 13
Abstract
America has seen a lot of violence in the past two decades. We have experienced violence in many forms form terrorists’ attacks on September 11, 2001, mass shootings such as Las Vegas and Pulse Orlando shootings, mass school shootings, FedEx bombings, Walmart shootings, racial violence, and even bullying. Majority of our violence are by our own citizens and in order to determine why America is so violent, a research study will be conducted on what makes people commit violent acts? Why America is so intrigue with violence? Does it have to do with how America was founded?
The research is conducted in review of previous events in order to determine if the United States can be considered a violent community. When you look back at the previous events, most of the violence is linked with guns. The paper is also set up to investigate the impact of such violence on society, and the younger generation. The measure of violence is comprehensive with terrorist activities, mass shootings, cyber-bullying/bullying and poverty.
The study was conducted through questionnaires that were shared amongst a group of 30 random individuals who form the sample population. The individuals are composed of American citizens, visitor in the state and other persons who have taken up residence in the U.S. for a period of time. The study is also conducted using SPSS for the interpretation and gathering of the analysis. The questionnaire contains 20 identified possible causes of violence for the participants to pick out from.
Overpopulation and Violence: The poison of America
The United States is a ranked as the most violent country globally. The rates of murder in the country are extremely high compared to other nations such as Japan and Canada. There more cases of assault, rape and robbery in USA compared to most nations. Crime rates in the country have always been greater than in other rich nations. Violence entailing relationships accounts for 32% of the violent deaths. Knives and guns are the main weapons utilized in murders involving relationships. It is estimated that more than 70% of the privately-owned guns in the world are found in United States and majorly owned by men. Over the years, deaths that have been performed using guns have reached the 30,000 mark. Approximately more than 300 million guns are privately owned in United States (Stark, 2017).
I believe that overpopulation is the reason why America is a violent society. Basically, overpopulation leads to the depletion of resources and individuals begin fighting to acquire the scarce resources. Individuals are willing to use violence to acquire the scarce resources theref ...
unequal under law
unequal
under
law
RACE
IN THE
WAR
ON
DRUGS
DORIS MARIE PROVINE
contents
Acknowledgments and Dedication vii
Introduction i
one Racial Discrimination in the Eyes of the Law 15
two Race in America's First War on Drugs 37
three Negro Cocaine Fiends, Mexican Marijuana Smokers, and Chinese Opium
Addicts: The Drug Menace in Racial Relief 63
four Congress on Crack: How Race-Neutral Language Hides Racial Meaning 91
five The Racial Impact of the War on Drugs: How Government Coped 120
six Racial Justice: The Courts Consider Sentencing Disparities 140
epilogue 162
notes 16q
references 179
index 197
acknowledgements and dedication
Many people have been involved in the creation of this small book, in part
because it took such a long time to write! Along the way, I benefited from the
insights of people who have been close to the struggle for more equitable and
humane U.S. drug policy. I am grateful for the help of Rodney Cahill, Judge
Richard Conaboy, Michael Gelacak, Gary Goldberg, Paul Hofer, Keenan Keller,
Marc Mauer, Barbara Meirhoefer, Andrea Smith, and Nkechi Taifa.
Generous colleagues who read and commented upon all or portions of this
manuscript include: Kitty Calavita, Ellen Cohn, Josefina Figueira- McDonough,
Roy Flemming, David Greenberg, Julie Horney, Mary and Peter Katzenstein,
Richard Lempert, Lynn Mather, Elizabeth Mertz, Suzanne Mettler, Kristen
Monroe, Ruth Peterson, Helen Quan (HQ), Carroll Seron, Rogers Smith, and
Marjorie Zatz.
Arizona State University School of Justice & Social Inquiry provided an ideal
venue to complete this research, not just because of the encouragement my
colleagues offered, but because of their inspiring commitment to the study of
justice. They will recognize their influence by some of the arguments I make in
this book, and by my frequent citations to their work. Various graduate students
were very helpful in digging out obscure sources and making suggestions. I am
grateful to Francine Banner, Gregory Broberg, Michael Coyle, Amy Gay,
Rosalie Gonzales, and William Parkin.
I also want to thank John Tryneski, Rodney Powell, and two anonymous
reviewers for all their help in getting this manuscript to become a book. For John
and me, this is our third book. The University of Chicago Press has been a
terrific organization with which to be associated during my entire academic
career.
I owe a very special debt to my sons, Charles and Stuart Provine, and to my
husband, Michael Shelton. Charlie was always willing to read a draft, fix a
problem with my computer, or help me resolve any difficulty I faced in turning
ideas into prose. Without his help, another year might have passed before this
book appeared. Stuart offered regular and welcome encouragement every step of
the way, as well as many good ...
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In this unit, you will experience the powerful impact communication .docxwhitneyleman54422
In this unit, you will experience the powerful impact communication and miscommunication can have on cultural diversity.
Download the Communication: The Journey of Message Template
Follow the template instructions
Demonstrate your understanding of key concepts from the weekly content by including analysis of specific evidence in your responses within the template.
Use in-text citations and APA formatting for all source material references in your template.
Upload the completed template to this assessment.
.
In this task, you will write an analysis (suggested length of 3–5 .docxwhitneyleman54422
In this task, you will write an analysis (
suggested length of 3–5 pages
) of one work of literature. Choose
one
work from the list below:
Classical Period
• Sappho, “The Anactoria Poem” ca. 7th century B.C.E. (poetry)
• Aeschylus, “Song of the Furies” from
The Eumenides
, ca. 458 B.C.E. (poetry)
• Sophocles,
Antigone
, ca. 442 B.C.E. (drama)
• Aristotle, Book 1 from the
Nichomachean Ethics
, ca. 35 B.C.E. (philosophical text)
• Augustus,
The Deeds of the Divine Augustus
, ca. 14 C.E. (funerary inscription)
• Ovid, “The Transformation of Daphne into a Laurel” an excerpt from Book 1 of
The Metamorphoses
, ca. 2 C.E. (poetry)
Renaissance
• Francesco Petrarch, “The Ascent of Mount Ventoux” 1350 (letter)
• Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, the first seven paragraphs of the “Oration on the Dignity of Man” ca. 1486 (essay excerpt)
• Leonardo da Vinci, Chapter 28 “Comparison of the Arts” from
The Notebooks
ca. 1478-1518 (art text)
• Edmund Spenser, Sonnet 30, “My Love is like to Ice” from
Amoretti
1595 (poetry)
• William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day” 1609 (poetry)
• Francis Bacon, “Of Studies” from
The Essays or Counsels…
1625 (essay)
• Anne Bradstreet, “In Honour of that High and Mighty Princess, Queen Elizabeth” 1643 (poetry)
• Andrew Marvell, “To his Coy Mistress” 1681 (poetry)
Enlightenment
• René Descartes, Part 4 from
Discourse on Method
, 1637 (philosophical text)
• William Congreve,
The Way of the World
, 1700 (drama-comedy)
• Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal” 1729 (satirical essay)
• Voltaire, “Micromégas” 1752 (short story, science fiction)
• Phillis Wheatley, “To S.M., a Young African Painter, on Seeing his Works” 1773 (poetry)
• Thomas Paine, “Common Sense” 1776 (essay)
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, “The Fisherman” 1779 (poetry)
• Immanuel Kant, “An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?” 1784 (essay)
Romanticism
• Lord Byron, “She Walks in Beauty” 1813 (poetry)
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Kubla Khan” 1816 (poetry)
• Edgar Allan Poe, “The Fall of the House of Usher” 1839 (short story)
• Alexander Dumas,
The Count of Monte Cristo
, 1844 (novel)
• Emily Brontë,
Wuthering Heights
, 1847 (novel)
• Herman Melville, “Bartleby, the Scrivener: A Story of Wall-Street” 1853 (short story)
• Emily Dickinson, “A Narrow Fellow in the Grass” 1865 (poetry)
• Friedrich Nietzsche, Book 4 from
The Joyful Wisdom
, 1882 (philosophical text)
Realism
• Charles Dickens,
A Christmas Carol
, 1843 (novella)
• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles,
The Communist Manifesto
, 1848 (political pamphlet)
• Christina Rossetti, “Goblin Market” 1862 (poetry)
• Matthew Arnold, “Dover Beach” 1867 (poetry)
• Robert Louis Stevenson,
The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
, 1886 (novella)
• Kate Chopin, “The Story of an Hour” 1894 (short story)
• Mark Twain, “The.
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
Annotated Bibliography: Restorative Justice
Ashleigh Myers
Stephen F. Austin State University
Dr. Hill
October 26,2016
- Restorative Justice
Introduction
There are levels of disparity which are synonymous with tacialprejudice and
in the regions of North America which is commonly dominated by the natives. While
cultural differences might end up leading to different understandings of equality within the
society which promotes systemic racism, others might, in turn, lead to complete discrimi
and alienation among people of diverse communities. This paper provides information
restorative justice among the Native Americans, as well distinct sources in which relevant
information regarding the issue in consideration might be sought. Alaskans, Navaho and
Comanche people have been categorically considered'
Annotutions
, ,, / Ni.lr"rr, O. (2009). Criminal Justice in Native America. Journal of Restorative Practices
W ( ^.,,, 234-34s.N) r- aqrolL-.
Urfq
[ ' rn. mission of social work profession has been rooted in the United States since
W
begrnnings in the 19th century. The importance of human relationships has been highly
emphasized, and the need to enhance integrity and competence are fully considered. The
presents a clear account of the fundamental aspects which intemrpt peaceful living in the
and also compares the past with the present occuffences'
Sullivan, D. (2007). Handbook of Restorative Justice: A Global Perspective.(ournal of C
Justicg[Q*. n*n-,lXr1-37,.xp 01,',A k{ A fitu"A'^( (
The practice of restorative justice offers the offenders and victims an alternative
to dealing with crime in most regions. Long-term effects of victimization are felt in the
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society today. Restorative justice according to the author has its roots to the indigenous
New Zealand communities. Although principles of restorative justice serve as the fr
most of the Native American legal systems, it is evident that the trend is currently reversed
most people have begun to discover their restorative roots. The Journal compares different
viewpoints with those of other scientists and researchers, to achieve credibility and validity
research.
l' Lut.r.u, T. & Alexander, H. (2006). Validity of the Level of Service, Journal of Cri
I
'1
Justice; Vol. 34 Issue 3, p331-337,7p
\
In Native American culture, silence is considered to be sacred. Every individual
have ample opportunity to make clear reflections, and translations, as well as translating
into words. Anglo-Americans are usually very uncomfortable with silence and hesitation.
Similarly, people of Asian descent may find the Anglo-Americans too direct but consi
blunt, and frank. Openness and the freedom to belong in particular groupings are the desi
most Americans.
Native Americans, the Asian Americans and the Hispanic are considered to be low
and more indirect regarding their associations and social interactions with different group.
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric Due by Saturday May 12th.docxjacqueliner9
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric
Due by Saturday May 12th at 11:59pm via TurnitIn (20% of final grade)
Sociology 3480: Term Paper Rubric
Sources: In addition to your text and/or readings, provide at least 5 outside sources. At least one
outside source must be a peer reviewed/academic journal article. Wikipedia, personal blogs,
and/or .org’s will not be accepted as valid sources.
Note: Electronic copy must be uploaded to Turnitin link to check for citation accuracy
Study – Gather data online (no less than 5 articles). Characterize the social issue you chose for
yourself and show how it fits what is given and said about that topic in news/media. How is this
different than what we have been reading in our text? Cite comparisons.
Consider the social topic you chose relative to course material and answer the following
questions in essay format to summarize your findings.
In general, you should address the following questions in your essay:
What is your social topic?
What are some of the specific areas discussed in your social topic?
What are the different perspectives/opposing viewpoints?
How do most people get their information on your given social topic?
How is it different than you imagined, than what you read about?
What past research has been done on your topic?
Which solutions have worked, what haven’t? (investigate: read articles and refer to your text)
What new or unresolved issues/concerns have developed?
What did you learn by doing this paper?
(Again, use these questions to guide the general direction of your essay. Do not answer these
questions individually).
Surname 6
How Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Influence Police Brutality
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
The social topic of race, ethnicity, and immigration is critical to discuss so that one can understand how these factors influence people in society. Race refers to the classification of individuals based on social or physical qualities. Ethnicity entails people’s categories based on their language, culture, ancestry, and history. In addition, immigration refers to moving and settling in a specific country temporarily or permanently. Many individuals consider race and ethnicity of residents in a particular area before migrating. In most cases, people move to places where they can find others who understand them. Currently, neighborhoods comprise of individuals who belong to the same race or ethnicity. That is why it is hard for whites to settle in areas where the majority of people living there are African Americans. Therefore, race and ethnicity are the two primary determinants of immigration in the United States of America (USA). Although many Americans have encountered police brutality, at some point in their lives, race, ethnicity, and immigration ar.
RUNNING HEAD: ROUGH DRAFT
19
Rough Draft Comment by Nygel: Please remember to complete the title, date and running head throughout the paper.
Lidia Williams
American Military University
Date:
Abstract
Analysis of research regarding the criminal justice and racial profiling reveals that the system basically targets the African males. Recent research conducted by the African Civil Liberation Union (ACLU) and Mary Whinser from the School of Law in the University of Washington clearly reveal that the Criminal Justice System targets the African males when profiled through the race. The two researchers reveal that there although it is argued that racism has greatly decreased in the United States there still exist some racial disparities in various stages of the criminal justice system. The results of the researchers show that there is a need for reviewing the current criminal justice system in order to minimize racism that exists in the system. The current policies that exist in the criminal justice system need to be changed in order to change the face of the system that is seen to target the African males. Comment by Nygel: This is a good, strong abstract.
Keyword: racism, racial disparity, African Americans, statistics
The United States is the world’s leader in mass incarceration. Approximately 700 out of Comment by Nygel: Please begin each paragraph with an indent about 1/2 inch in from the left margin. This is the typical/default Tab.
100,000 Americans are currently incarcerated serving sentences in federal and state prisons
While mass Incarcerations rates in the United States are alarming, the problem of racial
disproportion of African American males within the rates of mass incarceration is equally if not
more problematic, as it sheds light on the unpleasant side of American Justice System. African Comment by Nygel: American justice system
Americans males are disproportionally incarcerated, making them targets for systematic abuse in
the hands of the American Criminal Justice system by way of the criminal justice process. The Comment by Nygel: This does not need to be capitalized. Comment by Nygel: This is a bold statement. I look forward to reading more.
criminal justice system is therefore racist in its practices and processes; it is institutionally
designed to systematically abuse and oppress African Americans males.
Comment by Nygel: There should not be an extra space between paragraphs. This should only happen with headings or subheadings to separate/divide paper into sections.
The criminal justice system is set in place to mitigate crime in a manner accordance with Comment by Nygel: In accordance… Remove manner
Constitutional rights of citizens. By desig ...
Christian Castillo D2 Summer 2018Outline of Complete Research.docxchristinemaritza
Christian Castillo
D2 Summer 2018
Outline of Complete Research Proposal 1
RACE AND CRIME 5
1. Introduction
a. Topic introduction and context.
Racial discrimination, which is the way of targeting accused based on race prominence, could be responsible for the increase in rate of crime arrest. Subcultural theorists argue that poor people, also referred to as have-nots, normally reside in areas where the social respect is subject to violence and physical strength and this habit promote crime. More to this, race impacts who gets arrested, and some pieces of evidence show that minorities are disproportionate form crime statistics (Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2012). It is official that high rates of arrest, conviction, and incarceration of these minorities may be as a result of criminal justice actors. It is interesting to note that race and social stratification are related in the aspect that nonwhite form lower class and this poorer class lack the genuine ways to obtain goods and they choose to join crime.
b. Significance
Physical injury and death are grouped as homicide, and known as the biggest cause of death amongst the youths. According to the “U.S Public health” brutality is a chief health issues which is challenging the Americans. Crime is intertwined with acts of violence. Secondly, crime is associated with loss, such as vandalism, arson, and environmental destruction. Crimes also pose economic cost through expense linked with transfer of property through robbery, during crime, criminal violence brings about additional medical cost of attending to the victims. There is another form of cost: cost of protection, which includes funds used to guard dogs and surveillance systems. According to studies, race has a huge impact on crime, thus scientists and scholars have tried to uncover what triggers people with different skin color to engage in criminal acts. All these implications make it important to study the relation of race to crime with a mind of reducing the cost.
c. Research question and hypothesis.
Arguably, black people are more likely to engage in criminal activities than white people. Does this stereotype have any relevance to it? A black man in the US today has three times a higher chance of going to prison as well. There has to be a relationship that supports both statements. Comment by Microsoft Office User: State your hypothesis clearly.
d. Proposed research design
The research will use data collected by different institution to evaluate the relationship between crime and race. It will describe offending action of different races within the sample population and this will be used for descriptive purpose. Second, the explanation will predict race pattern in relation to crime. The analysis builds on existing records of crime documenting racial pattern. Comment by Microsoft Office User: How will the data be collected for analysis? Existing statistics?
e. Roadmap
The remainder of this research paper stereotypes the conce ...
1Writing Activity 4 Final DraftShaland.docxlorainedeserre
1
Writing Activity 4 : Final Draft
Shalanda Moore
ENG 215 - Research & Writing
Dr. Mary Rose Kasraie
September 1, 2019
Prosecutors on aggregate don’t seem to seek the death penalty more for black people than white people, though there are some gaping disparities in a few states and in some counties. Instead, the real racial bias when it comes to the death penalty pertains to the race of the victim. Killers of black people rarely get death sentences. White killers of black people get death sentences even less frequently. And far and away, the type of murder most likely to bring a death sentence is a black man who kills a white woman.
The Bureau of Justice Statistics reports 208,000 people are in state prisons for drug offenses. Of this number, 32 percent are white, and 68 percent are African American or Hispanic.
The link to other forms of profiling suggests that there is something scientific and efficient about racial profiling. The reality is very different. Race is a social construct; not knowable by sight. Racial profiles are both over-inclusive in the sense that many, indeed most, of the people who fit into the category are entirely innocent, and under-inclusive in that many other criminals or terrorists who do not fit the profile will escape police attention. Racial profiling also faces the problems of predictability and evasion; the more predictable police profiles become, the easier it is for perpetrators to adapt to circumvent the profile. The ineffectiveness of racial profiling is illustrated by consistently low hit or arrest rates for policing actions based on racial profiling. There is surprising consistency in data coming out of the USA, the UK and Europe demonstrating similar ‘hit' or arrest rates across racial groups. In several studies, ethnic minorities are less likely to be arrested or have contraband or other ‘seizable' evidence found following a search. This refutes the proposition that minorities are more likely to be involved in crime and illustrates that racial profiling represents an ineffective use of police resources.
Narrow definitions of racial profiling describe situations where actions are based solely on the basis of a person's race or ethnicity. In practice, this has allowed police forces to deny the existence of racial profiling, where activities are legally justifiable but nonetheless racially biased such as the use of pretext traffic stops. Broader definitions recognise that decisions are usually made on a number of factors including race. This wider definition reflects the fact that racial profiling may occur irrespective of whether this is a deliberate policy of targeted minority groups or routine institutional practices. Patterns of profiling can also be seen in discriminatory treatment after a stop has taken place, such decisions to go on to search, more intrusive searches, citations and arrests.
Racial profiling is the use by the police of generalisations based on race, ethnicity, religion ...
Running head Overpopulation and violence 1Overpopulation and v.docxjeanettehully
Running head: Overpopulation and violence 1
Overpopulation and violence 9Overpopulation and Violence: The poison of America
Roger F. Lewis
St. Thomas University
Table of Contents
Abstract 3
Overpopulation and Violence: The poison of America 4
Literature Review 6
Data 8
Data Analysis/Findings 8
References 10
Tables 12
Figures 13
Abstract
America has seen a lot of violence in the past two decades. We have experienced violence in many forms form terrorists’ attacks on September 11, 2001, mass shootings such as Las Vegas and Pulse Orlando shootings, mass school shootings, FedEx bombings, Walmart shootings, racial violence, and even bullying. Majority of our violence are by our own citizens and in order to determine why America is so violent, a research study will be conducted on what makes people commit violent acts? Why America is so intrigue with violence? Does it have to do with how America was founded?
The research is conducted in review of previous events in order to determine if the United States can be considered a violent community. When you look back at the previous events, most of the violence is linked with guns. The paper is also set up to investigate the impact of such violence on society, and the younger generation. The measure of violence is comprehensive with terrorist activities, mass shootings, cyber-bullying/bullying and poverty.
The study was conducted through questionnaires that were shared amongst a group of 30 random individuals who form the sample population. The individuals are composed of American citizens, visitor in the state and other persons who have taken up residence in the U.S. for a period of time. The study is also conducted using SPSS for the interpretation and gathering of the analysis. The questionnaire contains 20 identified possible causes of violence for the participants to pick out from.
Overpopulation and Violence: The poison of America
The United States is a ranked as the most violent country globally. The rates of murder in the country are extremely high compared to other nations such as Japan and Canada. There more cases of assault, rape and robbery in USA compared to most nations. Crime rates in the country have always been greater than in other rich nations. Violence entailing relationships accounts for 32% of the violent deaths. Knives and guns are the main weapons utilized in murders involving relationships. It is estimated that more than 70% of the privately-owned guns in the world are found in United States and majorly owned by men. Over the years, deaths that have been performed using guns have reached the 30,000 mark. Approximately more than 300 million guns are privately owned in United States (Stark, 2017).
I believe that overpopulation is the reason why America is a violent society. Basically, overpopulation leads to the depletion of resources and individuals begin fighting to acquire the scarce resources. Individuals are willing to use violence to acquire the scarce resources theref ...
unequal under law
unequal
under
law
RACE
IN THE
WAR
ON
DRUGS
DORIS MARIE PROVINE
contents
Acknowledgments and Dedication vii
Introduction i
one Racial Discrimination in the Eyes of the Law 15
two Race in America's First War on Drugs 37
three Negro Cocaine Fiends, Mexican Marijuana Smokers, and Chinese Opium
Addicts: The Drug Menace in Racial Relief 63
four Congress on Crack: How Race-Neutral Language Hides Racial Meaning 91
five The Racial Impact of the War on Drugs: How Government Coped 120
six Racial Justice: The Courts Consider Sentencing Disparities 140
epilogue 162
notes 16q
references 179
index 197
acknowledgements and dedication
Many people have been involved in the creation of this small book, in part
because it took such a long time to write! Along the way, I benefited from the
insights of people who have been close to the struggle for more equitable and
humane U.S. drug policy. I am grateful for the help of Rodney Cahill, Judge
Richard Conaboy, Michael Gelacak, Gary Goldberg, Paul Hofer, Keenan Keller,
Marc Mauer, Barbara Meirhoefer, Andrea Smith, and Nkechi Taifa.
Generous colleagues who read and commented upon all or portions of this
manuscript include: Kitty Calavita, Ellen Cohn, Josefina Figueira- McDonough,
Roy Flemming, David Greenberg, Julie Horney, Mary and Peter Katzenstein,
Richard Lempert, Lynn Mather, Elizabeth Mertz, Suzanne Mettler, Kristen
Monroe, Ruth Peterson, Helen Quan (HQ), Carroll Seron, Rogers Smith, and
Marjorie Zatz.
Arizona State University School of Justice & Social Inquiry provided an ideal
venue to complete this research, not just because of the encouragement my
colleagues offered, but because of their inspiring commitment to the study of
justice. They will recognize their influence by some of the arguments I make in
this book, and by my frequent citations to their work. Various graduate students
were very helpful in digging out obscure sources and making suggestions. I am
grateful to Francine Banner, Gregory Broberg, Michael Coyle, Amy Gay,
Rosalie Gonzales, and William Parkin.
I also want to thank John Tryneski, Rodney Powell, and two anonymous
reviewers for all their help in getting this manuscript to become a book. For John
and me, this is our third book. The University of Chicago Press has been a
terrific organization with which to be associated during my entire academic
career.
I owe a very special debt to my sons, Charles and Stuart Provine, and to my
husband, Michael Shelton. Charlie was always willing to read a draft, fix a
problem with my computer, or help me resolve any difficulty I faced in turning
ideas into prose. Without his help, another year might have passed before this
book appeared. Stuart offered regular and welcome encouragement every step of
the way, as well as many good ...
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In this unit, you will experience the powerful impact communication .docxwhitneyleman54422
In this unit, you will experience the powerful impact communication and miscommunication can have on cultural diversity.
Download the Communication: The Journey of Message Template
Follow the template instructions
Demonstrate your understanding of key concepts from the weekly content by including analysis of specific evidence in your responses within the template.
Use in-text citations and APA formatting for all source material references in your template.
Upload the completed template to this assessment.
.
In this task, you will write an analysis (suggested length of 3–5 .docxwhitneyleman54422
In this task, you will write an analysis (
suggested length of 3–5 pages
) of one work of literature. Choose
one
work from the list below:
Classical Period
• Sappho, “The Anactoria Poem” ca. 7th century B.C.E. (poetry)
• Aeschylus, “Song of the Furies” from
The Eumenides
, ca. 458 B.C.E. (poetry)
• Sophocles,
Antigone
, ca. 442 B.C.E. (drama)
• Aristotle, Book 1 from the
Nichomachean Ethics
, ca. 35 B.C.E. (philosophical text)
• Augustus,
The Deeds of the Divine Augustus
, ca. 14 C.E. (funerary inscription)
• Ovid, “The Transformation of Daphne into a Laurel” an excerpt from Book 1 of
The Metamorphoses
, ca. 2 C.E. (poetry)
Renaissance
• Francesco Petrarch, “The Ascent of Mount Ventoux” 1350 (letter)
• Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, the first seven paragraphs of the “Oration on the Dignity of Man” ca. 1486 (essay excerpt)
• Leonardo da Vinci, Chapter 28 “Comparison of the Arts” from
The Notebooks
ca. 1478-1518 (art text)
• Edmund Spenser, Sonnet 30, “My Love is like to Ice” from
Amoretti
1595 (poetry)
• William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day” 1609 (poetry)
• Francis Bacon, “Of Studies” from
The Essays or Counsels…
1625 (essay)
• Anne Bradstreet, “In Honour of that High and Mighty Princess, Queen Elizabeth” 1643 (poetry)
• Andrew Marvell, “To his Coy Mistress” 1681 (poetry)
Enlightenment
• René Descartes, Part 4 from
Discourse on Method
, 1637 (philosophical text)
• William Congreve,
The Way of the World
, 1700 (drama-comedy)
• Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal” 1729 (satirical essay)
• Voltaire, “Micromégas” 1752 (short story, science fiction)
• Phillis Wheatley, “To S.M., a Young African Painter, on Seeing his Works” 1773 (poetry)
• Thomas Paine, “Common Sense” 1776 (essay)
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, “The Fisherman” 1779 (poetry)
• Immanuel Kant, “An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?” 1784 (essay)
Romanticism
• Lord Byron, “She Walks in Beauty” 1813 (poetry)
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Kubla Khan” 1816 (poetry)
• Edgar Allan Poe, “The Fall of the House of Usher” 1839 (short story)
• Alexander Dumas,
The Count of Monte Cristo
, 1844 (novel)
• Emily Brontë,
Wuthering Heights
, 1847 (novel)
• Herman Melville, “Bartleby, the Scrivener: A Story of Wall-Street” 1853 (short story)
• Emily Dickinson, “A Narrow Fellow in the Grass” 1865 (poetry)
• Friedrich Nietzsche, Book 4 from
The Joyful Wisdom
, 1882 (philosophical text)
Realism
• Charles Dickens,
A Christmas Carol
, 1843 (novella)
• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles,
The Communist Manifesto
, 1848 (political pamphlet)
• Christina Rossetti, “Goblin Market” 1862 (poetry)
• Matthew Arnold, “Dover Beach” 1867 (poetry)
• Robert Louis Stevenson,
The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
, 1886 (novella)
• Kate Chopin, “The Story of an Hour” 1894 (short story)
• Mark Twain, “The.
In this SLP you will identify where the major transportation modes a.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this SLP you will identify where the major transportation modes are used in the EESC from SLP3: rail, inland water, ocean steamer, and/or OTR.
There are five basic transportation modes: rail, inland water ways, ocean, over-the-road, and air. We will not be concerned about air transport in this SLP as it is the least used and most expensive in general supply chain transportation.
Review and read these resources on these three transportation modes: rail, inland water, and OTR. Ocean is not included in these readings since it is mainly used for importing and exporting. This will be covered in more detail in LOG502. But you are asked to identify where ocean transport is used, but not in detail.
RESOURCES - SEE SLP 3 RESOURCES IN BACKGROUND PAGE
Session Long Project
Review the EESC from SLP2. Identify in the EESC where each of the four modes of transportation are used: rail, inland water, ocean, and OTR. You can use topic headings for each mode. Identify the materials being transported from which industry to which industry. Discuss why this mode is being used and what the costs are on a per ton-mile basis.
SLP Assignment Expectations
The paper should include:
Background:
Briefly
review and discuss the targeted product, company, and industry
Diagram: Include the diagram of the EESC
Transportation Discussion: Discuss each of the four transportation modes (rail, inland water, ocean, OTR) in the EESC and where each one is used. Discuss why this mode is used and the costs of using.
Clarity and Organization: The paper should be well organized and clearly discuss the various topics and issues in depth and breadth.
Use of references and citations: at least six (6) proper references should be used correctly, cited in the text, and listed in the references using proper APA format.
Length: The paper should be three to four pages – the body of the paper excluding title page and references page.
NOTE: You can use the transportation resources. You should also do independent research and find at least two additional appropriate references, for a total of at least six.
SLP Resources
Waterways
American Society of Civil Engineers. (2014). Report card for America’s infrastructure.
Infrastructure Report Card.
Retrieved from
http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/inland-waterways
Texas Transportation Institute. (2009). A Modal Comparison Of Domestic Freight Transportation Effects On The General Public, retrieved from
http://www.nationalwaterwaysfoundation.org/study/FinalReportTTI.pdf
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (2014). The U.S. Waterway System, Transportation Facts & Information; Navigation Center. Retrieved from
http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/factcard/factcard12.pdf
Railroads
Bureau of Transportation Statistics (Rail), retrieved from
https://www.bts.gov/topics/rail
USDOT (2012). Freight rail: data & resources. Retrieved on 20 Sep 2016 from
https://www.fra.dot.gov/Page/P0365
American Association of Railroads. Ret.
In this module the student will present writing which focuses attent.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this module the student will present writing which focuses attention on himself or herself (personal writing). We will start into college composition by reading a series of essays that explore the rhetorical modes of narration and decscription. If you think about your own lives, you'll note the importance of the stories that surround you. Think of your family's story, your friends' stories, and your very own story. Think of the detail that constitute these stories, of how they engage your sense of taste, touch, sound, smell, and sight. This module will focus on how you can better craft your own story and share it with others.
Competencies Addressed in this Module:
Competency #1: The student will demonstrate an understanding of the writing process by:
Choosing and limiting a subject that can be sufficiently developed within a given time, for a specific purpose, for a specific purpose and audience.
Developing and refining pre-writing and planning skills.ormulating the main point to reflect the subject and purpose of the writing.
Formulating the main point to reflect the subject and purpose of the writing.
Supporting the main point with specific details and arranging them logically.
Writing an effective conclusion.
Competency #3: The student will demonstrate the ability to proofread, edit, and revise by:
Recognizing and correcting errors in clarity
Recognizing and correcting errors in unity and coherence.
Using conventional sentence structure and correcting sentence errors such as fragments, run-ons, comma splices, misplaced modifiers and faulty parallelism.
Recognizing and correcting errors in utilizing the conventions of Standard American English including:
Using standard verb forms and consistent tense.
Maintaining agreement between subject and verb, pronoun and antecedent.
Using proper case forms--consistent point of view.
Using standard spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.
Selecting vocabulary appropriate to audience, purpose, and occasion.
Aditional inf: I am a woma. I am 25 years old. I have a husband and a one year old son
.
In this module, we looked at a variety of styles in the Renaissa.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this module, we looked at a variety of styles in the Renaissance in Italy. Artists like Botticelli, Bellini, Michelangelo, and Bronzino all incorporated Renaissance characteristics into their works, and yet their works look different from each other.
To address form and content in the artistic developments and trends that took place in the Renaissance, look closely at examples from each of these artists.
Choose one painting by one of the artists listed above, and identify characteristics and techniques of the Renaissance style.
Then, address how the work departed from typical Renaissance formulas to become signature to that artist's particular style.
Finally, why did you select this artist? What draws you to their work?
.
In this experiential learning experience, you will evaluate a health.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this experiential learning experience, you will evaluate a healthcare plan using the attached worksheet. The selected plan can be your own health insurance or another plan.
Step 1
Use published information on the selected health insurance plan to complete the
assignment 5.1 worksheet
.
Step 2
Create a 7-10 slide Power Point presentation to include the following:
Introduction to the plan, including geographic boundaries
Major coverage inclusions and exclusions (Medical, Dental, Vision etc.)
Costs to consumer for insurance under the plan (include premiums, deductibles, copays, prescription costs)
Health insurance plan ratings if available. If no ratings are found for this plan, include a possible explanation for this situation.
Evaluation of the health insurance plan-include your evaluation of this plan from two standpoints:
a consumer-focused on costs, coverage, and ease of use
a public health nurse- focused on access to care for populations and improving health outcomes.
Cite all sources in APA format on a reference slide and with on-slide citations.
.
In this essay you should combine your practice responding and analyz.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this essay you should combine your practice responding and analyzing short stories with support derived from research. So far in class, we have practiced primarily formal analysis. Now I want you to practice "joining the conversation." In this essay you will write a literary analysis that incorporates the ideas of others. The trick is to accurately present ideas and interpretations gathered from your research while adding to the conversation by presenting
your own
ideas and analysis.
You will be evaluated based on how well you use external sources. I want to see that you can quote, paraphrase and summarize without plagiarizing. Remember, any unique idea must be credited, even if you put it in your own words.
Choose one of the approaches explained in the "Approaches to Literary Analysis" located at the bottom of this document. Each approach will require research, and that research should provide the context in which you present your own ideas and support your thesis. Be sure to properly document your research. Review the information, notes, and pamphlets I have distributed in class as these will help guide you.
While I am asking you to conduct outside research, do not lose sight of the primary text to which you are responding---the story! Your research should support
your
interpretations of the story. Be sure that your thesis is relevant to the story and that you quote generously from the story.
Purpose:
critical analysis, Argument, writing from sources
Length:
approx 1200 words
Documentation:
Minimum of 4 sources required (one primary source—the story or poem analyzed, and three secondary, peer reviewed journals). (Note: review the material in "finding and evaluating sources.ppt" to help you choose relevant and trustworthy sources.)
Choose from the following short stories:
The Lottery,
Shirley Jackson
A Rose for Emily,
William Faulkner
The Dead
, James Joyce
The Veldt
, Ray Bradbury
Hills Like White Elephants,
Ernest Hemingway
The Cask of Amontillado or The Tell-Tale Heart,
Edgar Allen Poe
Below are some examples.
They are just here to give you an idea of the type of approaches that will work for this essay.
1. Philosophical analysis: How do the stories by Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus reflect the philosophy of existentialism?
2. Socio/cultural analysis: What opinion about marriage and gender roles does Hemingway advance in "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"?
3. Historical analysis:: What social dilemmas faced by African Americans in the 1960s might have inspired Toni Cade Bambara to write "The Lesson"?
4. Biographical analysis: What events in Salman Rushdie's life might have influenced the events in "At the Auction of the Ruby Slippers"?
5. Psychological analysis: How is John Cheever's "The Swimmer" a metaphor for the psychology of addiction?
Approaches to Literary analysis
Formal analysis
- This type of analysis focuses on the formal elements of the work (language.
In this Discussion, pick one film to write about and answer ques.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this Discussion, pick one film to write about and answer questions below the film descriptions. If it has been a while since you have seen these films, they are available through online sources and various rental outlets. Although I have provided links to some of the films, I cannot guarantee they are still operable. If the links do not work, try your own online sources.
Dances with Wolves
(1990). Lt. John Dunbar (Kevin Costner) is assigned to the Western frontier on his own request after an act of bravery. He finds himself at an abandoned outpost. At first he maintains strict order using the methods and practices taught to him by the military, but as the film progresses, he makes friends with a nearby Native American tribe, and his perceptions of the military, the frontier, and Native Americans change dramatically.
Working Girl
(1988) Tess McGill (Melanie Griffith) works as a secretary for a large firm involved in acquiring media corporations such as radio and television. When her boss has a skiing accident, Tess gets a chance to use her own ideas and research, ideas that she has been keeping within herself for years – ideas that are arguably better, and more insightful into mass media practices, than her boss’s ideas were.
Schindler’s List
(1993). In Poland during World War II, Oskar Schindler (Liam Neeson) gradually becomes concerned for his Jewish workforce after witnessing their persecution by the Nazis. He initially was motivated by profit, but as the war progressed he began to sympathize with his Jewish workers and attempted to save them. He was credited with saving over 1000 Jews from extermination. (Based on a true story.)
Gran Torino
(2008). Walt Kowalski (Clint Eastwood), a recently widowed Korean War veteran alienated from his family and angry at the world. Walt's young neighbor, an Asian American, is pressured into stealing Walt's prized 1972 Ford Gran Torino by his cousin for his initiation into a gang. Walt thwarts the theft and subsequently develops a relationship with the boy and his family.
Describe the specific theories, assumptions, or “schools of thought” that the characters in the film have. How do their schools of thought differ?
How do the main characters change over the course of a film? How do their goals or desires change? Do they see themselves differently by the end of the film?
Which reflective theory from the course best illustrates the process the main characters go through during the film? How so?
Would you say that the main characters evolved or grew after learning something that was new, or a new approach, a new theory, or a new understanding of their place in the world?
I suggest that you refrain from reiterating the plotline. Rather, stay focused on character changes and the influences on those changes. Be sure to refer to the readings; use proper citations! This discussion will be scored based on the
Grading Rubric for Discussions
Please include the name of your film in the d.
In this assignment, you will identify and interview a family who.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this assignment, you will identify and interview a family who is currently undergoing stress. The stress may arise from a new baby, new marriage, new divorce or separation, new job, new house, having a child with special needs, etc. Explain the assignment to the family and obtain written consent for participation. Please acknowledge that this information will only be used for classroom purposes, that no information will be published or disseminated and that their names will not be used.
Part 1: Interview
Interview family members to gain information about the following:
Family information – nuclear, extended family, ages, siblings, etc.
History – how and when the stress started
Life cycle events – have members describe events and how they responded to them (i.e., beginning of school, IEP, transition times, family events, interaction with siblings)
Family dynamics between members
Strengths of family
Cultural, religious, social networks and involvement
Family needs
Coping strategies
Community resources and support
Family goals for child
Other (i.e., personal stories)
Analyze the family from this information based on current research and theory,
Provide research-based recommendations for the family – this may include continuing things that they are currently doing and may include resources/agencies/supports that they can or could be receiving. Note: These resources can be ones that you are using for your major resource file (see Module 5).
Provide a personal reflection on this experience including the communication skills needed for effective interviewing.
Part 2: Results of the Interview
Create a 6 to 8-page paper (not including title or reference pages) in a Word document for your response.
Use APA format for the title page, references page, and in-text citations.
Develop an introduction and conclusion for your paper.
.
In this assignment, you will assess the impact of health legisla.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this assignment, you will assess the impact of health legislation on nursing practice and communicate your analysis to your peers. GovTrack.us provides a list of federal health bills that are currently in process in Congressional Committees.
CO4: Integrates clinical nursing judgment using effective communication strategies with patients, colleagues, and other healthcare providers. (PO#4)
CO7: Integrates the professional role of leader, teacher, communicator, and manager of care to plan cost-effective, quality healthcare to consumers in structured and unstructured settings. (PO#7)
.
In this assignment, you will create a presentation. Select a topic o.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this assignment, you will create a presentation. Select a topic of your choice from any subject we have covered in this course.
TOPICS..
INTERNET
COMPUTERS
MOBILE AND GAME DEVICES
DATA AND INFORMATION
THE WEB
DIGITAL SECURITY AND PRIVACY
PROGRAMS AND APPS
COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS
TECHNOLOGY USERS
THE INTERNET
GRAPHICS AND MEDIA APPLICATIONS
FILE, DISK AND SYSTEM MANAGEMENT TOOLS
PROCESSORS
CLOUD COMPUTING
ADAPTERS
POWER SUPPLY AND BATTERIES
WIRELESS SECURITY
Explain why you select this topic.
Explain why this topic is important.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of your select topic.
Include any other information you might thing is relative to your topic.
Your presentation should be a minimum of 15-20 slides in length. Include the title, references, images, graphics, and diagrams.
.
In this assignment, the student will understand the growth and devel.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this assignment, the student will understand the growth and development of executive leadership by looking at the dynamics between the president and Congress in the period from the founding to the Spanish-American War. In a 6–8- page paper, the student will focus on: 1) how presidents pursued international relations, 2) how presidents were able to project force, and 3) congressional restrictions on presidential actions. The student may write about the president of his/her choice.
.
In this assignment, I want you to locate two pieces of news detailin.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this assignment, I want you to locate two pieces of news detailing how an organization is responding to the COVID-19 crisis. You will turn this assignment into me via a Word Document attached to a separate email titled "extra credit assignment, Your Name" with your actual name in the subject line so I know to save the email for grading.
You need to analyze how businesses are handling the current COVID-19 crisis and I want to see if you can track down a press release from the organization, an email to their stakeholders, or even a screenshot of their website in which they explicitly address the actions they are taking in light of this new world we find ourselves in. However, the screenshots, hyperlinks to news stories, etc. are only one component of the assignment, your analysis is far and away from the more important component. Once you have tracked down two examples of how a business/organization is responding to the COVID-19 crisis, I want you to tell me how effective you perceive its action to be. Use any of the vocabulary or concepts that we have learned thus far in the semester to support your analysis. For example, is the business/organization using appropriate new media platforms to reach stakeholders? Is communication timely? Is the organization's tone sincere? What could have been done better? I am expecting one page, double-spaced for the length of your analysis, APA format. The images and or hyperlinks you compile will not be counted towards the length of your writing.
.
In this assignment worth 150 points, you will consider the present-d.docxwhitneyleman54422
In this assignment worth 150 points, you will consider the present-day relevance of history with a current event from a legitimate news source (your instructor will provide several options to choose from) and do the following: (1) summarize the article¿s main idea in a paragraph (5 sentences minimum), (2) write two paragraphs in which you utilize your textbook and notes to analyze how your current event selection relates to the past.
the topics are below, just choose one of the topic from list below..
Neanderthals and string
Neanderthals Left Africa Sooner Than We Think?
Discovery of Neanderthal Skeleton and Burial
Searching for Nefertiti
Discovery of Donkeys Used in Polo (Ancient China)
Ancient Maya Capital Found in Backyard
Long Lost Greek City Found
Ancient Roman Weapon
Viking Burial Discovery
Saving Timbuktu's Treasures
.
In the readings thus far, the text identified many early American in.docxwhitneyleman54422
In the readings thus far, the text identified many early American interests in the Middle East from geopolitical to missionary. Using the text and your own research, compare these early interests with contemporary American interests in the Middle East.
In particular, how has becoming 1) a global hegemon after WWII and 2) the concurrent process of ‘secularization’ transformed American foreign policy thought and behavior toward Israel and the Middle East region generally? What themes have remained constant and what appear new? Would you attribute changes more to America’s new geopolitical role after WWII, or to the increasing secularization of American society? Explain carefully. In 500 words
.
In the Roman Colony, leaders, or members of the court, were to be.docxwhitneyleman54422
In the Roman Colony, leaders, or members of the court, were to be:
•Local elites•Be freeborn•Between the ages of 22 – 55•Community resident•Moral integrity
From the members, two were chosen as unpaid chief magistrates (Judges). They would have to “buy into” that position, but the recognition was worth the financial output. This week's discussion prompter is:
Money alone influences others. Please analyze and critically discuss.
In your response, remember that all this is about leadership, the context which is set in Rome.
.
In the provided scenario there are a few different crimes being .docxwhitneyleman54422
In the provided scenario there are a few different crimes being committed and each could be argued multiple ways.
Steve could be charged with attempted murder. He was stabbing Michelle in the chest repeatedly. Due to the details of the scenario his charge could only be attempted because Michelle got up from the attack and charged Stacy. If she later died from her injuries Steve would/could be charged with murder. Even though he was “visibly drunk” he still maintained the purposely, knowing, or reckless intent to cause harm. He was coherent enough to make statements to her about how much he loved her, but still showed an extreme indifference to life and intent cause serious bodily harm. The biggest obstacle to a murder charge for Steve is his death. He cannot be charged with anything if he cannot be alive to defend himself. This takes care of the Steve factor.
Initially Stacy could be found guilty of murder. She knowingly and intentionally took the life of another (Steve). She also expresses an intent to kill when she stated, “I have had enough of you Steve”. From the scenario it is documented that she did not care for Steve and along with her statements, it can be shown that she was “just waiting for the opportunity” to kill Steve. In her favor is the fact that she attempted to stop Steve from harming another person. Her actions, while resulting in the death of another, were in the defense of a harmed person. She possibly saved the life of Michelle by using reasonable force to stop the stabbing.
Michelle could be charged with attempted murder as well. She stabbed Stacey in the chest while screaming, “how dare you”. She intended to cause death or serious physical injury. Again, if Stacey died from the wounds suffered, Michelle could/would be charged with murder. It could also be argued that Michelle had no malice aforethought. She was being stabbed and may not have known her actions were wrong. Her extreme circumstance clouded her reasonable decision making and all she was aware of is that her boyfriend, whom she loved, was just killed. This is unlikely but still a small possibility. Without more facts from the scenario it is difficult to fully play out all possibilities.
respond to this discussion question in 150 words no references please
.
STOP THE MEETING MADNESS HOW TO FREE UP TIME FOR ME.docxwhitneyleman54422
STOP
THE
MEETING
MADNESS
HOW TO FREE UP TIME FOR
MEANINGFUL WORK
BY LESLIE A. PERLOW, CONSTANCE NOONAN HADLEY, AND EUNICE EUN
SHARE THIS ARTICLE. HBR LINK MAKES IT EASY.
SEE PAGE 41 FOR INSTRUCTIONS.
FEATURE STOP THE MEETING MADNESS
62 HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW JULY–AUGUST 2017
EL
EN
A
K
U
LI
KO
VA
/G
ET
TY
IM
A
G
ES
JULY–AUGUST 2017 HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW 63
P
Poking fun at meetings is the stuff of Dilbert car-
toons—we can all joke about how soul-sucking and
painful they are. But that pain has real consequences
for teams and organizations. In our interviews with
hundreds of executives, in fields ranging from high
tech and retail to pharmaceuticals and consulting,
many said they felt overwhelmed by their meetings—
whether formal or informal, traditional or agile, face-
to-face or electronically mediated. One said, “I cannot
get my head above water to breathe during the week.”
Another described stabbing her leg with a pencil to
stop from screaming during a particularly torturous
staff meeting. Such complaints are supported by re-
search showing that meetings have increased in length
and frequency over the past 50 years, to the point
where executives spend an average of nearly 23 hours
a week in them, up from less than 10 hours in the
1960s. And that doesn’t even include all the impromptu
gatherings that don’t make it onto the schedule.
Much has been written about this problem, but the
solutions posed are usually discrete: Establish a clear
agenda, hold your meeting standing up, delegate
someone to attend in your place, and so on. We’ve
observed in our research and consulting that real im-
provement requires systemic change, because meet-
ings affect how people collaborate and how they get
their own work done.
Yet change of such scope is rarely considered. When
we probed into why people put up with the strain that
meetings place on their time and sanity, we found
something surprising: Those who resent and dread
meetings the most also defend them as a “necessary
evil”—sometimes with great passion. Consider this
excerpt from the corporate blog of a senior executive
in the pharmaceutical industry:
I believe that our abundance of meetings at our
company is the Cultural Tax we pay for the inclusive,
learning environment that we want to foster…
and I’m ok with that. If the alternative to more
meetings is more autocratic decision-making, less
input from all levels throughout the organization,
and fewer opportunities to ensure alignment and
communication by personal interaction, then give
me more meetings any time!
To be sure, meetings are essential for enabling col-
laboration, creativity, and innovation. They often foster
relationships and ensure proper information exchange.
They provide real benefits. But why would anyone ar-
gue in defense of excessive meetings, especially when
no one likes them much?
Because executives want to be good soldiers. When
they sacrifice their own .
Stoichiometry Lab – The Chemistry Behind Carbonates reacting with .docxwhitneyleman54422
Stoichiometry Lab – The Chemistry Behind Carbonates reacting with Vinegar
Objectives: To visually observe what a limiting reactant is.
To measure the change in mass during a chemical reaction due to loss of a gas.
To calculate CO2 loss and compare actual loss to expected CO2 loss predicted by the balanced chemical equation.
Materials needed: Note: Plan ahead as you’ll need to let Part 1 sit for at least 24 hours.
plastic beaker graduated cylinder
electronic balance 2 eggs
1 plastic cup baking soda (5 g)
dropper vinegar (500mL)
2 identical cups or glasses (at least 500 mL)
Safety considerations: Safety goggles are highly recommended for this lab as baking soda and vinegar chemicals can be irritating to the eyes. If your skin becomes irritated from contact with these chemicals, rinse with cool water for 15 minutes.
Introduction:
The reaction between baking soda and vinegar is a fun activity for young people. Most children (and adults!) enjoy watching the foamy eruption that occurs upon mixing these two household substances. The reaction has often been used for erupting volcanoes in elementary science classes. The addition of food coloring makes it even more fun. The reaction involves an acid-base reaction that produces a gas (CO2). Acid-base reactions typically involve the transfer of a hydrogen ion (H+) from the acid (HA) to the base (B−):
HA + B− --> A− + BH (eq #1)
acid base
The base often (although not always) carries a negative charge. The acid usually (although not always) becomes negatively charged through the course of the reaction because it lost an H+. An example of a typical acid base reaction is below:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) --> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) (eq #2)
The reaction is actually taking place between the hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydroxide ion (OH−). The chloride and sodium are spectator ions. To write the reaction in the same form as eq #1:
HCl(aq) + OH- --> Cl- + H2O (l) (eq #3)
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) will dissociate in water to form sodium ion (Na+) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3−).
NaHCO3 --> Na+ + HCO3− (eq #4)
Vinegar is usually a 5% solution of acetic acid in water. The bicarbonate anion (HCO3−) can act as a base, accepting a hydrogen ion from the acetic acid (HC2H3O2) in the vinegar. The Na+ is just a spectator ion and does nothing.
HCO3− + HC2H3O2 --> H2CO3 + C2H3O2− (eq#5)
Bicarbonate acetic acid carbonic acid acetate ion
The carbonic acid that is formed (H2CO3) decomposes to form water and carbon dioxide:
H2CO3 --> H2O(l) + CO2(g) (eq#6)
carbonic acid water carbon dioxide
The latter reaction (production of carbon dioxide) accounts for the bubbles and the foaming that is observed upon mixing vinegar and baki.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2. constructs.
• Analyze evidence about racial inequality and social class in
relation to crime.
• Analyze evidence about racial differences in rates of
victimization.
• Analyze evidence regarding racial inequality and incarceration
rates.
• Explore how the War on Drugs contributes to racial
discrimination in the criminal justice system.
• Examine crack cocaine and marijuana law enforcement in
context of racial discrimination.
• Critically analyze the connections between race and the death
penalty.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of racial profiling.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of immigration and
crime rates.
Crime, Race, and Ethnicity
4
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 91 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System CHAPTER 4
In April of 2012, law enforcement in Oklahoma arrested one of
3. the region’s foremost drug kingpins. In the home of the alleged
drug kingpin, police seized four pounds of marijuana, $276,000
in cash, and two firearms: a revolver and a semiautomatic
pistol.
Police believe that the defendant is the “mastermind” (Perez,
2012, p. 1) of a drug-dealing
organization that supplies approximately 40% of the marijuana
markets in Oklahoma and
three nearby states: Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. The
suspect, drug kingpin Darlene
Mayes, is a White grandmother with thinning silver hair who
appears to be in her 60s or
70s. Thus she has been dubbed the “Granny Drug Kingpin”
(Perez, 2012).
Studies suggest that when asked to picture a drug dealer,
overwhelmingly the American
public visualizes a young man of color (Burston, Jones, &
Roberson-Sanders, 1995). How-
ever, evidence from this chapter will demonstrate that drug use
and drug crime spans
racial and ethnic groups and that all racial groups seem to
commit drug crime in similar
rates. Whether broaching issues of drug crime, or any other type
of crime, issues of per-
ception, race, and criminality are central in the study of
criminology.
4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System
The American criminal justice system disproportionately
impacts people of color, and this disproportionate impact by
race is often dramatic and consistent at nearly every level of the
system. Research demonstrates that members of poor,
disenfranchised
groups receive harsher treatment in all phases of the criminal
4. justice system: They are
more likely to be stopped, investigated, arrested, charged, put
on trial, found guilty, and
sent to prison (Tonry, 2011). The disproportionate involvement
in the system is cumula-
tive. Police are more likely to arrest someone who has a prior
record, prosecutors are more
likely to charge someone who has previously been arrested or
spent time in jail. A judge
is more likely to convict and incarcerate a defendant rather than
offer probation to some-
one who has previously spent time behind bars (Schnake, Jones,
& Brooker, 2010). Thus,
racial disparities in crime and incarceration rates are critically
important in the study of
contemporary criminology.
Race and Ethnicity Defined
From the perspective of a social scientist, race and ethnicity are
social constructs. As dis-
cussed in Chapter 1, a social construct is an entity in society
that is not fixed, rather its
meaning is continually defined and redefined by evolving norms
and values in society.
From this perspective, race refers to a group of individuals who
are distinguished by some
perceived common physical characteristics. These physical
characteristics are often broad
and overlapping but also perceived as exclusive and distinct. In
contrast, ethnicity refers
to a group of individuals who share common cultural beliefs,
norms, values, and prac-
tices. These common cultural practices may include family
customs, religious practices,
and traditions centered on food, music, and art.
5. Understanding race and ethnicity as social constructs
acknowledges that the lived history
of individuals and groups of various origins changes over time.
Similarly, social attitudes
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 92 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System CHAPTER 4
and perceptions about race and ethnicity change over time. And
finally, patterns of migra-
tion, immigration, and reproduction continually reshape racial
and ethnic groups, in
America in particular.
In his book The American Kaleidoscope, Lawrence Fuchs
(1990) uses the metaphor of a kalei-
doscope to vividly illustrate how racial and ethnic patterns in
the United States evolve
over time. Several popular metaphors and symbols have been
used to represent the rela-
tively young and unique patterns of racial and ethnic
assimilation and acculturation in
America. Metaphors such as the
“melting pot” or “salad bowl”
suggest that different groups
combine and mix in American
society to meld together to form
something unique while also
retaining some of their original
components.
6. The kaleidoscope metaphor
suggests that the size and shape
of different racial and ethnic
groups evolve dynamically over
time. The size, shape, and col-
ors of different sections meld
together and are reshaped, and
new colors are formed. While a
powerful metaphor, all of these
symbols for racial and ethnic
evolution in America likely
ignore the history of conflict and oppression intertwined with
issues of race and ethnicity.
Moreover, these metaphors also seem to disregard that social-
structural marginality and
stratification continue to connect with issues of race and
ethnicity in contemporary America.
Race and Socioeconomic Status
In the United States, poverty disproportionately impacts people
and communities of color.
Similarly, people of color are overrepresented among the lower
social classes (Bishaw,
2011). Concentrated poverty is associated with higher crime
rates, underperforming public
schools, poor housing and health conditions, and fewer job
opportunities (Bishaw, 2011).
According to the 2010 Census, non-Hispanic Whites constitute
72.4% of the U.S. popula-
tion and 9.9% of those living in poverty. In contrast, African
Americans represent 12.6% of
the U.S. general population, but 27.4% of those living in
poverty. Hispanics now represent
16.3% of the U.S. general population but 26.6% of individuals
7. living below the poverty
line (DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B., & Smith, J., 2011; United
States Census Bureau, 2011).
People of color are clearly overrepresented among those living
in poverty, and they are
also overrepresented among those impacted by the criminal
justice system.
Spencer Platt/Getty Images
Metaphors like melting pot, salad bowl, or kaleidoscope are
used
to describe the diversity of Americans.
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 93 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.2 Crime Rates and Race CHAPTER 4
4.2 Crime Rates and Race
The research demonstrates that rates of crime perpetration and
crime victimization do not affect all groups in society equally.
In other words, crime tends to have a disproportionate impact
on poor communities and communities of color. Crimi-
nologists have consistently found that most crime is intraracial;
that is, people dispropor-
tionately commit crimes against people of their own race. For
example, Native American
populations in the United States suffer from high levels of
poverty and social structural
marginality. In part as a result, Native Americans as a group are
nearly twice as likely to
be victims of many types of violent crime compared to any
other racial or ethnic group in
8. the United States. Moreover, while there is limited data
available to researchers, it seems
likely that Native Americans also have comparatively high rates
of criminal offending
(Tibbetts, 2012).
Race, socioeconomic status, and crime rates cluster among other
racial and ethnic groups
as well. The research suggests that along with Native
Americans, African Americans tend
to have higher rates of crime perpetration, especially for violent
offenses. Whites and
Asian Americans tend to commit lower rates of both property
and violent crime. However,
given the size of the White population in the United States,
most people arrested in the
United States are White. For example, in 2009, 69% of all
people arrested nationwide were
White, compared to 28% African American
(http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2009/arrests/
index.html). It is important to note that rates of crime
perpetration are often measured by
arrests. As discussed in Chapter 1, arrest rates as a measure of
crime are reasonably accu-
rate but also have a series of shortcomings and thus present an
incomplete picture of the
crime problem in America (Tibbetts, 2012).
Members of racial and ethnic minority groups are also
overrepresented as victims of
crime. In 2010, African Americans had higher rates of violent
crime victimization (20.8 per
1,000 people) than Hispanics (15.6 per 1,000) and Whites (13.6
per 1,000) (Truman, 2011a).
Understanding the complex connections between poverty, race,
and crime is important in
9. order to devise effective public policy to prevent and control
crime.
Incarceration Rates and Race
People of color are overrepresented in the American
correctional system. This section will
examine racial differences in local jails and in state and federal
prisons building from
the most recent data available from the Bureau of Justice
Statistics. Those data will be
combined with 2010 Census Data to calculate the corresponding
incarceration rates for
Whites, African Americans, and Hispanics in the United States.
People of color are incarcerated in jails across America at rates
much higher than their
White counterparts (see Table 4.1). According to the Bureau of
Justice Statistics (2011),
there were a total of 748,728 inmates in local jails in 2010. Of
these inmates, Whites consti-
tuted 44.3% (331,686 inmates), African Americans made up
37.8% (283,019 inmates), and
Hispanics 15.8% (118,299 inmates). Compared to the
representation of these groups in the
general population, people of color are much more likely to be
incarcerated in local jails.
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 94 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2009/arrests/index.html
http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2009/arrests/index.html
Section 4.2 Crime Rates and Race CHAPTER 4
10. Table 4.1: Numbers of inmates in local jails, by characteristic,
midyear 2000 and 2005–2010
Characteristic 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008a 2009a 2010
Total 621,149 747,529 756,819 780,174 785,533 767,434
748,728
Sex
Male 550,162 652,958 666,819 679,654 685,862 673,728
656,360
Female 70,987 94,571 99,000 100,520 99,670 93,706 92,368
Adults 613,534 740,770 759,717 773,341 777,829 760,216
741,168
Male 543,120 646,807 661,164 673,346 678,657 667,039
649,284
Female 70,414 93,963 98,552 99,995 99,172 93,176 91,884
Juvenilesb 7,615 6,759 6,102 6,833 7,703 7,218 7,560
Held as adultsc 6,126 5,750 4,835 5,649 6,410 5,846 5,647
Held as juveniles 1,489 1,009 1,268 1,184 1,294 1,373 1,912
Race/Hispanic origind
White 260,500 331,000 336,500 338,200 333,300 326,400
331,600
Black/African
American
11. 256,300 290,500 295,900 301,700 308,000 300,500 283,200
Hispanic/Latino 94,100 111,900 119,200 125,500 128,500
124,000 118,100
Othere 10,200 13,000 13,500 13,900 14,000 14,800 15,000
Two or more
races
… 1,000 700 800 1,300 1,800 800
Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding.
…Not collected
a Based on revised data from selected jail jurisdictions for the
number of inmates confined at midyear 2008 and 2009. See
Methodology for a description of revised data.
bJuveniles are persons under the age of 18 at midyear.
cIncludes juveniles who were tried or awaiting trial as adults.
dEstimates are based on reported data adjusted for nonresponse.
eExcludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin.
Source: United States Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice
Statistics (2011). Jail Inmates at Midyear 2010, Statistical
Tables.
Publication No. NCJ 233431. Washington, D.C.: Minton, T.
African Americans and Hispanic populations are also
dramatically overrepresented in
the American prison system (see Tables 4.2 and 4.3). According
to the Bureau of Justice
Statistics (2012), there were a total of 1,612,395 individuals
incarcerated in prisons in the
12. United States as of December of 2010. These 1.6 million
prisoners are serving time in both
the state and federal prison system, both government-run and
private prison facilities,
both juvenile and adult facilities, and include both male and
female inmates. In December
of 2010, Whites constituted 499,600 inmates, or just under 31%
of all prison inmates. In
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 95 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.2 Crime Rates and Race CHAPTER 4
comparison, there were 588,000 African American inmates that
comprised 36.5% of all
inmates. And Hispanics totaled 345,900 inmates, or 21.4% of all
prison inmates. These
overwhelming racial disparities in the prison system are even
more dramatic when
analyzed by rate.
Table 4.2: Estimated number of sentenced prisoners under state
and federal jurisdiction,
by sex, race, and Hispanic origin, December 31, 2000–2010
Male Female
Year Totala Whiteb Blackb Hispanic Totala Whiteb Blackb
Hispanic
2000 1,237,500 436,500 572,900 206,900 83,700 34,500 37,400
10,000
2001 1,259,500 449,200 585,800 199,700 85,000 36,200 36,400
13. 10,200
2002 1,291,300 436,800 586,700 235,000 89,000 35,400 36,000
15,000
2003 1,316,500 454,300 586,300 251,900 92,800 39,100 35,000
16,200
2004 1,337.700 449,300 551,300 260,600 96,100 42,500 32,100
15,000
2005 1,362,500 459,700 547,200 279,000 98,600 45,800 29,900
15,900
2006 1,399,100 478,000 534,200 290,500 103,100 49,100
28,600 17,500
2007 1,427,300 471,400 556,900 301,200 105,500 50,500
29,300 17,600
2008 1,434,800 477,500 562,800 295,800 105,300 50,700
29,100 17,300
2009 1,443,500 479,000 563,500 303,500 105,200 51,200
28,200 17,500
2010 1,446,000 451,600 561,400 327,200 104,600 48,000
26,600 18,700
Note: Counts based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1
year. All estimates include persons
under age 18. See Methodology for estimation method.
aIncludes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native
Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, and persons identifying as
two or more races.
14. bExcludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin.
cData source used to estimate race and Hispanic origin changed
in 2010. Use caution when comparing to prior years. See
Methodology.
Sources: BJS, National Prisoner Statistics Program, Federal
Justice Statistics Program, National Corrections Reporting
Program, Survey
of Inmates in State and Local Correctional Facilities, and
National Inmate Survey.
Source: United States Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice
Statistics (2012). Prisoners in 2010. Publication No. NCJ
236096.
Washington, D.C.: Guerino, P., Harrison, P., & Sabol, W.
Table p26
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 96 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.2 Crime Rates and Race CHAPTER 4
Table 4.3: Estimated number of sentenced prisoners under state
and federal jurisdiction,
by sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age, December 31, 2010
Male Female
Age Totala Whiteb Blackb Hispanic Totala Whiteb Blackb
Hispanic
Totalc 1,446,000 451,600 561,400 327,200 104,600 48,000
26,600 18,700
18-19 20,900 3,900 10,400 5,300 800 300 300 200
20-24 173,300 42,800 75,200 44,800 10,800 4,600 2,900 2,300
15. 25-29 235,300 64,700 94,900 62,300 17,700 7,900 4,400 3,800
30-34 235,400 64,300 95,700 62,400 17,700 8,200 4,300 3,500
35-39 199,700 58,800 78,300 49,900 15,500 7,300 3,800 2,700
40-44 182,200 61,200 68,200 37,700 15,300 7,100 4,000 2,500
45-49 163,700 59,400 60,000 28,600 13,000 6,100 3,500 1,700
50-54 114,000 43,200 41,100 18,000 7,700 3,600 2,100 1,100
55-59 61,700 24,700 21,400 9,300 3,500 1,600 900 500
60-64 32,000 14,700 9,300 4,600 1,500 800 300 200
65 or
older
25,300 13,500 5,600 3,600 900 500 200 100
Note: Data source used to estimate race and Hispanic origin
changed in 2010 and data source for age
distributions was enhanced between 2009 and 2010. Use caution
when comparing to prior years.
Counts based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year.
See Methodology for estimation
method.
aIncludes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native
Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, and persons identifying two
or more races.
bExcludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin.
cIncludes persons under age 18.
Source: United States Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice
16. Statistics (2012). Prisoners in 2010. Publication No. NCJ
236096.
Washington, D.C.: Guerino, P., Harrison, P., & Sabol, W.
Table p26
The disproportionate impact of the correctional system on
people of color is most apparent
when data from jails and state and federal prisons are combined
and then compared to rep-
resentation in the general population. Incarceration rates can be
calculated relying on 2010
data, the most recent available, from both the U.S. Census and
the Bureau of Justice Statis-
tics (United States Census Bureau, 2011; Minton, 2011;
Guerino, Harrison, & Sabol, 2012).
The incarceration rate for Whites in America is considerably
lower compared to people of
color. In 2010, 831,286 individuals were identified as White
incarcerated, including both
jails and prisons. With 226,948,223 Whites in the general
population of the United States,
the incarceration rate for Whites was approximately 366 for
every 100,000 (United States
Census Bureau, 2011; Minton, 2011; Guerino, Harrison, &
Sabol, 2012).
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 97 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.2 Crime Rates and Race CHAPTER 4
Comparatively speaking, the incarceration rate for African
Americans is strikingly high.
As of 2010, there were 871,019 African Americans incarcerated
17. in jails and prisons in
the United States. African Americans constitute 12% of the U.S.
general population, or
39,496,514 people. Thus, the incarceration rate for African
Americans in 2010 was 2,205
per 100,000. Analyzing this new data, African Americans are
incarcerated at a rate that is
approximately six times higher than Whites (United States
Census Bureau, 2011; Minton,
2011; Guerino, Harrison, & Sabol, 2012).
Hispanics also experience incarceration at very high rates. Non-
White Hispanics repre-
sent 16.3% of the American population, or 51,094,696
individuals. Combining both jails
and prisons, there are 464,199 Hispanics incarcerated in the
United States. Therefore, the
incarceration rates for Hispanics in America is approximately
908 per 100,000 in the gen-
eral population, nearly 2.5 times the rate of Whites (United
States Census Bureau, 2011;
Minton, 2011; Guerino, Harrison, & Sabol, 2012).
The incarceration data presented in the previous section is based
on a cross-section analy-
sis, or a study designed to describe, compare, and contrast
evidence gathered at a specific
point in time. In contrast, a longitudinal analysis describes,
compares, and contrasts evi-
dence over a period of time. In general, longitudinal studies are
considered a superior and
more reliable research method compared to cross-sectional
evidence.
The longitudinal data about the disproportionate impact of
incarceration on people of
18. color presents an even more striking picture. According to an
analysis by Marc Mauer and
Ryan King (2007) of The Sentencing Project, if current
incarceration trends continue, 1 out
of every 3 African American boys born in 2008 in America will
serve time in prison over
the course of their lifetime, compared to 1 out of 17 White
males. Similarly, 1 out of every
6 Hispanic baby boys born in 2008 in America is likely to serve
time in prison over their
lifetime. The incarceration of a substantial number of
individuals, young men of color in
particular, has a profound impact on neighborhoods and
communities.
Incarceration’s impact on communities is cumulative (Lusane,
1991). Similarly, when pris-
oners return to the community, this reentry process is
concentrated within states, within
zip codes, and within communities (Petersilia, 2009). Thus
incarceration has consequences
for communities and regions, not just individuals. Since
incarceration rates disproportion-
ately impact individuals and communities of color, issues of
family instability, reentry,
employment, and political representation also
disproportionately impact communities of
color (see Chapter 2).
These data on racial differences in incarceration rates raise a
series of important issues in
the study of crime and criminology. Many of the founding
documents of the United States
make profound and meaningful promises about due process,
equality under the law, and
equal protection of the laws. As social scientists, it is critically
19. important to study dynam-
ics that may or may not contribute to the overrepresentation of
the poor and people of
color in the criminal justice system.
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 98 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC)
In the modern era, law enforcement bodies are collecting and
analyzing more system-
atic data about racial differences in the criminal justice system
and attempting to create
policies to address these disparities. One of the broadest
initiatives began in 1988, called
disproportionate minority contact (DMC) initiated by the
Coalition for Juvenile Justice
via the United States Department of Justice. DMC requires that
“each State must address
efforts to reduce the proportion of youth detained or confined in
secure detention facili-
ties . . . who are members of minority groups” (Coleman, n.d.).
The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
seeks to gather reliable data
about DMC in order to craft proactive and multifaceted
strategies. For example, their
most recent report “Reducing Disproportionate Minority
Contact: Preparation at the Local
Level” focuses on the importance of communicating accurate
and empirically driven
20. information about the crime problem to the American public.
The major challenge here
may be the inaccuracies frequently presented by the media.
After analyzing 77 research
studies on the issue, the report made the following
determination:
Overall, the studies taken together indicate that depictions of
crime in the
media are not reflective of the rate of crime generally, the
proportion of crime
which is violent, the proportion of crime committed by people
of color, or the
proportion of crime committed by young people. (Soler &
Garry, 2009, p. 2)
The DMC initiatives reflect some of the central goals of
criminology. Both emphasize that
politically neutral, reliable, empirical information is key to
addressing a host of issues in
the criminal justice system, including its disproportionate
impact on people of color.
4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social Class
Chapter 3 contained a depth-oriented examination of crime and
social class. The evidence presented suggested that in some
modest ways, those of lower socio-economic status may be more
likely to commit certain types of crime. However,
the bulk of the evidence suggests that a series of dynamics make
the poor more likely
Web Field Trip: Mass Incarceration Across the United States
Visit the website of The Sentencing Project, an institute
dedicated to “research and advocacy for reform
of the criminal justice system”:
21. http://www.sentencingproject.org/map/map.cfm. Use the
interactive
map to view the corrections population and race and ethnicity
disparity in your specific state.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How does your state compare with neighboring states?
2. How does your state compare with the national average?
3. What is the state with the lowest racial disparity?
4. What is the state with the highest racial disparity?
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 99 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www.sentencingproject.org/map/map.cfm
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
to be caught and punished by the criminal justice system, and
often punished severely.
Since people of color experience poverty and marginalization at
higher rates than Whites,
the class-based disadvantages built into the criminal justice
system are likely particularly
acute for people of color. Thus, people of color are more likely
to live in more visible resi-
dentially crowded communities, to be unable to post bail, to be
represented by the public
defender, and to take less advantageous plea bargains.
However, a series of dynamics suggests that the criminal justice
system discriminates
against racial minority groups, sometimes independent of social
class. It is far beyond the
22. scope of a single textbook chapter to archive and analyze the
historic evolution of racial
and ethnic dynamics in America. However, many criminologists
link the disproportionate
impact of the criminal justice system to the legacy of slavery,
Jim Crow laws, segregation,
and labor exploitation woven into the fabric of America
(Shelden, 2010). The following
sections will analyze a series of criminal justice system policies
and dynamics that seem to
disproportionately and discriminately impact people of color.
The War on Drugs
In 1972 President Richard Nixon declared a “War on Drugs”
with significant and long-
standing consequences for the American criminal justice
system. This metaphor described
that drug policy in America would be first and foremost a law
enforcement and criminal
justice system issue, and secondarily an issue of public health.
Under a larger “tough on
crime” political platform, the Nixon administration’s punitive
approach to drugs set a
precedent that was largely continued by subsequent
administrations of both political par-
ties (Mohamed & Fritsvold, 2010).
The War on Drugs reshaped the American correctional system.
Since the inception of the
War on Drugs, the number of drug offenders in America’s jails
and prisons has increased
more than 1,000% (Fellner, 2000). In the early 1980s, jails and
prisons in the United States
were just beginning to experience an influx of drug offenders.
As a point of comparison,
23. in 1980 drug offenders constituted approximately 6.5% of all
prison inmates in the state
system and 25% of all prison inmates in the federal system
(Fellner, 2000; Mohamed &
Fritsvold, 2010). In comparison, in 2009 drug offenders
constituted 18% of all state prison
inmates and 51% of federal inmates (Guerino, Harrison, &
Sabol, 2012). These data clearly
demonstrate the increase in the proportion of drug offenders in
the criminal justice system
produced by changes in drug policy. However, the impact of
these policies on incarcera-
tion may be more apparent when examining changes in the
number of individual offend-
ers incarcerated for drug crime. In 1980, 581,000 people were
arrested for drug crimes,
and by 2009, the number almost tripled to 1,663,000 people. In
1980, about 41,000 people
were in prison or jail for drug crimes, and by 2003, that number
neared 500,000 (Mauer &
King, 2007).
According to experts, this dramatic increase in incarceration
was the result of the War on
Drugs and related punitive drug policies and not driven by an
increase in rates of drug use
or a dramatic increase in drug crime (Fellner, 2000). Moreover,
criminologists frequently
criticize America’s drug policies for their disproportionate
impact on people of color.
Since the declaration of the War on Drugs in the early 1970s, a
significant percentage of
our country’s law enforcement resources are dedicated to drug
offenders. For example,
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Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
in 2009, 1,663,582 people were arrested for nonviolent drug
offences in the United States
(Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI], 2009). Of these arrests,
82% were for drug posses-
sion offenses, while 18% were for the sale or manufacturing of
illegal drugs (FBI, 2009).
These 1,663,582 arrests constitute more people than those who
live in 11 of our 50 states
including New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Idaho, Montana,
Vermont, and Wyoming.
It is more people than those who live in the largest 46 of 50
largest cities in the United
States, including Philadelphia; Phoenix; San Antonio; Dallas;
Jacksonville, Florida; San
Francisco; Austin; Columbus, Ohio; Detroit; Memphis;
Baltimore; Tucson; Sacramento;
Oklahoma City; Las Vegas; Milwaukee; Portland, Oregon;
Miami; Raleigh, North
Carolina; Atlanta; Minneapolis; and Washington, DC.
The War on Drugs and Racial Discrimination
In 2007, Ron Paul was contending to become the Republican
nominee for President of the
United States. In a presidential debate sponsored by PBS, Paul
presented evidence about
the discriminatory impacts of American drug policy:
For instance, blacks make up 14% of those who use drugs. Yet
36% of those
25. arrested are blacks. And it ends up that 63% of those who
finally end up in
prison are blacks. This has to change. We don’t have to have
more courts and
more prisons. We need to repeal the whole war on drugs. It isn’t
working.
(quoted in Mohamed & Fritsvold, 2010, p. 4)
Punitive drug policies have not affected all groups equally.
When examining the over-
representation of racial minorities in the criminal justice
system, evidence suggests, as
noted by Ron Paul, that intentional and unintentional
discriminatory drug policy is of
paramount importance. Research consistently shows that
African Americans and Whites
seem to use illegal drugs at very similar rates (Mauer, 2011).
However, Blacks and His-
panics comprise 65% of drug offenders in state prisons (West
and Sabol, 2010). It seems
despite similar levels of criminality, people of color are far
more likely to be arrested and
eventually incarcerated for drug crime.
In 2007, researchers Phillip Beatty, Amanda Petteruti, and Jason
Ziedenberg analyzed
Bureau of Justice Statistics data from 2003 concerning racial
disparities and the War
on Drugs. These researchers were working on behalf of the
Justice Policy Institute, a
nonprofit think tank that advocates for progressive, justice-
based reforms in the
criminal justice system. Their report, “The Vortex: The
Concentrated Racial Impact of
Drug Imprisonment and Characteristics of Punitive Counties,”
makes a compelling case
26. that drug policies discriminate against traditionally
marginalized groups. They write,
African Americans are disproportionately incarcerated for drug
offenses in the
US, though they use and sell drugs at similar rates to Whites.
As of 2003, twice
as many African Americans as whites were incarcerated for
drug offenses in
state prisons in the US. African Americans make up 13% of the
total US popu-
lation, but accounted for 53% of sentenced drug offenders in
state prisons in
2003. (Beatty, Petteruti, & Ziedenberg, 2007, p. 2)
Michael Tonry, is a renowned criminologist and sentencing
policy expert who further
supports that the War on Drugs discriminates against racial
minorities. Tonry is currently
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Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
serving as the director of the Institute of Crime and Public
Policy at the University of
Minnesota and has wide-ranging experience in law and public
policy. Tonry argues that
for many types of crime, the racial disparities in incarceration
are a result of racial dis-
parities in crime rates. However, Tonry argues that America’s
drug policies in practice do
actively discriminate by race. “Drug law enforcement is the
27. conspicuous exception. Blacks
are arrested and confined in numbers grossly out of line with
their use or sale of drugs”
(Tonry, 1996, p. 49).
The disproportionate impact of drug arrests and incarceration on
minority populations is
exacerbated because of recidivism rates. Drug offenders have
higher recidivism rates com-
pared to most other types of crime (Mohamed & Fritsvold,
2010). Thus, drug offenders are
particularly likely to be incarcerated multiple times, and often
frequently “churning” in
and out of the correctional system (Petersilia, 2009). Over time,
the cumulative effect of the
racial disparities associated with the War on Drugs, and the
related challenges of reentry,
will have an even more significant impact on individuals and
communities of color.
There seems to be compelling evidence from politicians, policy
advocates, and respected
scholars that the War on Drugs does discriminate by race, that
the overrepresentation of
people of color in the criminal justice system can in part be
explained by drug policies
that intentionally or unintentionally result in a disproportionate
impact on racial minori-
ties. Racial discrimination may be particularly apparent when
examining case studies of
certain drugs: crack cocaine and marijuana.
Crack Versus Powder Cocaine
As suggested by Judge Cahill, punitive crack cocaine laws, and
their disproportionate
impact on racial and ethnic minorities, have been particularly
28. controversial in the contem-
porary criminal justice system:
This one provision, the crack statute, has been directly
responsible for incarcer-
ating nearly an entire generation of young black American men
for very long
periods. It has created a situation that reeks with inhumanity
and injustice. The
scales of justice have been turned topsy-turvy so that those
masterminds, the
kingpins of drug trafficking, escape detection while those whose
role is mini-
mal, even trivial, are hoisted on the spears of an enraged
electorate and at the
pinnacle of their youth are imprisoned for years while those
responsible for
the evil of the day remain free. (U.S. District Court Judge Clyde
S. Cahill, 1994.
Quoted in Inciardi, Surratt, & Kurtz, 2007, p. 252)
Crack cocaine is a relatively recent and particularly harmful
version of the illegal drug
cocaine. The powder form of cocaine has been in existence
since the mid 1800s. Powder
cocaine had a brief period of widespread use in everyday
products in the late 1800s and
early 1900s, including hay fever remedies and Coca-Cola soft
drinks (Musto, 1999). Crack
cocaine is powder cocaine mixed with baking soda and water
and cooked over a stove or
in a microwave. It can be smoked by the user. Due to its method
of ingestion, crack deliv-
ers a more potent and more short-lived high compared to
powder cocaine. Moreover,
crack can be sold in much less-expensive individual doses
29. because it requires less cocaine
per use compared to the powder form. While the origins of
crack cocaine are not entirely
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Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
clear, its use became popular in some American cities in the
mid to late 1980s (Reinarman
& Levine, 1997).
The dangers of crack cocaine and its association with people of
color were likely exagger-
ated by the American news media in the late 1980s and into the
early 1990s. Vivid arti-
cles and television features presented crack cocaine in
America’s cities as an “epidemic,”
“plague,” or “national crisis.” Crack was overwhelmingly
associated with users and deal-
ers who were from traditionally marginalized groups, often poor
men of color. Research
suggests that while most crack users are White, crack is
disproportionately used by mem-
bers of racial minority groups
(Inciardi, Surratt, & Kurtz, 2007).
Moreover, the advent of crack
cocaine did likely increase the
volatility and attendant violence
of the underground market for
drugs, but at the height of crack
use in the late 1980s approxi-
mately 96% of Americans had
30. never tried crack cocaine (Rein-
arman & Levine, 1997). It seems
that crack use was most visible
among some marginalized indi-
viduals in some American cities.
But there is no reliable evidence
that crack use was an epidemic
(Reinarman & Levine, 1997;
Berger, Free, & Searles, 2009).
In the late 1980s, the Regan Administration signed a series of
extremely punitive laws
against illegal drugs, and crack cocaine in particular. The 1986
and 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse
Acts created a series of mandatory minimum penalties for
illegal drugs at the federal
level. Mandatory minimum sentences restrict discretion in the
judicial process by speci-
fying the term of incarceration to be served based on the type
and amount of drug pos-
sessed by the accused. Powder and crack cocaine are different
versions of the same drug,
but were treated very differently by this legislation.
The Anti-Drug Abuse Act created a 100:1 ratio for penalties for
crack versus powder
cocaine. The mandatory minimum sentencing scheme specified
that a defendant found
guilty of possessing 5 grams of crack cocaine would trigger a
mandatory 5-year prison
term. Five grams of crack cocaine constitutes between 10–50
individual doses of the drug
and has an approximate street value of between $125 to $750. In
dramatic contrast, 500
grams of powder cocaine was required to trigger the same 5-
year federal mandatory
31. minimum sentence. Five hundred grams of powder cocaine
likely constitutes between
2,500 and 5,000 individual doses of the drug and has an
estimated street value of between
$32,500 and $50,000 (Reinarman & Levine, 1997; Berger, Free,
& Searles, 2009; Inciardi,
Surratt, & Kurtz, 2007).
Mandatory minimum sentences for crack cocaine have
disproportionately impacted the
most visible and marginalized users of the drug, who are often
young, urban, men of
Courtesy Everett Collection
During the 1980s, crack cocaine use was presented as an
epidemic largely associated with poor men of color.
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 103 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
color. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Blacks have accounted
for approximately 80%
of all crack arrests (Mauer, 2011). The evidence is quite strong
that crack cocaine laws
have contributed to the overrepresentation of members of racial
minority groups in the
criminal justice system (Reinarman & Levine, 1997; Berger,
Free, & Searles, 2009; Inciardi,
Surratt, & Kurtz, 2007).
The case of Derrick Curry demonstrates the punitiveness of the
32. federal mandatory min-
imum sentencing laws on crack cocaine. This case is presented
in a 2007 article titled
“African Americans, Crack, and the Federal Sentencing
Guidelines” by James Inciardi,
Hilary Surratt, and Steven Kurtz. In the early 1990s, Derrick
Curry, an African American
20-year-old college student in Washington, DC, was studying
criminal justice. He was
also involved in the distribution of crack cocaine but seemed to
be “no more than a low-
level drug courier” (Inciardi, Surratt, & Kurtz, 2007, p. 253).
Curry was caught with over
one pound of crack cocaine in his automobile after a larger
network of dealers had been
under the surveillance of both the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) and the Drug
Enforcement Administration (DEA). Curry was eventually
sentenced to a prison term of
19 years and 7 months without the possibility of parole. The
authors argue,
Derrick Curry’s sentence, by almost any available standard, is
incomprehen-
sibly severe. It is nearly three times the prison sentence served
by most mur-
derers in the United States; it is four times the prison sentence
served by most
kidnappers; it is five times the prison sentence served by most
rapists; and it
is ten times the prison sentence served by those who illegally
possess guns.
(Inciardi, Surratt, & Kurtz, 2007, p. 253)
After more than 25 years in existence, new legislation in 2010
altered the mandatory
33. minimum sentence schema for crack cocaine. In December of
2010, President Obama
signed the Fair Sentencing Act into law. Under the Fair
Sentencing Act the 500 grams of
powder cocaine necessary to trigger a 5-year mandatory
minimum prison term remains
unchanged. However, the new legislation prescribes that 28
grams of crack cocaine are
now required to trigger the mandatory 5-year prison sentence.
This replaces the old 100:1
quantity ratio of powder to crack cocaine with an 18:1 ratio. In
the original legislation, the
precise timeline for implementing the change, and whether or
not the legislation would
apply retroactively, was not particularly precise. As of this
writing, lawmakers are consid-
ering various models to address this timeline issue (Fields,
2010; Frieden, 2010).
Crack cocaine laws have a particularly controversial place in
the history of the Amer-
ican criminal justice system. Some critics contend that the
disproportionate impact of
these laws on people of color, and possibly the War on Drugs
more generally, was quite
foreseeable (Tonry, 1996). Regardless, the evidence suggests
quite strongly that members
of traditionally marginalized groups, African American males in
particular, were dis-
proportionately impacted by the harsh penalties for crack
cocaine. This issue of racial
discrimination—more specifically, similar criminal behavior
resulting in much different
consequences for different racial groups—is also evident in the
following case study of
marijuana arrests in California.
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Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
Marijuana Possession Arrests in California
Contemporary research presents strong evidence of racial
discrimination in marijuana
arrests in California. This case study is particularly interesting
for criminologists because
marijuana possession arrests likely involve a high level of
police officer discretion. Mari-
juana laws are violated at relatively high rates, and the penalties
in California are gener-
ally less severe compared to other illicit drugs. According to
Peter Moskos, an associate
professor of law and political science at the John Jay College of
Criminal Justice and ex-
police officer in inner-city Baltimore, when choosing to make
arrests, law enforcement
officers are more likely to exercise discretion for commonly
committed, low-level offenses
compared to more rare and serious types of crime (Moskos,
2008).
Marijuana is the most commonly used illegal drug in America
by a significant margin
(Inciardi & McElrath, 2011). There are approximately 14
million current users of marijuana
(Inciardi & McElrath, 2011). Moreover, of Americans over the
age of 12, 95 million people,
or 40% of that population, have tried the drug (Inciardi &
McElrath, 2011). Marijuana-
35. related offenses accounted for more than 865,000 arrests in
2009, or 52% of all drug arrests
nationwide (FBI, 2009). Of all marijuana arrests in the United
States in 2009, 88% were for
possession, not intent to distribute or manufacturing/cultivation
(FBI, 2009). Moreover,
the western region of the United States has the highest rates of
drug use compared to
other regions (Mohamed & Fritsvold, 2010). This is possibly
evidenced by the fact that
there were 61,000 arrests for marijuana offenses in California in
2009 (FBI, 2009).
In 2010, the Drug Policy Alliance and California National
Association for the Advance-
ment of Colored People (NAACP) published two studies that
marshaled compelling
evidence about racial discrimination in marijuana arrests in
California. Harry Levine,
drug policy expert and professor of sociology at Queens College
City University of New
York; Jon Gettman, a professor of criminal justice at
Shenandoah University; and Loren
Siegel, an attorney for LS Consulting in Brooklyn New York,
conducted the research.
The researchers examined marijuana use data by race and
Uniform Crime Report (see
Chapter 1) arrests data for marijuana by race (Levine Gettman,
& Siegel, 2010a; 2010b).
Web Field Trip: Tulia, Texas
Visit the website of PBS
http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/tuliatexas/ and watch the
video pre-
view of the 1999 Tulia, Texas, case. This documentary
chronicles the wrongful arrest, prosecution,
36. and incarceration of 46 people in a small Texas town for alleged
drug crimes, almost all of whom
were poor people of color. Moreover, it highlights the power
and discretion of the legal system and
criminal justice system actors.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How does this case inform our larger discussion of the War
on Drugs and racial discrimination?
2. What can be done to improve the checks and balances built
into the criminal justice system?
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 105 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/tuliatexas/
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
The evidence presented in the study demonstrates that across
age groups young Whites
use marijuana at higher rates compared to both young Hispanics
and African Ameri-
cans. The report relied on drug use data provided by the U.S.
Department of Health and
Human Services and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Services Administration
(SAMHSA). Marijuana use data was available for 18 to 25 year
olds from 2002 to 2007
(see Figure 4.1). These data compared respective marijuana use
rates in the past month, in
the past year, and over one’s lifetime for Whites, African
Americans, and Hispanics. For
every year between 2002 and 2007, 18- to 25-year-old Whites
37. had consistently higher rates
of marijuana use than both African Americans and Hispanics
across all categories. The
study reports similar findings for younger age groups as well
(Levine Gettman, & Siegel,
2010a; 2010b).
Figure 4.1: Marijuana use by Whites, Blacks, and Latinos ages
18 to 25,
2002–2007
Based on data from the U.S. Dept HHS, SAMHSA, Office of
Applied Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and Health,
2002–2007.
For 18 to 25 year olds, across all years in the study, and across
all frequencies of marijuana use measured,
Whites used marijuana more frequently than did African
Americans and Latinos.
Marijuana use data was also available for 12 to 17 year olds
from 2004 to 2007 (see
Figure 4.2). These data also compared respective marijuana use
rates between Whites,
African Americans, and Hispanics; however, data was only
available for marijuana use
in the past year and in the past month. In the 12 to 17 age
cohort and across both use
categories presented, Whites had consistently higher rates of
marijuana use than did
their African American and Hispanic counterparts. It seems that
in the mid 2000s, young
Whites were consistently committing the crime of marijuana
possession at higher rates
than young Blacks and Hispanics, a pattern that seemingly
should be reflected in arrest
38. rates (Levine Gettman, & Siegel, 2010a; 2010b).
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2002-03 2004-05 2006 2007 2002-03 2004-05 2006 2007 2002-
03 2004-05 2006 2007
Ever Used Marijuana Used Marijuana in Past Year Used
Marijuana in Past Month
Whites
Blacks
Latinos
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 106 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.2: Marijuana use by Whites, Blacks, and Latinos ages
12 to 17,
39. 2004–2007
Based on data from the U.S. Dept HHS, SAMHSA, Office of
Applied Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and Health,
2002–2007
For 12 to 17 year olds, across all years in the study, and across
all frequencies of marijuana use measured,
Whites used marijuana more frequently than did African
Americans and Latinos.
Despite higher rates of marijuana use and thus possession by
Whites, African Americans
were significantly more likely to be arrested for marijuana
possession in California in the
mid 2000s. To be able to make meaningful comparisons between
racial groups with
significantly different populations, arrest data was presented as
a rate: num-ber of arrests
in a racial group per 100,000 members of that racial group in
the general population of
a given city. Between 2006 and 2008, data from all 25 cities
showed that despite lower
rates of marijuana use, African Americans were arrested at
much higher rates
compared to Whites. Overall, Blacks were arrested at a rate that
was between 4 and 12
times higher than Whites. Los Angeles is California’s largest
city and home to 10% of
Californians. In this city, African Americans were arrested at
seven times the rate of
Whites for marijuana possession. In San Diego, California’s
second most populous city,
African Americans were arrested at six times the rate of their
White counterparts for mari-
juana possession (Levine, Gettman, & Siegel, 2010a).
40. 25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
2004-05 2006 2007 2004-05 2006 2007
Used Marijuana in Past Year Used Marijuana in Past Month
Whites
Blacks
Latinos
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 107 7/5/13 4:18 PM
These racially discriminatory outcomes in marijuana arrests
were also evident when
comparing Whites and Hispanics (see Figure 4.3). Again,
Whites show higher rates of
marijuana use compared to Hispanics and thus commit the crime
of marijuana possession
at higher rates. The researchers again controlled for the
different populations of
Hispanics and Whites in California cities by presenting data as
arrest rates. In all 15 cities
presented in the report, Hispanics were significantly more likely
to be arrested for
marijuana possession compared to Whites. Overall, Hispanics
41. were between 1.3 and 2.3
times more likely to be arrested for marijuana possession than
Whites, despite
committing the crime less frequently (Levine, Gettman, &
Siegel, 2010b).
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.3: Fifteen cities in 12 California counties: White and
Latino rates
of marijuana possession arrests, 2006–2008
From Levine, H., Gettman, J., & Siegel, S. (2010a). Arresting
Blacks for marijuana in California: Possession arrests in 25
cities,
2006–2008. Los Angeles, CA: Drug Policy Alliance and
California NAACP, p. 10.
Between 2006 and 2008, in all 15 cities presented in the report,
Latinos were between 1.3 and 2.3 times
more likely to be arrested for marijuana possession compared to
Whites.
This report is fairly compelling evidence of widespread racially
discriminatory outcomes
in marijuana arrests. When reflecting on the evidence, it is
important to consider the com-
plex relationships between social class, race, crime, and
punishment in the United States.
Issues of visibility, residential crowding, and law enforcement
resource allocation deci-
sions play a significant role in the disproportionate impact of
marijuana arrests on minor-
42. ity group members in California. Social class-based dynamics,
like the ability to post bail
and to hire a private attorney, may play a role in these racially
discriminatory outcomes
as well. Examining these complex relationships, the authors
conclude that these racially
biased outcomes are not necessarily the product of explicit
racist motivations by individ-
ual law enforcement officers. Instead, the authors contend that
these biased outcomes are
Chino, San Bernadino Co
Santa Barbara, S Barbar Co
El Centro, Imperial Co
Upland, San Bernadino Co
San Jose, Santa Clara Co
Fremont, Alameda Co
Escondido, San Diego Co
Oxnard, Ventura Co
San Diego, San Diego Co
Fresno, Fresno Co
Corona, Riverside Co
Visalia, Tulare Co
Salinas, Monterey Co
43. Modesto, Stanilaus Co
Bakers�eld, Kern Co
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
White Marijuana Posession Arrest
Rate, per 100,000 Whites
Latino Marijuana Posession Arrest
Rate, per 100,000 Latinos
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 109 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
a structural, “system-wide phenomenon” or “racism without
racists” (Levine, Gettman,
& Siegel, 2010b, p. 13).
[W]e do not think the arrests are mostly a result of personal bias
or racism on
the part of individual patrol officers and their immediate
supervisors. Rather,
this is a system-wide phenomenon occurring in cities and
counties through-
out California.
Police departments deploy most patrol and narcotics police to
certain neigh-
borhoods, usually designated “high crime.” These are
disproportionately low-
44. income, and disproportionately Latino and African American. It
is in these
neighborhoods where the police make most patrols, and where
they stop and
search the most vehicles and individuals, looking for
“contraband” of any
type in order to make an arrest. The item that people in any
neighborhood are
most likely to possess, which can get them arrested, is a small
amount of mari-
juana. In short, the arrests are ethnically and racially biased
mainly because the
police are systematically “fishing” for arrests in only some
neighborhoods, and
methodically searching only some “fish.” This produces what
has been termed
“racism without racists.” (Levine, Gettman, & Siegel, 2010b, p.
13)
In sum, the War on Drugs has had a disproportionate impact on
people of color and con-
tributed significantly to the overrepresentation of members of
minority groups in the
criminal justice system. The evidence suggests that traditionally
marginalized groups
tend to commit drug crime in similar rates compared to Whites.
However, as demon-
strated in the cases of crack cocaine and marijuana possession,
people of color tend to be
punished more frequently and more harshly. The punitive
federal mandatory minimum
sentencing scheme for crack cocaine makes the inequitable
impact on people and commu-
nities of color that much more significant. In part because of
racial and ethnic inequality,
the War on Drugs and its attendant punitive drug legislation
45. remains very controversial
in the contemporary criminal justice system.
Web Field Trip: Drug Policy and the Disproportionate Impact
on People of Color
Watch the presentation from Ethan Nadelmann, the founder and
executive director of the Drug Pol-
icy Alliance in which Nadelmann discusses the evolution of
drug policy in America and its longstand-
ing disproportionate impact on people of color:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iifGYnffrBI.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What policies should we consider to make drug policy more
equitable?
2. Why should society as a whole be concerned about the
disproportionate impact of drug policy
on people of color?
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 110 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iifGYnffrBI
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
The Death Penalty and Racial Discrimination
As touched on in Chapter 4, the death penalty is another area of
criminal justice policy in
which there is significant evidence of racial discrimination.
Issues of racial inequality have
contributed to a series of Constitutional challenges to capital
46. punishment statutes over
time including the following: the Due Process Clause of the
Fifth Amendment, the Equal
Protection Clause of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, and
the Eighth Amendment’s
prohibition of Cruel and Unusual Punishment. Within this
dynamic history, potentially
the moment when issues of racial discrimination and the death
penalty were most promi-
nent was the 1987 United States Supreme Court case McCleskey
v. Kemp.
Warren McCleskey, an African American man, was convicted of
the 1978 murder of a
White police officer and eventually sentenced to death. The
murder took place during
the armed robbery of a furniture store in Fulton County,
Georgia. McCleskey appealed
his case claiming that racial discrimination in the state of
Georgia’s death penalty system
violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause.
In addition, McCleskey
argued that the Eighth Amendment implies proportionately
between the severity of the
criminal offense and the severity of the punishment. If the death
penalty did discriminate
by race, and some offenders were advantaged or disadvantaged
in the Georgia crimi-
nal justice system, it could undermine this proportionality
standard. In 1987, the case
appeared before the Supreme Court of the United States
(Berger, Free, & Searles, 2009;
Linder, 2012).
McCleskey v. Kemp presented evidence to the Court of systemic
racial discrimination in
47. the Georgia death penalty system. The case hinged on what
became known as the Baldus
Study, a statistical analysis of racial discrimination in the
Georgia capital punishment
process conducted by law professors David Baldus, Charles
Pulaski, and George Wood-
worth. The study examined more than 2,000 murder cases that
appeared in Georgia crimi-
nal courts throughout the decade of the 1970s. The Baldus
Study presented evidence of
“victim-based” discrimination in capital cases in which African
American murderers who
were convicted of killing White victims were significantly more
likely to be sentenced to
death, compared to different racial combinations of both
offenders and victims. More spe-
cifically, the Baldus Study showed that murder cases with White
victims were 4.3 times
more likely to result in a death sentence compared to cases in
which the murder victim
was Black, even after statistically controlling for 39 other
variables (Baldus, Pulaski, &
Woodworth, 1983; Berger, Free, & Searles, 2009; Linder,
2012).
The evidence of racial bias in the Georgia capital system
presented in McCleskey v. Kemp
is compelling. However, the U.S. Supreme Court, in a 5–4
decision, ruled that there was
insufficient evidence that racial discrimination played a
significant role in McCleskey’s
case specifically, or in any particular individual case in the
state. Thus, Mr. McCleskey’s
Eighth and Fourteenth Amendment rights were not violated.
Warren McCleskey was
executed in September of 1991 by electrocution in Jackson,
48. Georgia (Baldus, Pulaski, &
Woodworth, 1983; Berger, Free, & Searles, 2009; Linder,
2012).
Racial Profiling
Racial profiling is a “practice [that] entails police targeting of
particular groups for more
intrusive law enforcement because of their race, ethnicity, or
national origin” (Berger, Free,
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 111 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
& Searles, 2009, p. 418). Beginning in the early 1990s, a series
of high-profile lawsuits and
attention from the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
corresponded with scholars
increasingly studying the issue of racial profiling.
A series of research studies have focused on motor vehicle stops
by law enforcement.
Studies from Maryland and New Jersey in the early and mid
1990s demonstrated that
motorists of color were much more likely than Whites to be
pulled over, and much more
likely to have their vehicles searched by police, despite not
being more likely to be speed-
ing or otherwise violating traffic laws (Berger, Free, & Searles,
2009; Russell, 2003).
Some policy makers and members of law enforcement argue that
49. profiling in general,
and sometimes racial profiling specifically, is a practical and
effective law enforcement
strategy. However, the empirical evidence does not support this
claim. David Harris is
a professor of law and associate dean for research at the
University of Pittsburg School
of Law. He has studied and written about racial profiling
extensively. In a 2003 study, he
calculated law enforcement “hit rates,” or the percentage of
motor vehicle stops that result
in contraband being found by the officer, or of any other
criminal offense being uncovered
in the course of the traffic stop. According to Harris, when
examining existing research
studies that provide the data necessary to calculate a hit rate,
law enforcement hit rates
are higher for Whites compared to both African Americans and
Hispanics. This research
strongly suggests that racial profiling is a counterproductive
law enforcement strategy as
well as a controversial one (Berger, Free, & Searles, 2009;
Harris, 2003).
However, some experts contend that racial profil-
ing is not a widespread law enforcement practice.
For example, in “Race and the Administration of
Criminal Justice in the United States,” Randall
Kennedy (2011) describes the varying defini-
tions of racial profiling used in the research and
emphasizes that “Ferreting out this information
when police deny that they are engaging in racial
profiling (however defined) is a difficult, conten-
tious endeavor” (Kennedy, 2011, p. 243).
Kennedy illustrates these complexities by exam-
50. ining a 2006 study of racial profiling in New York
City. This study demonstrated that of all law
enforcement stops of pedestrians in New York
City in 2006, 55% of those stopped were African
American. Thus, African American pedestrians
were stopped by police at a rate “twice the repre-
sentation of Blacks in the local population” (Ken-
nedy, 2011, p. 244). However, a more nuanced
examination of the evidence suggested that it may
be the descriptions of crime suspects, not explicit
racial profiling, that was the heart of the issue.
The study shows that in 2006, citizens and crime
victims in New York City frequently reported
descriptions of crime suspects that were African
Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Getty Images
Claims that racial profiling is responsible for
the large number of minorities in prison are
widely debated.
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 112 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.3 Disparity Versus Discrimination: Race and Social
Class CHAPTER 4
Felony Disenfranchisement
Racial disparities in the criminal justice system have cumulative
consequences, including
restrictions on voting rights. Every state has laws governing the
voting rights of people
who are incarcerated as well as people who have been released
after serving their sen-
51. tences. Given the growth of the criminal justice system, these
laws impact a great number
of people. About 5.3 million Americans, or 1 in 41 adults,
currently or permanently expe-
rience felony disenfranchisement (Porter, 2010). Felony
disenfranchisement is the tem-
porary or permanent restriction of voting rights for individuals
with felony convictions.
The disproportionate incarceration of African American men is
reflected in the number of
people who are unable to vote—1.4 million, or 13% of all Black
men are disenfranchised
(The Sentencing Project, 2011).
Motivated by the close results of the presidential election in
2000, various groups have
been working to get state governments to reform their laws to
allow more people to
participate in the democratic process. According to public
opinion surveys, 80% of
Americans support returning voting rights to people who have
completed their sen-
tences, and about 66% support voting rights for people on
probation or parole (Porter,
2010). In 48 of 50 states and Washington, DC, incarcerated
people cannot vote (Maine
and Vermont allow inmates to vote). In 35 states, people on
parole are prohibited from
voting, and in 30 of these 35, probationers cannot vote. In 12
states, people who have
completed their sentences may lose their right to vote for life.
Eight of those states have
a variety of regulations including waiting periods and allowing
only people committed
of certain categories of crime to regain their voting rights. In
four of those states—Iowa,
52. Florida, Kentucky, and Virginia—people with a felony
conviction need a pardon from
the governor in order to regain their right to vote.
American. If the percentage of crime suspect descriptions that
were African American
were compared to the percentage of pedestrian stops of African
Americans, “Black pedes-
trians were stopped at a rate that was 20 to 30 percent lower
[emphasis in original] than
their representation in crime suspect descriptions” (Kennedy,
2011, p. 244).
The issue of racial profiling will continue to be of critical
importance in the field of crimi-
nology and for criminal justice policy. It seems that a
significant number of studies can
identify and demonstrate the existence and counterproductive
nature of racial profiling.
However, other studies demonstrate that factors other than race
may be central.
Web Field Trip: Racial Profiling
Visit the website of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
and listen to the audio interview with
ACLU Dennis Parker, the director of the ACLU Racial Justice
Program on the topic of racial profiling:
http://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/pervasive-problem-racial-
profiling.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Do you agree that federal government legislation is the key to
ending racial profiling?
2. What other approaches or strategies might be appropriate?
53. coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 113 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/pervasive-problem-racial-
profiling
Section 4.4 Immigration and Crime CHAPTER 4
4.4 Immigration and Crime
Immigration is a critically important issue within the study of
race, ethnicity, and crime. Moreover, policy makers continue to
debate the most prudent immigration and border control
policies. Using sound research methodologies, criminologists
have studied the
relationship between immigration and crime and provided the
public, policy makers, and
social scientists with empirically driven findings to inform this
issue.
Evidence suggests that increased immigration decreases crime
in America, though it
is likely associated with increased street gang membership and
plays a significant role
in traditional organized crime groups. However, overall,
immigration increases tend
to contribute to social-structural dynamics that decrease crime
such as “traditional
family values, higher rates of marriage, and extended family
supports that construct
ethnic enclaves of stability within these communities” (Berger,
Free, & Searles, 2009,
p. 305). Moreover, some researchers suspect that the long hours
required in many
jobs disproportionately held by immigrants may have a
dampening effect on crime.
54. Similarly, some experts contend that American society
overemphasizes immediate
material success and flamboyant wealth (Currie, 1998). Recent
immigrant populations
may not have been socialized to embrace this idea and thus are
more likely to sub-
scribe to long-term economic goals involving deferred
gratification (Lee, Martinez, &
Rosenfeld, 2001).
In recent years, many states have changed their laws to allow
more people with prior
convictions to vote. About 800,000 people have regained the
right to vote as a result of
increased public attention to the issue of disenfranchisement
and growing awareness of the
potential impact on election results (Porter, 2010). States
including Florida and Alabama
simplified the process of applying for clemency. Delaware,
Maryland, and New Mexico
repealed their policies of lifetime disenfranchisement.
Connecticut now permits people on
probation to vote, and Rhode Island allows those on probation
and parole to vote.
Web Field Trip: Felony Disenfranchisement
Visit the website of the Brenna Center for Justice to learn about
the felony disenfranchisement laws
in your state: http://www.brennancenter.org/page/-
/d/download_file_48642.pdf.
Next, visit the website of 360degrees.org and their page
dedicated to felony disenfranchisement:
http://www.360degrees.org/ddata/voting/index.html.
After data is presented on the issue, a map will appear that
55. examines disenfranchisement rates for
the total population and for the African American male
population.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are the laws regarding felony disenfranchisement where
you live? Are voting rights
restored for ex-offenders where you live?
2. What are the laws in the states that neighbor yours?
3. What percentage of African American men cannot vote in
your state?
4. What states and regions seem to have the highest rates of
felony disenfranchisement for Afri-
can American men?
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 114 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www.brennancenter.org/page/-
/d/download_file_48642.pdf
http://www.360degrees.org/ddata/voting/index.html
Section 4.4 Immigration and Crime CHAPTER 4
A Defining Study on the Relationship Between Immigration and
Crime
A defining study on the relationship between immigration and
crime was published in
2009 titled “Exploring the Connection between Immigration and
Violent Crime Rates in
U.S. Cities, 1980–2000.” The authors, Graham Ousey, a
professor of sociology at the Col-
56. lege of William & Mary, and Charis Kubrin, a professor of
sociology at George Wash-
ington University, utilized their expertise in sociology,
criminology, research methods,
and quantitative analysis to produce a rich and informative
piece of research (Ousey &
Kubrin, 2009).
The methodology employed
in this study was designed to
address shortcomings in the
existing research on immigra-
tion and crime. The authors
demonstrated that historically
the relationship between immi-
gration rates and violent crime
rates has been studied using
cross-sectional research, exam-
ining the empirical picture of
crime and immigration at a
given point in time. Thus, the
authors employed a longitudi-
nal analysis that examined data
over a 20-year period, from 1980
to 2000. Moreover, the existing
research on this issue largely
does not intentionally connect
immigration and crime trends
with other social-structural issues in American society like
larger economic dynamics, fam-
ily dynamics, crime dynamics, and drug market dynamics. Thus,
the statistical analysis at
the heart of Ousey and Kubrin’s study included measures and
variables to understand the
relationship between immigration and violent crime, and also
how both these issues may
57. connect with these larger social-structural dynamics in America
(Ousey & Kubrin, 2009).
The research methodology employed in this study was powerful.
The authors gathered
crime and immigration data for 159 U.S. cities, each of which
had a population of 100,000
or more, from 1980 to 2000. The violent crime measure was
compiled using data from the
Uniform Crime Report (see Chapter 1), using average violent
crime rates in three-year
segments. Measuring rates of immigration is challenging,
especially when attempting to
include both documented and undocumented populations. The
authors responded to this
challenge by using a multifaceted measure for immigration
rates. They created a statistical
measure that included the percentage of the population of a
given city that is foreign born
within the past 10 years, the percentage of the population that
does not speak English
proficiently, and the percentage of the population that is of
Hispanic or Latino descent.
While no measure of crime or immigration is likely 100%
accurate, these multifaceted sta-
tistical measures will provide valid and powerful mechanisms to
study this issue (Ousey
& Kubrin, 2009).
Alex Wong/Getty Images
Evidence suggests that increased immigration leads to a
decrease in crime in the United States.
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 115 7/5/13 4:18 PM
58. Section 4.4 Immigration and Crime CHAPTER 4
Ousey and Kubrin used a sophisticated statistical analysis to
test the many ways that
immigration rates and crime rates may influence each other and
larger structural dynam-
ics in American society. The results compiled from 159 cities,
using data from a 20-year
period, demonstrated that increases in immigration rates
decrease violent crime.
In the first model . . . we find evidence of a statistically
significant relationship
between change in immigration and change in violent crime.
Specifically, a one
unit increase over time in the immigration index is associated
with a decrease
of 253 violent crimes (per 100,000 persons). Interestingly . . .
[these findings
challenge] . . . popular perception that immigration is a major
contributor
of increased crime rates, but is consistent with theoretical
models proffering
rationales for why immigration has an inhibiting impact on
violence. (Ousey
& Kubrin, 2009, p. 461)
The authors then use their statistical model to explore a series
of possible explanations
for why increases in immigration rates tend to decrease violent
crime rates. Their analysis
demonstrates that increased immigration brings stability to
families and communities via
extended family and kinship networks. In general, increasing
59. stable, two-parent fami-
lies likely provides a series of social and practical support
systems that decrease violent
crime. Moreover, it is possible that the presence of both two-
parent families and extended
family networks in a community provide informal social control
that also discourages
individuals from engaging in criminal behavior, and possibly
violent criminal behavior
in particular.
Relying on sound and longitudinal statistical research, the core
finding of this study is
that increases in immigration rates decreases violent crime
rates. Similarly, other research-
ers have suspected that increases in immigration in recent
decades have been “a key factor
in contributing to the crime drop of the 1990s” (Ousey &
Kubrin, 2009, p. 466; Sampson,
Morenoff, & Raudenbush, 2005). According to the authors, this
finding likely contradicts
“popular perceptions” (Ousey & Kubrin, 2009, p. 461) on this
issue, and thus is critically
important for the continuing discussion about immigration and
border control policy.
Using the Sociological Lens: The New Jim Crow?
The U.S. Criminal Justice System is flawed, but is it racist?
After slavery was eradicated, racism and discrimination
persisted in the United States via a set of laws
known as Jim Crow. Between 1876 and 1965, these laws made
legal the separation of Whites and
Blacks in schools, communities, restaurants, transportation
systems, and other public spaces. Sepa-
60. rate areas were ostensibly equal, yet spaces and services
provided to Blacks were typically inferior
to those for Whites. Moreover, Jim Crow promoted
discrimination in myriad other areas, including
employment and hiring practices, lending protocol, and housing
approval, which served to institu-
tionalize racism in these and other areas. Although these
practices were over time invalidated, first
by the Supreme Court (in the landmark 1954 case, Brown v.
Board of Education) and later by the fed-
eral government (in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting
Rights Act of 1965), their lasting effect
was to inject into society deep-seated inequalities that denied
equal opportunity and experience to
millions of Americans for years beyond it was legal to do so.
(continued)
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 116 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.4 Immigration and Crime CHAPTER 4
Using the Sociological Lens: The New Jim Crow? (continued)
More than 45 years after Jim Crow, the state of racism and
discrimination in the United States remains unclear and hotly
debated. In the 21st century, it has been suggested that the
insidious effects of past discriminatory mistakes have waned
with time and over generations, as evidenced by evolving
perspectives of the general public and enormous gains made
by prominent African Americans, including the election of
Barack Obama to the presidency. On the other hand, many
believe that not only does the specter of Jim Crow continue
to haunt but that a new era of institutionalized racism has
been born via a criminal justice system that systematically
discriminates against Americans of color. These points are
61. considered in the following two perspectives, with editors at
the Socialist Worker detailing the ways in which the criminal
justice system is, like the Jim Crow system, systematically rac-
ist, and Manhattan Institute scholar Heather MacDonald arguing
the problem is not the system but
Americans of color who commit more crime than the general
public.
The Criminal Justice System Is Racist
In 2011, civil rights lawyer Michelle Alexander sharpened the
discussion of racism and justice in the
United States when she suggested that the War on Drugs and
other elements of the criminal justice
system had heralded a new era of Jim Crow-esque
institutionalized discrimination. In her book, The
New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in an Age of Colorblindness,
Alexander chronicles racial dispari-
ties in the War on Drugs and the justice system, explaining high
minority incarceration rates as the
product of a systematic war on people of color. “We have
managed decades after the civil rights
movement to create something like a caste system in the United
States,” says Alexander. “In major
urban areas, the majority of African-American men are either
behind bars, under correctional control
or saddled with criminal record and once branded as criminal or
a felon, they’re trapped for life in
second-class status” (quoted in Flanders, 2011).
Statistics proving disparities between the African American
population—about 13% of the U.S. popu-
lation—and the number of African Americans in prison abound,
with numerous voices explaining
the gap as the result of a racist system—that African Americans
62. are the target of more police stops
than Whites; are arrested more often than Whites for the same
infraction; are incarcerated more
often than Whites; are given longer sentences than Whites; and
are sentenced to death more often
than Whites. Relying in part on Alexander’s work and drawing
from numerous other studies, editors
at the Socialist Worker explain these disparities by charging the
criminal justice system with being
inherently biased in favor of Whites and against Blacks and
other Americans of color. The mistaken
belief that the United States operates in a post-racial state
further impedes progress on the problem,
they suggest.
Socialist Worker, “When Racism Is the Law,” April 4, 2012.
http://socialistworker.org/2012/
04/04/when-racism-is-the-law
The Criminal Justice System Is Not Racist
In the following perspective, Heather MacDonald rejects
accusations that the criminal justice system
is racist. She agrees that Blacks are incarcerated at higher rates
than Whites but says
Douglass Burrows/Getty Images
More than 45 years after Jim
Crow laws were invalidated,
some believe that discriminatory
practices still exist in the American
criminal justice system.
(continued)
63. coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 117 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://socialistworker.org/2012/04/04/when-racism-is-the-law
http://socialistworker.org/2012/04/04/when-racism-is-the-law
Section 4.4 Immigration and Crime CHAPTER 4
Using the Sociological Lens: The New Jim Crow? (continued)
these statistics reflect the many ways in which they commit
crime disproportionally. MacDonald
sharply disagrees with the editors of the Socialist Worker that
racism is behind Blacks’ higher incar-
ceration and sentencing rates; more Black crime is the
explanation, and she suggests ignoring this
truth does a disservice to the Black community and to all
Americans.
It can be hard to make sense of such sharply opposing opinions
on issues like racism and discrimina-
tion. Compounding the problem is that personal prejudice—that
is, the level of prejudice individual
Americans feel toward one another on a daily or personal
basis—is much lower than in decades
past, making it difficult for some Americans to believe that
racism is still a problem when it appears
so infrequently in their everyday lives. Polls of the American
public underscore this. In 2011, for
example, a poll taken jointly by USA Today and the Gallup
organization found that 86% of Americans
approve of marriage between White and Black couples,
compared to just 43% in 1983; 36% in 1978,
20% in 1968, and 4% in 1958 (Jones, 2011). The same poll
found that 89% of Americans think civil
rights for African Americans have either greatly or somewhat
improved, and 76% do not believe new
64. civil rights legislation is needed (Gallup Organization, 2011).
Yet looking more closely at American opinions of race reveals
deeper division. For example, a 2011
Washington Post poll found that 47% of Whites think that
Blacks have achieved racial equality
—but just 19% of Black respondents agree (Cohen & Craighill,
2011). A 2009 CNN/Opinion Research
Corporation poll found similar cracks between White and Black
perspectives when it revealed that
although 76% of Whites think that Blacks have as good a
chance as White people to get jobs for
which they are qualified, only 45% of Blacks think this is true
(CNN/Opinion Research Corporation,
2009). A different poll from the same year also revealed
significant differences in the experience
Whites and Blacks have with law enforcement: Just 6% of
Whites said they have been treated unfairly
by the police because of their race, while the majority of Black
respondents—56%—said they have
had this experience. This same poll found that just 11% of
Whites think it is very common for police
officers to be racist against Blacks; 45% of Blacks, however,
view this as a common problem (CNN/
Opinion Corporation, 2009).
Is racism largely a matter of perception, or are there systematic,
institutionalized racist forces at
work? Heather MacDonald details how she accounts for racial
disparities in the criminal justice sys-
tem, saying there are better explanations than racism.
Heather MacDonald, “Is the Criminal-Justice System Racist?”
City Journal, Spring 2008. http://www
.city-journal.org/2008/18_2_criminal_ justice_system.html
65. Critical Thinking and Discussion Questions
1. What do you think best explains high Black incarceration
rates compared to their percent of
the general population? Is institutionalized racism to blame?
Are genuinely high rates of Black
crime to blame? Are other factors to blame?
2. Heather MacDonald suggests that attributing high Black
incarceration rates to racism does
a disservice to the Black community. What does she mean by
this? Do you agree? Why or
why not?
3. What do you think best accounts for the radically different
perceptions of Black and White
Americans on the issues of police racism, the ability of Black
Americans to get jobs for which
they are qualified, and whether Blacks have achieved racial
equality?
4. What groups of people benefit most from the War on Drugs?
What groups of people are most
harmed by the War on Drugs? (continued)
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 118 7/5/13 4:18 PM
http://www.city-
journal.org/2008/18_2_criminal_justice_system.html
http://www.city-
journal.org/2008/18_2_criminal_justice_system.html
Chapter Summary CHAPTER 4
Chapter Summary
66. This chapter provided evidence to explore how issues of race
intertwine with social class, criminality, law enforcement, and
corrections. This discussion was framed sociologically by
defining race and ethnicity as social constructs, or social
entities
that do not have a fixed meaning or interpretation but rather are
continually reshaped
by societal norms and values. Data was presented that
demonstrated that racial minority
groups are overrepresented among the lower social classes in
America and in the cor-
rectional system. Since people of color experience poverty and
marginalization at higher
rates than Whites, the class-based disadvantages built into the
criminal justice system are
likely particularly acute for people of color.
Moreover, a legacy of research studies and other evidence
suggests racial minority groups
are discriminated against in the criminal justice system,
sometimes independent of social
class. This chapter critically analyzed how the War on Drugs
contributes to the over-
representation of people of color in the criminal justice system,
highlighting laws and
policies focused on crack cocaine and marijuana possession in
California. In addition, evi-
dence was presented concerning victim-based racial
discrimination in the death penalty,
racial profiling, and felony disenfranchisement.
The chapter concluded with an examination of the relationship
between immigration
rates and violent crime rates. Contrary to the opinion of many,
the research shows that
67. increases in immigration decrease violent crime rates. This
crime decrease is due to the
informal social control produced by family stability and
extended kinship networks
in communities.
In total, the evidence suggests that the American criminal
justice system in the new mil-
lennium continues to disproportionately impact the poor and
people of color. In some
instances this disproportionate impact by race is produced by
intentional and uninten-
tional discriminatory policies that make the poor and people of
color more likely to come
to the attention of law enforcement and more likely to be
punished harshly by the criminal
justice system.
Using the Sociological Lens: The New Jim Crow? (continued)
5. Consider the way in which a drug arrest can alter the course
of a person’s life. For example,
Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama—both of whom have
admitted to experimenting
with drugs—may not have ascended to the presidency had they
been incarcerated at any point
in time. In what instances do strict drug sentences irreparably
harm people, and who are they
more likely to harm? In what instances do they help people and
better communities, and what
types of people and communities are they most likely to
benefit?
6. To what extent do you think Americans’ everyday
experiences with people of other races
and ethnicities—such as the people with whom they interact at
68. work and in their commu-
nity—informs their perceptions of the problem of racism in the
criminal justice system? Do
you think these experiences make them more or less likely to
have a realistic perspective on
the situation?
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 119 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Chapter Summary CHAPTER 4
Key Terms
Baldus Study A statistical analysis of
racial discrimination in the Georgia capital
punishment process conducted by law pro-
fessors David Baldus, Charles Pulaski and
George Woodworth, presented to the U.S.
Supreme Court in 1987 McCleskey v. Kemp.
ethnicity A group of individuals who
share common cultural beliefs, norms,
values, and practices.
felony disenfranchisement The tem-
porary or permanent restriction of vot-
ing rights for individuals with felony
convictions.
intraracial crime A criminal event in
which both the victim(s) and offender(s)
are the same race.
mandatory minimum sentences Sen-
69. tences that restrict discretion in the judicial
process by specifying the term of incarcer-
ation to be served based on the type and
amount of drug possessed by the accused.
race A group of individuals who are
distinguished by some perceived common
physical characteristics.
racial profiling A “practice [that] entails
police targeting of particular groups for
more intrusive law enforcement because
of their race, ethnicity, or national origin”
(Berger, Free, & Searles, 2009, p. 418).
Critical Thinking and Discussion Questions
1. The text explores race and ethnicity as social constructs that
have affected crime.
In your opinion, are there other social constructs that influence
the study of
crime? If so, which ones, and in what way?
2. In what way is the criminal justice system cumulative?
3. What are core differences between race, ethnicity, and
national origin?
4. In your opinion, what have been among the main outcomes of
the War on Drugs?
How close has it come to its original goals of reducing drug use
and punishing
drug suppliers?
5. In your opinion, is felony disenfranchisement an appropriate
punishment? Why
or why not?
70. 6. What are kinship networks, and what bearing do they have on
crime?
7. What does the phrase “racism without racists” mean in the
context of the
chapter?
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 120 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Chapter Summary CHAPTER 4
In the Field: Experts Weigh in on Race, Ethnicity, and Crime
The definition of crime changes as society changes its norms
and values. Such changes also impact
social responses to crimes. Experts comment on the study of
crime, how crime impacts groups they
work with, and different crime response and intervention
methods.
Erik Fritsvold
Why is it important to examine the disproportion among races in
the incarcer-
ated population?
One of the cornerstone questions in all of criminology is why
does our incar-
cerated population look so different from our general
population? Clearly, jails
and prisons in the United States over-represent men, people of
color, and those
of lower socioeconomic status. The research literature that
examines explana-
tions for this overrepresentation is complex. There is modest
71. evidence to sug-
gest that people of color are more likely to perpetrate certain
types of crimes,
and to be crime victims in certain categories of crime. However,
there is a legacy of literature that
examines reasons why for the same criminal behavior, people of
color are more likely to come to the
attention of law enforcement and more likely to be punished
harshly by the criminal justice system.
Potentially, one of the most important explanations within this
discussion is spatial and geographic
density. People of color are more likely to live in residentially
crowded urban communities. In these
communities, by definition, there is less private space. Thus,
there is a more robust life taking place
on the street and in other public spaces. Police are tasked with
policing public spaces. Thus, residen-
tially crowded communities have less privacy in general and
more behavior is on display for others in
the community as well as law enforcement.
The second part of this discussion focuses more on overt
discrimination. The criminological literature
on racial profiling demonstrates that traffic stops, vehicle
searches for contraband and pretext stop
and frisks (in New York City) are much more likely to target
people of color. In addition, issues of pov-
erty, bail, attorney representation and resources more broadly
play a role in this discussion as well.
Noah Fritz
Why is it important to examine the disproportion among races in
the incarcer-
ated population?
72. The simple answer in a democracy and a constitutionally driven
society is that
it remains imperative to ensure fairness and justice. Given the
reality of cur-
rent incarceration rates, and the undisputed disparity on racial
grounds, the
criminal justice system and American society at large must
continue to ques-
tion and reflect upon our institutional practices that generate
these results.
The comparison between sentencing outcomes between powder
and crack
cocaine users is a primary example. Even if minority offenders
have a greater
propensity for street crime as some would claim, it is imperative
for criminology and jurisprudence to
figure out why the CRJ [criminal justice system]discriminates—
in a statistical sense not necessarily in
a political sense—against a major sector of our society.
Developing social and educational programs
that ensures equal opportunities and upward mobility is the
cornerstone of our democracy. Any
program or policy that systematically diminishes the American
Dream should be greatly scrutinized.
Courtesy of Erik Fritsvold
Courtesy of Noah Fritz
(continued)
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 121 7/5/13 4:18 PM
73. Chapter Summary CHAPTER 4
In the Field: Experts Weigh in on Race, Ethnicity, and Crime
(continued)
Joshua Gryniewicz
How are race and ethnicity represented in the different
CeaseFire communi-
ties impacted by crime? How are age and gender represented?
CeaseFire works with those individuals who are at the highest
risk for shoot-
ing and/or being shot themselves based on statistical data. They
are predomi-
nately young men, ages 16 to 25, who are African American or
Latino, with
some gang involvement and most likely a past arrest. Our
program is focused
on those individuals who are the most difficult to reach and
those outside
conventional social service networks.
CeaseFire is a data-driven model. Through a combination of
statistical information and street
knowledge, CeaseFire identifies where we need to concentrate
our efforts, focus our resources,
and intervene in violence. This data guides us to the
communities more impacted. It provides a
picture of those individuals at the highest-risk for violence.
And, most importantly, it shows us how
we can intervene.
What might the relationships be among these social factors and
the victims of these crimes? Are
there any differences between offenders and victims?
For this form of community violence where CeaseFire
74. intervenes, there is very little demographic
difference between individuals doing the shooting and those
getting shot.
Jody Lewen and David Cowan
What accounts for the high number of incarcerated Black men?
Jody Lewen: Innumerable, sometimes very subtle, cultural
factors contrib-
ute to the high incarceration rate for Black men. For example,
overpolicing
Black men in particular can result in higher arrest rates, but
even that comes
from a societal bias that views Black men as particularly
sinister. Studies have
also demonstrated patterns of bias in the conviction and
sentencing of Blacks
as compared to others. (See the experiments of Dr. Jennifer
Eberhardt on
this topic.) In addition, the physical environment can also be a
factor. For
example, people who live in a more urban environment are more
likely to be
observed doing drugs than people in a suburban environment,
where garages
and back yards are plentiful enough to hide such activity.
Finally, Black men
grow up with disproportionately high rates of poverty, under-
education, and
lack of employment opportunities, which make them more
vulnerable to
being drawn into crime to begin with.
What is the demographic makeup of students involved in the
College Program?
What types of crimes are they serving time for?
75. David Cowen: Students in the College Program range in age
from 18 to 70 years old. Approximately
50% are Black, 25% are White, 17% are Latino, and 8% are
Asian, Pacific Islander, or Native American.
Students are serving sentences from a couple of years to
possible life sentences with the possibil-
ity of parole. Their commitment offences are extremely diverse
and could be violent or nonviolent,
habitual, or first-time offences. PUP [Prison University Project]
is not in the practice of asking why
students are incarcerated because it bears little on the necessity
for an education, nor does PUP
discriminate against students because of their commitment
offences.
Courtesy of
Joshua Gryniewicz
Courtesy of Jody Lewen
Courtesy of David Cowan
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 122 7/5/13 4:18 PM
17
The Five Minds for the Future
HOWARD GARDNER
Graduate School of Education, Harvard University
76. At the start of the third millennium, we are well attuned to
considerations
of “the future.” In conceptualizing the future, I refer to trends
whose
existence is widely acknowledged: the increasing power of
science and
technology; the interconnectedness of the world in economic,
cultural, and
social terms; and the incessant circulation and intermingling of
human
beings of diverse backgrounds and aspirations.
As one who has witnessed discussions of the future all over the
world,
I can attest that belief in the power of education—for good or
for ill—is
ubiquitous. We have little difficulty in seeing education as an
enterprise—
indeed, the enterprise—for shaping the mind of the future.
What kind of minds should we be cultivating for the future?
Five types
stand out to me as being particularly urgent at the present time.
One by
one, let me bring them onto center stage.
I. The Disciplined Mind
In English, the word “discipline” has two distinct connotations.
First, we
speak of the mind as having mastered one or more disciplines—
arts, crafts,
professions, scholarly pursuits. By rough estimates, it takes
approximately
a decade for an individual to learn a discipline well enough so
that he or
77. she can be considered an expert or master. Perhaps at one time,
an individual
could rest on her laurels once such disciplinary mastery has
been initially
achieved. No longer! Disciplines themselves change, ambient
conditions
change, as do the demands on individuals who have achieved
initial mastery.
One must continue to educate oneself and others over
succeeding decades.
Such hewing of expertise can only be done if an individual
possesses dis-
Schools: Studies in Education, vol. 5, nos. 1/2 (Spring/Fall
2008).
� 2008 by Howard Gardner. Reprinted by permission of the
author.
18 Schools, Spring/Fall 2008
cipline—in the second sense of the word. That is, one needs
continually to
practice in a disciplined way if one is to remain at the top of
one’s game.
We first acquire a “disciplined mind” in school, though
relatively few of
us go on to become academic disciplinarians. The rest of us
master dis-
ciplines that are not, strictly speaking, “scholarly,” yet the need
to master
a “way of thinking” applies to the entire range of workers—
whether it be
78. lawyers, engineers, crafts persons, or business professionals
involved with
personnel, marketing, sales, or management. Such education
may take in
formal classes or on the job, explicitly or implicitly. In the end,
a form
of mastery will be achieved, one that must continue to be
refined over
the years.
Nowadays, the mastery of more than one discipline is at a
premium.
We value those who are interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, or
transdisci-
plinary. But these claims must be cashed in. We would not
value a bilingual
person unless he or she can speak more than one language. By
the same
token, the claim of pluridisciplinarity (if you’ll excuse the
neologism) only
makes sense if a person has genuinely mastered more than one
discipline
and can integrate them. For most of us, the attainment of
multiple per-
spectives is a more reasonable goal.
II. The Synthesizing Mind
Nobel laureate in physics Murray Gell-Mann, an avowed
multidiscipli-
narian, has made an intriguing claim about our times. He asserts
that, in
the twenty-first century, the most valued mind will be the
synthesizing
mind: the mind that can survey a wide range of sources, decide
what is
79. important and worth paying attention to, and then put this
information
together in ways that make sense to oneself and, ultimately, to
others as
well.
Gell-Mann is on to something important. Information has never
been
in short supply. But with the advent of new technologies and
media, most
notably the Internet, vast, seemingly indigestible amounts of
information
now deluge us around the clock. Shrewd triage becomes an
imperative.
Those who can synthesize well for themselves will rise to the
top of their
pack, and those whose syntheses make sense to others will be
invaluable
teachers, communicators, and leaders.
Let’s take an example from business. Suppose that you are an
executive
and your firm is considering the acquisition of a new company
in an area
that seems important but about which you and your immediate
associates
know little. Your goal is to acquire enough information so that
you and
Howard Gardner 19
your board can make a judicious decision, and you need to do so
in the
next two months. The place to begin is with any existing