Christian Castillo D2 Summer 2018Outline of Complete Research.docxchristinemaritza
Christian Castillo
D2 Summer 2018
Outline of Complete Research Proposal 1
RACE AND CRIME 5
1. Introduction
a. Topic introduction and context.
Racial discrimination, which is the way of targeting accused based on race prominence, could be responsible for the increase in rate of crime arrest. Subcultural theorists argue that poor people, also referred to as have-nots, normally reside in areas where the social respect is subject to violence and physical strength and this habit promote crime. More to this, race impacts who gets arrested, and some pieces of evidence show that minorities are disproportionate form crime statistics (Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2012). It is official that high rates of arrest, conviction, and incarceration of these minorities may be as a result of criminal justice actors. It is interesting to note that race and social stratification are related in the aspect that nonwhite form lower class and this poorer class lack the genuine ways to obtain goods and they choose to join crime.
b. Significance
Physical injury and death are grouped as homicide, and known as the biggest cause of death amongst the youths. According to the “U.S Public health” brutality is a chief health issues which is challenging the Americans. Crime is intertwined with acts of violence. Secondly, crime is associated with loss, such as vandalism, arson, and environmental destruction. Crimes also pose economic cost through expense linked with transfer of property through robbery, during crime, criminal violence brings about additional medical cost of attending to the victims. There is another form of cost: cost of protection, which includes funds used to guard dogs and surveillance systems. According to studies, race has a huge impact on crime, thus scientists and scholars have tried to uncover what triggers people with different skin color to engage in criminal acts. All these implications make it important to study the relation of race to crime with a mind of reducing the cost.
c. Research question and hypothesis.
Arguably, black people are more likely to engage in criminal activities than white people. Does this stereotype have any relevance to it? A black man in the US today has three times a higher chance of going to prison as well. There has to be a relationship that supports both statements. Comment by Microsoft Office User: State your hypothesis clearly.
d. Proposed research design
The research will use data collected by different institution to evaluate the relationship between crime and race. It will describe offending action of different races within the sample population and this will be used for descriptive purpose. Second, the explanation will predict race pattern in relation to crime. The analysis builds on existing records of crime documenting racial pattern. Comment by Microsoft Office User: How will the data be collected for analysis? Existing statistics?
e. Roadmap
The remainder of this research paper stereotypes the conce ...
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
Running Head Felony Disenfranchisement Laws A form of Racial Dis.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: Felony Disenfranchisement Laws: A form of Racial Discrimination against African Americans 39
Running Head: Felony Disenfranchisement Laws: A form of Racial Discrimination against African Americans
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..pg.4
Problem Formulation………………………………………………………………………..pg.5
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….pg.5
Problem Statement…………………………………………………………………………..pg.6
Research Question…………………………………………………………………………...pg.6
Independent/Dependent Variable…………………………………………………………...pg.7
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………....pg.7
Research Design……………………………………………………………………………..pg.16
Methodology………………………………………………………………………………...pg.16
Sample Population…………………………………………………………………………..pg.17
Instrument…………………………………………………………………………………...pg.17
Reliability and Validity……………………………………………………………………..pg.18
Data Analysis and Findings…………………………………………………………………………………….pg.18
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..pg.19
Demographics………………………………………………………………………………..pg.19
Tables………………………………………………………………………………………...pg.21
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………pg.22
References……………………………………………………………………………………pg.23
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………pg.26
Code Book…………………………………………………………………………………..pg.27
Abstract
This paper addresses the controversial topic of convicted criminal’s fundamental rights to vote due to felony disenfranchisement laws. America being the land of the free one would assume everyone could exercise his or her right to vote no matter the circumstances of criminal status or history. The study will clearly dissect and uncover reasonable truth regarding felony disenfranchisement laws and their possible racial discriminative attribute; the following are the objectives that this study sets out to achieve. To establish the relationship between felony disenfranchisement laws and racial discrimination. To determine whether the felony disenfranchisement laws should be repealed or amended they are subdivided into general objective and specific objectives. The disenfranchisement laws infringe upon convicted minorities more so than convicted whites to racially discriminate against a group of people. The mass incarceration of minorities is directly affected by the disenfranchisement laws preventing them to vote. Exploratory study uses quantitative data to emphasize the political marginalization of African Americans of Felony disenfranchisement laws and how they may be racially discriminatory against African Americans.
Problem Formulation
Introduction
The suspension of individual’s voting rights upon conviction is quite controversial as it appears to violate the fundamental right to vote. However, the most contentious issue arises when the felony disenfranchisement laws appear to discriminate against racial minorities. Numerous cases have been filed and heard regarding racial discrimination by the felony disenfranchisement laws and in alm ...
FINDINGS FROM THE 2016 CATO INSTITUTE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SUR.docxgreg1eden90113
FINDINGS FROM THE 2016 CATO INSTITUTE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SURVEY 1
Overview
Stark racial and partisan divides in favorability toward police, but no group is
“anti-cop”
While 68% of white Americans have a favorable view of the police, only 40% of
African Americans and 59% of Hispanics have a favorable view.1 Attitudes have
changed little since the 1970s when 67% of whites and 43% of blacks reported
favorable views of the police.2 Racial minorities do not have monolithic attitudes
toward the police. This report finds that Hispanics’ perceptions of police occupy
a “middle ground” between black and white Americans’ views.
Republicans (81%) are far more favorable toward the police than independents
(59%) and Democrats (59%). Nevertheless, majorities of all three groups share a
favorable view.
• Confidence gaps matter: Groups who feel less favorable toward local law
enforcement are less certain they would report a crime they witnessed.
For instance, black and Hispanic Americans are more than 20 points less
likely than white Americans to say they definitely would report a crime.
Research finds that when the police have legitimacy, the law has
legitimacy, which encourages compliance and cooperation.3
• No group is “anti-cop”: Although some groups have less positive views of
the police, survey findings weaken the assertion that these groups are
“anti-cop.” For instance, few individuals have “unfavorable” views of law
enforcement. Instead, 40% of African Americans, 28% of Hispanics, and
18% of whites are conflicted and report having “neutral” feelings toward
the police. A quarter of Democrats and independents and 13% of
Republicans share such feelings.
Emily Ekins is a research fellow and director of polling at the Cato Institute.
1 In this study the term ‘Hispanic’ is used interchangeably with ‘Latino,’ ‘Caucasian’ interchangeably with ‘white,’ and
‘African American’ interchangeably with ‘black.’
2 Louis Harris and Associates Study No. 2043, 1970, cited in Michael J. Hindelang, "Public Opinion Regarding Crime,
Criminal Justice, and Related Topics." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 11 (1974): 101-116.
3 See Linquin Cao, James Frank, and Francis T. Cullen, "Race, Community Context and Confidence in the Police,"
American Journal of Police 15 (1996): 3-22; Tom Tyler and Jeffrey Fagan, "Legitimacy and Cooperation: Why Do People
Help the Police Fight Crime in Their Communities?" Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 6 (2008): 232-275; Andrew V.
Papachristos, Tracey L. Meares, and Jeffrey Fagan, "Why Do Criminals Obey the Law? The Influence of Legitimacy and
Social Networks on Active Gun Offenders," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 102 (2009): 397-440; Tom R. Tyler,
"The Role of Perceived Injustice in Defendants' Evaluations of Their Courtroom Experience," Law & Society Review 18
(1984): 51-74; Tom Tyler, Why People Obey the Law (Pri.
ARTICLESRacism and Police Brutality in AmericaCassandr.docxrossskuddershamus
ARTICLES
Racism and Police Brutality in America
Cassandra Chaney & Ray V. Robertson
Published online: 12 January 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract What, if any, changes have occurred in the nation’s police departments
21 years after the Rodney King beating? To answer this question, this study examined
findings provided by the National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project
(NPMSRP). An additional goal of this study was to examine how the public generally
perceive police and how race and racism shape this discourse. To answer this secondary
question, we examined narratives provided by 36 contributors to the NPMSRP site. The
following two questions were foundational to this study: (1) What do findings from the
NPMSRP suggest about the rate of police brutality in America? (2) How do individuals
perceive the police department, and what implications do these perceptions hold for
Black men in America? In general, fatalities at the hands of police are higher than they
are for the general public. Grounded theory analysis of the data revealed that individuals
perceive members of law enforcement in the following ways: (a) contempt for law
enforcement, (b) suspicion of law enforcement, (c) law enforcement as agents of
brutality, and (d) respect for law enforcement. Supporting qualitative data are presented
in connection with each of the aforementioned themes.
Keywords Black . African-American . Critical race theory. Discrimination . Police
brutality. Race . Racism . Rodney King
What, if any, changes have occurred in the nation’s police departments 21 years after
the Rodney King beating? To answer this question, we examined findings provided
by the National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project (NPMSRP). In
addition, we examine how the public generally perceive police and how race and
J Afr Am St (2013) 17:480–505
DOI 10.1007/s12111-013-9246-5
C. Chaney (*)
College of Human Sciences and Education, School of Social Work, Child and Family Studies,
Louisiana State University, 323 Huey P. Long Field House, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4300, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R. V. Robertson
Department of Sociology, Social Work and Criminal Justice, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
racism shape this discourse. To answer this secondary question, we examined narra-
tives provided by 36 contributors to the NPMSRP site.
The topic is important for two reasons. First, although several scholars have
examined the increasing rate of police brutality against Blacks (Dottolo and Stewart
2008; Elicker 2008; Kane and White 2009; Smith and Holmes 2003; Tomaskovic-
Devey et al. 2006; Staples 2011), we are aware of no studies to present findings from
the NPMSRP nor discuss the implications of these findings in light of the Rodney
King beating by members of the LAPD, which occurred in 1991. This endeavor is
especially important given the negative stories related to “bad cops” that have come
to l.
Christian Castillo D2 Summer 2018Outline of Complete Research.docxchristinemaritza
Christian Castillo
D2 Summer 2018
Outline of Complete Research Proposal 1
RACE AND CRIME 5
1. Introduction
a. Topic introduction and context.
Racial discrimination, which is the way of targeting accused based on race prominence, could be responsible for the increase in rate of crime arrest. Subcultural theorists argue that poor people, also referred to as have-nots, normally reside in areas where the social respect is subject to violence and physical strength and this habit promote crime. More to this, race impacts who gets arrested, and some pieces of evidence show that minorities are disproportionate form crime statistics (Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2012). It is official that high rates of arrest, conviction, and incarceration of these minorities may be as a result of criminal justice actors. It is interesting to note that race and social stratification are related in the aspect that nonwhite form lower class and this poorer class lack the genuine ways to obtain goods and they choose to join crime.
b. Significance
Physical injury and death are grouped as homicide, and known as the biggest cause of death amongst the youths. According to the “U.S Public health” brutality is a chief health issues which is challenging the Americans. Crime is intertwined with acts of violence. Secondly, crime is associated with loss, such as vandalism, arson, and environmental destruction. Crimes also pose economic cost through expense linked with transfer of property through robbery, during crime, criminal violence brings about additional medical cost of attending to the victims. There is another form of cost: cost of protection, which includes funds used to guard dogs and surveillance systems. According to studies, race has a huge impact on crime, thus scientists and scholars have tried to uncover what triggers people with different skin color to engage in criminal acts. All these implications make it important to study the relation of race to crime with a mind of reducing the cost.
c. Research question and hypothesis.
Arguably, black people are more likely to engage in criminal activities than white people. Does this stereotype have any relevance to it? A black man in the US today has three times a higher chance of going to prison as well. There has to be a relationship that supports both statements. Comment by Microsoft Office User: State your hypothesis clearly.
d. Proposed research design
The research will use data collected by different institution to evaluate the relationship between crime and race. It will describe offending action of different races within the sample population and this will be used for descriptive purpose. Second, the explanation will predict race pattern in relation to crime. The analysis builds on existing records of crime documenting racial pattern. Comment by Microsoft Office User: How will the data be collected for analysis? Existing statistics?
e. Roadmap
The remainder of this research paper stereotypes the conce ...
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
11
Criminal Justice: Racial discrimination
Student’s Name:
Institutional Affiliation:
Instructor’s Name:
Course Code:
Due Date:
Racial discrimination
Abstract
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in the community. Unfortunately, there are several instances of racial discrimination in the United States. Most of the racial discrimination in the United States ate directed towards black people. Although everyone is required to have equal treatment in the United States, achieving zero discrimination has always been difficult.
Understanding racial discrimination in the USA is vital as it makes it easy for one to identify ways to eliminate the criminal injustices resulting from racial discrimination. This will be essential since it will help to eliminate racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
Introduction
When there is justice in society, every person feels satisfied with the way legal actions are carried out in society. The criminal justice community is when people are not discriminated against based on their skin color. Laws applicable are carried out uniformly such that every person is treated equally. When the laws are applied equally to every individual, it increases the trust in the criminal justice system. However, when there are biases in applying the laws, the criminal justice system becomes compromised. According to Kovera (2019), there are many disparities in the criminal justice system as black people are discriminated against by police officers based on their race. As a result, black people suffer more as compared to white people when they violate similar laws.
There is a lot of disparity in the criminal justice system of the United States. Many people suffer as a result of racial discrimination in the United States. People are discriminated against a lot in the administration of the policies. According to Donnel (2017), there is racial inequality in how criminal justice is carried out in policymaking. The criminal justice system discriminates against people based on their race. For example, police officers harass black people for minor mistakes which white people are left to walk freely even after making similar mistakes. Black people suffer because of the color of their skin.
Hypothesis/Problem Statement/Purpose Statement
Racial discrimination affects the outcomes of the criminal justice system adversely. How does racial discrimination affect the judicial criminal justice system? The study aims to identify ways in which criminal justice racial discrimination is practiced in the United States. It will also provide insights on the racial discrimination cases, which are helpful in the development of policies that can be helpful in the elimination of racial discrimination in society hence promoting equality among the citizens.
Literature Review and Definitions included in the research
According to Hinton, Henderson, and Reed (2018), there is mu ...
Running Head Felony Disenfranchisement Laws A form of Racial Dis.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: Felony Disenfranchisement Laws: A form of Racial Discrimination against African Americans 39
Running Head: Felony Disenfranchisement Laws: A form of Racial Discrimination against African Americans
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..pg.4
Problem Formulation………………………………………………………………………..pg.5
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….pg.5
Problem Statement…………………………………………………………………………..pg.6
Research Question…………………………………………………………………………...pg.6
Independent/Dependent Variable…………………………………………………………...pg.7
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………....pg.7
Research Design……………………………………………………………………………..pg.16
Methodology………………………………………………………………………………...pg.16
Sample Population…………………………………………………………………………..pg.17
Instrument…………………………………………………………………………………...pg.17
Reliability and Validity……………………………………………………………………..pg.18
Data Analysis and Findings…………………………………………………………………………………….pg.18
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..pg.19
Demographics………………………………………………………………………………..pg.19
Tables………………………………………………………………………………………...pg.21
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………pg.22
References……………………………………………………………………………………pg.23
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………pg.26
Code Book…………………………………………………………………………………..pg.27
Abstract
This paper addresses the controversial topic of convicted criminal’s fundamental rights to vote due to felony disenfranchisement laws. America being the land of the free one would assume everyone could exercise his or her right to vote no matter the circumstances of criminal status or history. The study will clearly dissect and uncover reasonable truth regarding felony disenfranchisement laws and their possible racial discriminative attribute; the following are the objectives that this study sets out to achieve. To establish the relationship between felony disenfranchisement laws and racial discrimination. To determine whether the felony disenfranchisement laws should be repealed or amended they are subdivided into general objective and specific objectives. The disenfranchisement laws infringe upon convicted minorities more so than convicted whites to racially discriminate against a group of people. The mass incarceration of minorities is directly affected by the disenfranchisement laws preventing them to vote. Exploratory study uses quantitative data to emphasize the political marginalization of African Americans of Felony disenfranchisement laws and how they may be racially discriminatory against African Americans.
Problem Formulation
Introduction
The suspension of individual’s voting rights upon conviction is quite controversial as it appears to violate the fundamental right to vote. However, the most contentious issue arises when the felony disenfranchisement laws appear to discriminate against racial minorities. Numerous cases have been filed and heard regarding racial discrimination by the felony disenfranchisement laws and in alm ...
FINDINGS FROM THE 2016 CATO INSTITUTE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SUR.docxgreg1eden90113
FINDINGS FROM THE 2016 CATO INSTITUTE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SURVEY 1
Overview
Stark racial and partisan divides in favorability toward police, but no group is
“anti-cop”
While 68% of white Americans have a favorable view of the police, only 40% of
African Americans and 59% of Hispanics have a favorable view.1 Attitudes have
changed little since the 1970s when 67% of whites and 43% of blacks reported
favorable views of the police.2 Racial minorities do not have monolithic attitudes
toward the police. This report finds that Hispanics’ perceptions of police occupy
a “middle ground” between black and white Americans’ views.
Republicans (81%) are far more favorable toward the police than independents
(59%) and Democrats (59%). Nevertheless, majorities of all three groups share a
favorable view.
• Confidence gaps matter: Groups who feel less favorable toward local law
enforcement are less certain they would report a crime they witnessed.
For instance, black and Hispanic Americans are more than 20 points less
likely than white Americans to say they definitely would report a crime.
Research finds that when the police have legitimacy, the law has
legitimacy, which encourages compliance and cooperation.3
• No group is “anti-cop”: Although some groups have less positive views of
the police, survey findings weaken the assertion that these groups are
“anti-cop.” For instance, few individuals have “unfavorable” views of law
enforcement. Instead, 40% of African Americans, 28% of Hispanics, and
18% of whites are conflicted and report having “neutral” feelings toward
the police. A quarter of Democrats and independents and 13% of
Republicans share such feelings.
Emily Ekins is a research fellow and director of polling at the Cato Institute.
1 In this study the term ‘Hispanic’ is used interchangeably with ‘Latino,’ ‘Caucasian’ interchangeably with ‘white,’ and
‘African American’ interchangeably with ‘black.’
2 Louis Harris and Associates Study No. 2043, 1970, cited in Michael J. Hindelang, "Public Opinion Regarding Crime,
Criminal Justice, and Related Topics." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 11 (1974): 101-116.
3 See Linquin Cao, James Frank, and Francis T. Cullen, "Race, Community Context and Confidence in the Police,"
American Journal of Police 15 (1996): 3-22; Tom Tyler and Jeffrey Fagan, "Legitimacy and Cooperation: Why Do People
Help the Police Fight Crime in Their Communities?" Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 6 (2008): 232-275; Andrew V.
Papachristos, Tracey L. Meares, and Jeffrey Fagan, "Why Do Criminals Obey the Law? The Influence of Legitimacy and
Social Networks on Active Gun Offenders," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 102 (2009): 397-440; Tom R. Tyler,
"The Role of Perceived Injustice in Defendants' Evaluations of Their Courtroom Experience," Law & Society Review 18
(1984): 51-74; Tom Tyler, Why People Obey the Law (Pri.
ARTICLESRacism and Police Brutality in AmericaCassandr.docxrossskuddershamus
ARTICLES
Racism and Police Brutality in America
Cassandra Chaney & Ray V. Robertson
Published online: 12 January 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract What, if any, changes have occurred in the nation’s police departments
21 years after the Rodney King beating? To answer this question, this study examined
findings provided by the National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project
(NPMSRP). An additional goal of this study was to examine how the public generally
perceive police and how race and racism shape this discourse. To answer this secondary
question, we examined narratives provided by 36 contributors to the NPMSRP site. The
following two questions were foundational to this study: (1) What do findings from the
NPMSRP suggest about the rate of police brutality in America? (2) How do individuals
perceive the police department, and what implications do these perceptions hold for
Black men in America? In general, fatalities at the hands of police are higher than they
are for the general public. Grounded theory analysis of the data revealed that individuals
perceive members of law enforcement in the following ways: (a) contempt for law
enforcement, (b) suspicion of law enforcement, (c) law enforcement as agents of
brutality, and (d) respect for law enforcement. Supporting qualitative data are presented
in connection with each of the aforementioned themes.
Keywords Black . African-American . Critical race theory. Discrimination . Police
brutality. Race . Racism . Rodney King
What, if any, changes have occurred in the nation’s police departments 21 years after
the Rodney King beating? To answer this question, we examined findings provided
by the National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project (NPMSRP). In
addition, we examine how the public generally perceive police and how race and
J Afr Am St (2013) 17:480–505
DOI 10.1007/s12111-013-9246-5
C. Chaney (*)
College of Human Sciences and Education, School of Social Work, Child and Family Studies,
Louisiana State University, 323 Huey P. Long Field House, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4300, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R. V. Robertson
Department of Sociology, Social Work and Criminal Justice, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
racism shape this discourse. To answer this secondary question, we examined narra-
tives provided by 36 contributors to the NPMSRP site.
The topic is important for two reasons. First, although several scholars have
examined the increasing rate of police brutality against Blacks (Dottolo and Stewart
2008; Elicker 2008; Kane and White 2009; Smith and Holmes 2003; Tomaskovic-
Devey et al. 2006; Staples 2011), we are aware of no studies to present findings from
the NPMSRP nor discuss the implications of these findings in light of the Rodney
King beating by members of the LAPD, which occurred in 1991. This endeavor is
especially important given the negative stories related to “bad cops” that have come
to l.
Running head PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS .docxcharisellington63520
Running head: PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 1
PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 6
Cylvania Allen Pringle
8/11/2015
CJA/344
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
Dr. Joycelyn Ballard
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
I. Introduction
Researchers and policy makers have constantly shown immense interest in how different ethnic groups perceive the police. Of utmost importance is how different ethnic groups experience face to face interactions with those individuals in legal authority especially the police. Such interactions can help researchers and policy makers understand the perceptions different ethnic groups might have towards the police and how these perceptions can influence the prevalence of crime in a jurisdiction (Huo & Tyler, 2000).
The fact that ethnic groups differ in how they perceive the police is already well known. However, what is boggling the researchers interested in this interaction is whether these differences can be attributed to different perceptions of how these individuals were treated, different outcomes of their interaction with the police, or different expectations of fair treatment based on their culture and values?
II. Review of Literature
One thing that remains clear throughout the entire research process is that people view perceptions of fair treatment as more important than getting a favorable outcome from the entire experience. People of all ethnic groups generally form positive impressions, perceptions and attitudes to legal authorities and the decisions made if they feel that they have been dealt with in a fair manner which does not demean them or make them feel discriminated against. This is known as the procedural justice effect, one of the patterns of responses recognized in law circles (Davis, 2000).
It is a well-known fact that the minority ethnic groups usually have bad experiences at the hands of the police. In a multi-cultural country such as the US, the minorities including the Latinos and the African Americans have negative perceptions towards the police as well as negative experiences with the same. These ethnic minorities report that their members constantly face unfair treatment, harassment and at times violation of their human rights at the hands of the police officers.
III. Discussion
They argue that there is discrimination on the part of the police forces based on race. It is a well observed fact that individuals who belong to ethnic groups that are less integrated into the political structure or less efficacious are less inclined to voluntarily indulge with the police as compared to those individuals who come from ‘superior’ ethnic backgrounds (Davis, 2000).
This perception of discrimination can lead to lower rates of compliance amongst the members of these ethnic communities. There is usually a high level of tension that characterizes the relati.
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Learning Objectives
• Understand the concepts of “race” and “ethnicity” as social constructs.
• Analyze evidence about racial inequality and social class in relation to crime.
• Analyze evidence about racial differences in rates of victimization.
• Analyze evidence regarding racial inequality and incarceration rates.
• Explore how the War on Drugs contributes to racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
• Examine crack cocaine and marijuana law enforcement in context of racial discrimination.
• Critically analyze the connections between race and the death penalty.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of racial profiling.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of immigration and crime rates.
Crime, Race, and Ethnicity
4
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 91 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System CHAPTER 4
In April of 2012, law enforcement in Oklahoma arrested one of the region’s foremost drug kingpins. In the home of the alleged drug kingpin, police seized four pounds of marijuana, $276,000 in cash, and two firearms: a revolver and a semiautomatic pistol.
Police believe that the defendant is the “mastermind” (Perez, 2012, p. 1) of a drug-dealing
organization that supplies approximately 40% of the marijuana markets in Oklahoma and
three nearby states: Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. The suspect, drug kingpin Darlene
Mayes, is a White grandmother with thinning silver hair who appears to be in her 60s or
70s. Thus she has been dubbed the “Granny Drug Kingpin” (Perez, 2012).
Studies suggest that when asked to picture a drug dealer, overwhelmingly the American
public visualizes a young man of color (Burston, Jones, & Roberson-Sanders, 1995). How-
ever, evidence from this chapter will demonstrate that drug use and drug crime spans
racial and ethnic groups and that all racial groups seem to commit drug crime in similar
rates. Whether broaching issues of drug crime, or any other type of crime, issues of per-
ception, race, and criminality are central in the study of criminology.
4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System
The American criminal justice system disproportionately impacts people of color, and this disproportionate impact by race is often dramatic and consistent at nearly every level of the system. Research demonstrates that members of poor, disenfranchised
groups receive harsher treatment in all phases of the criminal justice system: They are
more likely to be stopped, investigated, arrested, charged, put on trial, found guilty, and
sent to prison (Tonry, 2011). The disproportionate involvement in the system is cumula-
tive. Police are more likely to arrest someone who has a prior record, prosecutors are more
likely to charge someone who has previously been arrested or spent time in jail. A judge
is more likely to convict and incarcerate a defendant rather than offer probation to some-
one who has .
RUNNING HEAD: ROUGH DRAFT
19
Rough Draft Comment by Nygel: Please remember to complete the title, date and running head throughout the paper.
Lidia Williams
American Military University
Date:
Abstract
Analysis of research regarding the criminal justice and racial profiling reveals that the system basically targets the African males. Recent research conducted by the African Civil Liberation Union (ACLU) and Mary Whinser from the School of Law in the University of Washington clearly reveal that the Criminal Justice System targets the African males when profiled through the race. The two researchers reveal that there although it is argued that racism has greatly decreased in the United States there still exist some racial disparities in various stages of the criminal justice system. The results of the researchers show that there is a need for reviewing the current criminal justice system in order to minimize racism that exists in the system. The current policies that exist in the criminal justice system need to be changed in order to change the face of the system that is seen to target the African males. Comment by Nygel: This is a good, strong abstract.
Keyword: racism, racial disparity, African Americans, statistics
The United States is the world’s leader in mass incarceration. Approximately 700 out of Comment by Nygel: Please begin each paragraph with an indent about 1/2 inch in from the left margin. This is the typical/default Tab.
100,000 Americans are currently incarcerated serving sentences in federal and state prisons
While mass Incarcerations rates in the United States are alarming, the problem of racial
disproportion of African American males within the rates of mass incarceration is equally if not
more problematic, as it sheds light on the unpleasant side of American Justice System. African Comment by Nygel: American justice system
Americans males are disproportionally incarcerated, making them targets for systematic abuse in
the hands of the American Criminal Justice system by way of the criminal justice process. The Comment by Nygel: This does not need to be capitalized. Comment by Nygel: This is a bold statement. I look forward to reading more.
criminal justice system is therefore racist in its practices and processes; it is institutionally
designed to systematically abuse and oppress African Americans males.
Comment by Nygel: There should not be an extra space between paragraphs. This should only happen with headings or subheadings to separate/divide paper into sections.
The criminal justice system is set in place to mitigate crime in a manner accordance with Comment by Nygel: In accordance… Remove manner
Constitutional rights of citizens. By desig ...
1Writing Activity 4 Final DraftShaland.docxlorainedeserre
1
Writing Activity 4 : Final Draft
Shalanda Moore
ENG 215 - Research & Writing
Dr. Mary Rose Kasraie
September 1, 2019
Prosecutors on aggregate don’t seem to seek the death penalty more for black people than white people, though there are some gaping disparities in a few states and in some counties. Instead, the real racial bias when it comes to the death penalty pertains to the race of the victim. Killers of black people rarely get death sentences. White killers of black people get death sentences even less frequently. And far and away, the type of murder most likely to bring a death sentence is a black man who kills a white woman.
The Bureau of Justice Statistics reports 208,000 people are in state prisons for drug offenses. Of this number, 32 percent are white, and 68 percent are African American or Hispanic.
The link to other forms of profiling suggests that there is something scientific and efficient about racial profiling. The reality is very different. Race is a social construct; not knowable by sight. Racial profiles are both over-inclusive in the sense that many, indeed most, of the people who fit into the category are entirely innocent, and under-inclusive in that many other criminals or terrorists who do not fit the profile will escape police attention. Racial profiling also faces the problems of predictability and evasion; the more predictable police profiles become, the easier it is for perpetrators to adapt to circumvent the profile. The ineffectiveness of racial profiling is illustrated by consistently low hit or arrest rates for policing actions based on racial profiling. There is surprising consistency in data coming out of the USA, the UK and Europe demonstrating similar ‘hit' or arrest rates across racial groups. In several studies, ethnic minorities are less likely to be arrested or have contraband or other ‘seizable' evidence found following a search. This refutes the proposition that minorities are more likely to be involved in crime and illustrates that racial profiling represents an ineffective use of police resources.
Narrow definitions of racial profiling describe situations where actions are based solely on the basis of a person's race or ethnicity. In practice, this has allowed police forces to deny the existence of racial profiling, where activities are legally justifiable but nonetheless racially biased such as the use of pretext traffic stops. Broader definitions recognise that decisions are usually made on a number of factors including race. This wider definition reflects the fact that racial profiling may occur irrespective of whether this is a deliberate policy of targeted minority groups or routine institutional practices. Patterns of profiling can also be seen in discriminatory treatment after a stop has taken place, such decisions to go on to search, more intrusive searches, citations and arrests.
Racial profiling is the use by the police of generalisations based on race, ethnicity, religion ...
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric Due by Saturday May 12th.docxjacqueliner9
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric
Due by Saturday May 12th at 11:59pm via TurnitIn (20% of final grade)
Sociology 3480: Term Paper Rubric
Sources: In addition to your text and/or readings, provide at least 5 outside sources. At least one
outside source must be a peer reviewed/academic journal article. Wikipedia, personal blogs,
and/or .org’s will not be accepted as valid sources.
Note: Electronic copy must be uploaded to Turnitin link to check for citation accuracy
Study – Gather data online (no less than 5 articles). Characterize the social issue you chose for
yourself and show how it fits what is given and said about that topic in news/media. How is this
different than what we have been reading in our text? Cite comparisons.
Consider the social topic you chose relative to course material and answer the following
questions in essay format to summarize your findings.
In general, you should address the following questions in your essay:
What is your social topic?
What are some of the specific areas discussed in your social topic?
What are the different perspectives/opposing viewpoints?
How do most people get their information on your given social topic?
How is it different than you imagined, than what you read about?
What past research has been done on your topic?
Which solutions have worked, what haven’t? (investigate: read articles and refer to your text)
What new or unresolved issues/concerns have developed?
What did you learn by doing this paper?
(Again, use these questions to guide the general direction of your essay. Do not answer these
questions individually).
Surname 6
How Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Influence Police Brutality
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
The social topic of race, ethnicity, and immigration is critical to discuss so that one can understand how these factors influence people in society. Race refers to the classification of individuals based on social or physical qualities. Ethnicity entails people’s categories based on their language, culture, ancestry, and history. In addition, immigration refers to moving and settling in a specific country temporarily or permanently. Many individuals consider race and ethnicity of residents in a particular area before migrating. In most cases, people move to places where they can find others who understand them. Currently, neighborhoods comprise of individuals who belong to the same race or ethnicity. That is why it is hard for whites to settle in areas where the majority of people living there are African Americans. Therefore, race and ethnicity are the two primary determinants of immigration in the United States of America (USA). Although many Americans have encountered police brutality, at some point in their lives, race, ethnicity, and immigration ar.
Running head: RACE AND CRIME
1
RACE AND CRIME
8
Race and Crime
Why Racialization of Crime in the United States News Media is Dangerous and should be stopped
Introduction and Current Failings
The United States news media plays a massive role in informing and educating the public not only on political issues but also on social issues like crime. Since the inauguration of President Donald Trump in 2016, he has succeeded in using fear as his political weapon (Evers, Fisher & Schaaf, 2019). One of the things that stand out in his presidency is the dishonest claim that the rates of crime have gone up, despite the national trends on violent crimes going down significantly. Trump’s fear-mongering, which seems to be working, has permitted the news media with the Center for American Progress and GBA Strategies reporting that 88 percent of Americans regard crime on the national level as a major issue and that of immediate crisis (Adamson, 2017).
Whether through well-intended intentions or not, the news media are amplifying the national-level fear through constant reporting on Donald Trump, crime and how it has been racialized. Since the perception of national crime is an abstract concept to the ordinary citizens, the news media has likely been playing an out sized role in shaping the imagination of the public (Douai & Perry, 2018). Needless to say, the news media not only contributes towards the overestimation of crime statistics by members of the public through its reporting on the president’s fear-mongering and controversies but it also over reports on violent crimes, which feed destructive ethnic and racial biases about the people responsible.
African American men are often over-represented as the major perpetrators of violent crimes in the United States media (Zack, 2015). For instance, one survey of late-night news outlets in the city of New York established in 2014 that the media reported on violent crimes like assault, theft and murder in which black men and women were suspects at a rate that was far higher than the actual arrest rates for the same mentioned crimes (Adamson, 2017). The study also found out that black people are vilified by the news media by presenting black crime suspects as more dangerous and threatening than those from other dominant races like the whites.
The vilification is done by displaying the mug shots of African American suspects more frequently than those from the white community; depicting African American suspects in police cells more frequently; and paying deeper attention to criminal cases where the victims are strangers (Zack, 2015). Further, the news media has also played a part in worsening the racial differences and tensions between the white people and the blacks by particularly perpetuating and spread ...
RUNNING HEAD: Racial bias and double standards 1
Racial bias and double standards 8
Racial Bias and Double Standards
Assignment 3 Week 8
Mark Abbott
Professor PRIMM-BETHEA, ANGELA
11/30/2014
Double standards and racial bias are some of the biggest problems in the United States. Martin Luther King junior had this vision of People being judged by their personality instead of their skin color. He wished that there were no race boxes and that everything was color blind so that people did not face racial bias. It is unfortunate that people still use race as a factor when making decisions. Race preferences are wrong. It should be a thing of done with the past. There is a double regular in America .if you are black it is there was no questioning to be racist, but it is not okay when a white person says an offensive thing to a black person. It is considered to be racial. It’s okay to have organizations that allow black people only, but it would not be okay if an organization only had white people. It’s okay to have racist black entertainment channels in the United States, but it not very much okay to have a channel only for white people. The thought that only black people could present black, and white people only represent whites is outrageous. People should not choose their leaders because of their skin color, but they should consider their beliefs and ambitions.
Applicable Sociological Concepts. The socio-psychological theory lets us understand the human behavior and thoughts. Old-fashioned racism has replaced by a different form of racism. Unlike the old fashioned racism where people could feel the racism around them, the new racism is symbolic and not easy to notice. In fact in the American society many people believe that the racial equality is committed to diversity. Dislike is not a form of racism, but conscious hatred of people due to their race is only insufficient. Racism needs to take into account.
Social-structural theory. Unconscious racism or structured racism needs to be taken account. All Americans share a historical culture whether black, white or Hispania. Blatant prejudice is the traditional form while the subtle discrimination is in modern form and is indirect. The African Americans prefer to call them Americans since they are also of the American community. Unconscious racism changes the moral obligations imposed by the commonwealth and the equality. We are not obliged to impose assumptions that are discriminatory. The determination of who is who and who is not white has fluctuated the over time
Principled politics. Americans are Multiracial, and all have mixed ancestry. They have a sense of self-identity both culturally and socially. After racial segregation there have been inter-racial marriages that allow blacks, whites, and other race.
Persuasive Essay On The Death Penalty
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Death Penalty Persuasive Speech
Persuasive Essay On The Death Penalty
BShyenna Vega Professor Artist Writing for Crimina.docxrichardnorman90310
B
Shyenna Vega
Professor Artist
Writing for Criminal Justice
Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System
April 9, 2020
The primary duties of Police Officers (lower case) are to enforce the law, protect people, protect property, and patrol around to prevent incidents from happening (cite source) . The Criminal Justice (lower case) system is broken, and people of color are treated unequally. Police officers are influencing racial biases by their judgment of suspicion. In the courtroom, race plays a big role in decision making on how much time the individual serves. Racial Police biases are the leading cause of detention within for African Americans in America.
Police stops are caused by four mechanisms, which are racial profiling, stereotyping, cognitive bias, and being prejudice towards an individual (source). Police officers are makingconduct police stops with a lack of evidence in violation of the_____ amendment Amendments (state the specific amendment officers violate when making unlawful stops). According to Kenne (2017), Terry v. Ohio (ital) was a violation of the Fourth Amendment (Please restate this. The court case addressed a violation of the 4th A) Police Officers may stop a suspect on the street and frisk him or her without probable cause if the police officer believes the individual had committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. In Terry v. Ohio, police officers did an unreasonable search and seizure, and it was noticed that the police stop might be considered with the influence of racial bias (source). Discuss the four mechanisms
The Fourth Amendment protects their homes, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable search and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, upon probable cause. A search is a procedure led by approved operators of the law experiencing part or the entirety of a person's property, searching for explicit things that are identified with the wrongdoing that they are motivated to accept has been submitted. A seizure occurs if the officials claim things during the search. In Terry v. Ohio was an African American man that were unlawfully searched and seizers. Proofread
In Whren v. United States, the police officers violated the Fourth Amendment. Police officers used a traffic violation to stop these men. According to Keene (2017), The Police officer's racial bias may be influencing the officer's perceptions and judgments of the individual's behavior. The Fourth Amendment does require a balancing test between a search and seizures, and the harm it might cause the individual. There was nothing about the traffic violation that was harmful towards the officer for them to persuade the search and seizures, which is why the officers violated the Fourth Amendment.
A Traffic violation is an act or omission that’s prohibited by the law but is not a crime. Speeding, failing to stop or yield, falling to put your signal, seat belt violations, etc. are tra.
Jones 1Jones 7Kyle JonesMatthew ZimmermanEnglish 10222 N.docxpriestmanmable
Jones 1
Jones 7
Kyle Jones
Matthew Zimmerman
English 102
22 November 2014[Title]: [Subtitle]
In 2014, we live in a world with a media saturated culture. This is the era of digital news services, of 24-hour news channels, free newspapers, and even media based applications. For the majority of us, the way in which we learn about the world outside our personal perception is through the consumption of news, mainly still through broadcast or print (OFCOM 2007). Various forms of media has fed the public statistics that created a sense of stereotyping for each particular race. For example, the media and those on film, such as politics and leaders of the government, link together race and crime, which conveys a criminal image of the public’s consumption (St. John & Heald-Moore, 1995). Since race and crime are tied together, when one thinks of a crime, hears about a crime, or when crime is being reported, race is usually associated with it. In the American society, a frequent representation of crime is that it is majorly committed by African- Americans. The view of African Americans has been distorted and twisted by the media. Without question, almost everything that is being covered by the media is believed by most of society and it becomes their actual perceptual reality. Broadcast media and other various forms of media has a history for portraying African Americans in a biased manner, as if they were mostly reported involved in crime, drugs, or acts of violence. This has led to many cases of stereotyping, racial profiling, police brutality, prejudice, inhumane acts and has brain washed most of our society into believing that almost every African American is mischievous or a threat to their well-being. African Americans are unjustly, as well as unrealistically depicted on broadcast news and various other types of mass media. These negative connotations affects more than just African- Americans but also every other culture that exists in America.
African Americans have been associated with crime for quite some time. It was not until some in the 1970’s and early 1980s that the popular stereotype of the young black man evolved in the eyes of many from a petty thief or rapist into the notorious , malicious criminal predators, or what Kathery Russel ( 2002) has argued, is the world recognized “ criminalblackman”. Within the last few decades there have been controversial law enforcement practices of racial profiling. Law enforcement officials pursue minorities in an attempt to increase the likely hood of catching illegal activity or the predetermined act of illegal activity, which is part of a consequence from the racial profiling that the media has inflicted upon society. The questionable practices has led to negative effects on blacks. To the African American culture law officials are deemed more criminal or more of a threat than what the media and statistics has condemned blacks to be. The after math, after the many years of harassment, African ...
Running head RACIAL INEQUALITY JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM1RACI.docxtodd581
Running head: RACIAL INEQUALITY JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM
1
RACIAL INEQUALITY JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM
2
Racial Inequality Juvenile Justice System
School name
May 2019
Racial Inequality-Juvenile Justice System Case Study
Abstract:
While researchers have discovered that Black American Youth face higher chances of involvement with the juvenile justice system. This has raised eyebrows when compared with the Whites counterparts and the big question of my research is examining whether Black Americans are the criminal race? A sample of about 537 Black American adolescents residing in low-income urban communities took part in the survey connected with juvenile justice.
The report findings applying regression logistic models signaled that adolescents who reported engagement with juvenile injustice system; were 2.4 times as likely to present youth offending delinquent, substance abuse and psychological problems. The research paper suggests that targeting and recognizing several contacts of the juvenile justice system especially the minority race maybe profitable. Finally, the paper creates room for future research advancement to examine whether network peer norms might reconcile the connections between juvenile justice engagement and youth behavior challenges.
Introduction
For over 10 years, the Justice Department has been attempting to lessen the racial uniqueness found in adolescent captures and adolescent detainment, a reality that underscores the presence of racially dissimilar captures and sentences. According to Liberty (2013), African American youth capture rates for medication infringement, strikes, and weapon offenses are higher than capture rates for white youth; despite the fact that both report comparative rates of wrongdoing. While some have reprimanded the remarks by previous Education Secretary and Drug Czar William Bennett, they sadly trust his remarks are situated in reality.
The individuals who trust that African American or Latino youth are increasing; criminal than some other ethnic gatherings are just off-base. The genuine certainties disclose to us considerably more than generalizations, or musings both of which cloud the well-recorded divergent treatment, agreed African Americans contrasted with whites inside the equity framework. These remarks on racially divergent wrongdoing, additionally ignore the region of corporate wrongdoing. In an original meta-examination led by scientists Carl Pope and Richard Feyerherm for the Justice Department, 66% of the investigations of state and neighborhood adolescent equity frameworks found that; there was a "race impact" at some phase of the adolescent equity process that influenced results for minorities for the more regrettable.
Borrowing the perspective of Williams (2018), their examination proposed that the impacts of the race might be felt at different choice focuses, they might be immediate or backhanded, and they may amass as youth proceed through the framework. The absolute mos.
Against The Death Penalty Essay
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Case Study Clinical LeadersDavid Rochester enjoys his role as a C.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study: Clinical Leaders
David Rochester enjoys his role as a Clinical Leader in a palliative care setting. On a typical day David troubleshoots problems as they arise. His job responsibilities include resolving personnel issues, integrating changes in policies, and communicating patient care protocols to the nursing staff. He displays competence and confidence in trouble-shooting issues and follow-up is his specialty. During the past month, David has noticed an increase in the number of problems on the unit. He is uncertain of the origin of all of the problems. This morning, David received an email communication from the Director of Palliative Care Services, detailing several changes in clinical practices. David is certain that the timing of these changes will create more daily problems.
Respond to the following questions:
What are the characteristics of leadership does David exhibit? What are the characteristics that David must embrace to be an effective leader of a clinical microsystem?
Changing leadership styles requires deliberate steps. What key steps does David need to take to assure his success as he moves forward?
** At least
4 pages long - includes title page and references
, at least
4 SCHOLARLY REFERENCES, APA format, 12 pt font times new roman - 1" margins
**
see grading rubric attachment
.
CASE STUDY Clinical Journal Entry 1 to 2 pages A 21 month .docxPazSilviapm
CASE STUDY: Clinical Journal Entry: 1 to 2 pages
A 21 month old Caucasian baby girl was brought to clinic by her mother with complaint of her baby getting irritable, easy tired during the day and sleeps more than usual after small activities at the day care and now she just noticed her skin is pale especially around her hands and eyelids and her husband also confirmed that she did look pale. So they are here today for a checkup even though she notices no other developmental changes. Mother denies any s/s of GI bleed like tarry stool. She has been current with her immunization and has no other medical or surgical history.
Assessment
An active toddler, with recent fatigue, has increase in sleeping, mild exercise intolerance.. She is a picky eater, enjoys small chicken, pork, and some vegetables, but loves milk and drinks about seven bottles of whole milk daily.
Family history reveals mother had anemia during her pregnancy. There is no history of splenectomy, gall stones at an early age, or other anemia in the family.
Physical Examination:
Vital Signs: Temperature 37.8 degrees C, Blood Pressure 95/50 mmHg, Pulse 144 beats/minute, Respiration 18 breaths/minute , Height 85.5 cm (50th %ile), Weight 13.2 kg (75th %ile). General appearance: He is a pale appearing, active toddler.
Reflect on the patient provided who presented with a hematologic disorder during your Practicum experience. Describe your experience in assessing and managing the patient and his or her family and follow up apt . Include details of your “aha” moment in identifying the patient’s disorder. Then, explain how the experience connected your classroom studies to the real-world clinical setting.
Readings( Provide 2 more Credible , recent references)
•Burns, C. E., Dunn, A. M., Brady, M. A., Starr, N. B., & Blosser, C. G. (2013). Pediatric primary care (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Chapter 26, “Hematologic Disorders” (pp. 557–584
.
More Related Content
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Running head PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS .docxcharisellington63520
Running head: PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 1
PUBLIC OPINION OF POLICE BY DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS 6
Cylvania Allen Pringle
8/11/2015
CJA/344
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
Dr. Joycelyn Ballard
Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups
I. Introduction
Researchers and policy makers have constantly shown immense interest in how different ethnic groups perceive the police. Of utmost importance is how different ethnic groups experience face to face interactions with those individuals in legal authority especially the police. Such interactions can help researchers and policy makers understand the perceptions different ethnic groups might have towards the police and how these perceptions can influence the prevalence of crime in a jurisdiction (Huo & Tyler, 2000).
The fact that ethnic groups differ in how they perceive the police is already well known. However, what is boggling the researchers interested in this interaction is whether these differences can be attributed to different perceptions of how these individuals were treated, different outcomes of their interaction with the police, or different expectations of fair treatment based on their culture and values?
II. Review of Literature
One thing that remains clear throughout the entire research process is that people view perceptions of fair treatment as more important than getting a favorable outcome from the entire experience. People of all ethnic groups generally form positive impressions, perceptions and attitudes to legal authorities and the decisions made if they feel that they have been dealt with in a fair manner which does not demean them or make them feel discriminated against. This is known as the procedural justice effect, one of the patterns of responses recognized in law circles (Davis, 2000).
It is a well-known fact that the minority ethnic groups usually have bad experiences at the hands of the police. In a multi-cultural country such as the US, the minorities including the Latinos and the African Americans have negative perceptions towards the police as well as negative experiences with the same. These ethnic minorities report that their members constantly face unfair treatment, harassment and at times violation of their human rights at the hands of the police officers.
III. Discussion
They argue that there is discrimination on the part of the police forces based on race. It is a well observed fact that individuals who belong to ethnic groups that are less integrated into the political structure or less efficacious are less inclined to voluntarily indulge with the police as compared to those individuals who come from ‘superior’ ethnic backgrounds (Davis, 2000).
This perception of discrimination can lead to lower rates of compliance amongst the members of these ethnic communities. There is usually a high level of tension that characterizes the relati.
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Learning Objectives
• Understand the concepts of “race” and “ethnicity” as social constructs.
• Analyze evidence about racial inequality and social class in relation to crime.
• Analyze evidence about racial differences in rates of victimization.
• Analyze evidence regarding racial inequality and incarceration rates.
• Explore how the War on Drugs contributes to racial discrimination in the criminal justice system.
• Examine crack cocaine and marijuana law enforcement in context of racial discrimination.
• Critically analyze the connections between race and the death penalty.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of racial profiling.
• Examine empirical evidence on the issue of immigration and crime rates.
Crime, Race, and Ethnicity
4
coL82305_04_c04_091-122.indd 91 7/5/13 4:18 PM
Section 4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System CHAPTER 4
In April of 2012, law enforcement in Oklahoma arrested one of the region’s foremost drug kingpins. In the home of the alleged drug kingpin, police seized four pounds of marijuana, $276,000 in cash, and two firearms: a revolver and a semiautomatic pistol.
Police believe that the defendant is the “mastermind” (Perez, 2012, p. 1) of a drug-dealing
organization that supplies approximately 40% of the marijuana markets in Oklahoma and
three nearby states: Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. The suspect, drug kingpin Darlene
Mayes, is a White grandmother with thinning silver hair who appears to be in her 60s or
70s. Thus she has been dubbed the “Granny Drug Kingpin” (Perez, 2012).
Studies suggest that when asked to picture a drug dealer, overwhelmingly the American
public visualizes a young man of color (Burston, Jones, & Roberson-Sanders, 1995). How-
ever, evidence from this chapter will demonstrate that drug use and drug crime spans
racial and ethnic groups and that all racial groups seem to commit drug crime in similar
rates. Whether broaching issues of drug crime, or any other type of crime, issues of per-
ception, race, and criminality are central in the study of criminology.
4.1 Race and the Criminal Justice System
The American criminal justice system disproportionately impacts people of color, and this disproportionate impact by race is often dramatic and consistent at nearly every level of the system. Research demonstrates that members of poor, disenfranchised
groups receive harsher treatment in all phases of the criminal justice system: They are
more likely to be stopped, investigated, arrested, charged, put on trial, found guilty, and
sent to prison (Tonry, 2011). The disproportionate involvement in the system is cumula-
tive. Police are more likely to arrest someone who has a prior record, prosecutors are more
likely to charge someone who has previously been arrested or spent time in jail. A judge
is more likely to convict and incarcerate a defendant rather than offer probation to some-
one who has .
RUNNING HEAD: ROUGH DRAFT
19
Rough Draft Comment by Nygel: Please remember to complete the title, date and running head throughout the paper.
Lidia Williams
American Military University
Date:
Abstract
Analysis of research regarding the criminal justice and racial profiling reveals that the system basically targets the African males. Recent research conducted by the African Civil Liberation Union (ACLU) and Mary Whinser from the School of Law in the University of Washington clearly reveal that the Criminal Justice System targets the African males when profiled through the race. The two researchers reveal that there although it is argued that racism has greatly decreased in the United States there still exist some racial disparities in various stages of the criminal justice system. The results of the researchers show that there is a need for reviewing the current criminal justice system in order to minimize racism that exists in the system. The current policies that exist in the criminal justice system need to be changed in order to change the face of the system that is seen to target the African males. Comment by Nygel: This is a good, strong abstract.
Keyword: racism, racial disparity, African Americans, statistics
The United States is the world’s leader in mass incarceration. Approximately 700 out of Comment by Nygel: Please begin each paragraph with an indent about 1/2 inch in from the left margin. This is the typical/default Tab.
100,000 Americans are currently incarcerated serving sentences in federal and state prisons
While mass Incarcerations rates in the United States are alarming, the problem of racial
disproportion of African American males within the rates of mass incarceration is equally if not
more problematic, as it sheds light on the unpleasant side of American Justice System. African Comment by Nygel: American justice system
Americans males are disproportionally incarcerated, making them targets for systematic abuse in
the hands of the American Criminal Justice system by way of the criminal justice process. The Comment by Nygel: This does not need to be capitalized. Comment by Nygel: This is a bold statement. I look forward to reading more.
criminal justice system is therefore racist in its practices and processes; it is institutionally
designed to systematically abuse and oppress African Americans males.
Comment by Nygel: There should not be an extra space between paragraphs. This should only happen with headings or subheadings to separate/divide paper into sections.
The criminal justice system is set in place to mitigate crime in a manner accordance with Comment by Nygel: In accordance… Remove manner
Constitutional rights of citizens. By desig ...
1Writing Activity 4 Final DraftShaland.docxlorainedeserre
1
Writing Activity 4 : Final Draft
Shalanda Moore
ENG 215 - Research & Writing
Dr. Mary Rose Kasraie
September 1, 2019
Prosecutors on aggregate don’t seem to seek the death penalty more for black people than white people, though there are some gaping disparities in a few states and in some counties. Instead, the real racial bias when it comes to the death penalty pertains to the race of the victim. Killers of black people rarely get death sentences. White killers of black people get death sentences even less frequently. And far and away, the type of murder most likely to bring a death sentence is a black man who kills a white woman.
The Bureau of Justice Statistics reports 208,000 people are in state prisons for drug offenses. Of this number, 32 percent are white, and 68 percent are African American or Hispanic.
The link to other forms of profiling suggests that there is something scientific and efficient about racial profiling. The reality is very different. Race is a social construct; not knowable by sight. Racial profiles are both over-inclusive in the sense that many, indeed most, of the people who fit into the category are entirely innocent, and under-inclusive in that many other criminals or terrorists who do not fit the profile will escape police attention. Racial profiling also faces the problems of predictability and evasion; the more predictable police profiles become, the easier it is for perpetrators to adapt to circumvent the profile. The ineffectiveness of racial profiling is illustrated by consistently low hit or arrest rates for policing actions based on racial profiling. There is surprising consistency in data coming out of the USA, the UK and Europe demonstrating similar ‘hit' or arrest rates across racial groups. In several studies, ethnic minorities are less likely to be arrested or have contraband or other ‘seizable' evidence found following a search. This refutes the proposition that minorities are more likely to be involved in crime and illustrates that racial profiling represents an ineffective use of police resources.
Narrow definitions of racial profiling describe situations where actions are based solely on the basis of a person's race or ethnicity. In practice, this has allowed police forces to deny the existence of racial profiling, where activities are legally justifiable but nonetheless racially biased such as the use of pretext traffic stops. Broader definitions recognise that decisions are usually made on a number of factors including race. This wider definition reflects the fact that racial profiling may occur irrespective of whether this is a deliberate policy of targeted minority groups or routine institutional practices. Patterns of profiling can also be seen in discriminatory treatment after a stop has taken place, such decisions to go on to search, more intrusive searches, citations and arrests.
Racial profiling is the use by the police of generalisations based on race, ethnicity, religion ...
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric Due by Saturday May 12th.docxjacqueliner9
Term Paper Essay Assignment Rubric
Due by Saturday May 12th at 11:59pm via TurnitIn (20% of final grade)
Sociology 3480: Term Paper Rubric
Sources: In addition to your text and/or readings, provide at least 5 outside sources. At least one
outside source must be a peer reviewed/academic journal article. Wikipedia, personal blogs,
and/or .org’s will not be accepted as valid sources.
Note: Electronic copy must be uploaded to Turnitin link to check for citation accuracy
Study – Gather data online (no less than 5 articles). Characterize the social issue you chose for
yourself and show how it fits what is given and said about that topic in news/media. How is this
different than what we have been reading in our text? Cite comparisons.
Consider the social topic you chose relative to course material and answer the following
questions in essay format to summarize your findings.
In general, you should address the following questions in your essay:
What is your social topic?
What are some of the specific areas discussed in your social topic?
What are the different perspectives/opposing viewpoints?
How do most people get their information on your given social topic?
How is it different than you imagined, than what you read about?
What past research has been done on your topic?
Which solutions have worked, what haven’t? (investigate: read articles and refer to your text)
What new or unresolved issues/concerns have developed?
What did you learn by doing this paper?
(Again, use these questions to guide the general direction of your essay. Do not answer these
questions individually).
Surname 6
How Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Influence Police Brutality
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
The social topic of race, ethnicity, and immigration is critical to discuss so that one can understand how these factors influence people in society. Race refers to the classification of individuals based on social or physical qualities. Ethnicity entails people’s categories based on their language, culture, ancestry, and history. In addition, immigration refers to moving and settling in a specific country temporarily or permanently. Many individuals consider race and ethnicity of residents in a particular area before migrating. In most cases, people move to places where they can find others who understand them. Currently, neighborhoods comprise of individuals who belong to the same race or ethnicity. That is why it is hard for whites to settle in areas where the majority of people living there are African Americans. Therefore, race and ethnicity are the two primary determinants of immigration in the United States of America (USA). Although many Americans have encountered police brutality, at some point in their lives, race, ethnicity, and immigration ar.
Running head: RACE AND CRIME
1
RACE AND CRIME
8
Race and Crime
Why Racialization of Crime in the United States News Media is Dangerous and should be stopped
Introduction and Current Failings
The United States news media plays a massive role in informing and educating the public not only on political issues but also on social issues like crime. Since the inauguration of President Donald Trump in 2016, he has succeeded in using fear as his political weapon (Evers, Fisher & Schaaf, 2019). One of the things that stand out in his presidency is the dishonest claim that the rates of crime have gone up, despite the national trends on violent crimes going down significantly. Trump’s fear-mongering, which seems to be working, has permitted the news media with the Center for American Progress and GBA Strategies reporting that 88 percent of Americans regard crime on the national level as a major issue and that of immediate crisis (Adamson, 2017).
Whether through well-intended intentions or not, the news media are amplifying the national-level fear through constant reporting on Donald Trump, crime and how it has been racialized. Since the perception of national crime is an abstract concept to the ordinary citizens, the news media has likely been playing an out sized role in shaping the imagination of the public (Douai & Perry, 2018). Needless to say, the news media not only contributes towards the overestimation of crime statistics by members of the public through its reporting on the president’s fear-mongering and controversies but it also over reports on violent crimes, which feed destructive ethnic and racial biases about the people responsible.
African American men are often over-represented as the major perpetrators of violent crimes in the United States media (Zack, 2015). For instance, one survey of late-night news outlets in the city of New York established in 2014 that the media reported on violent crimes like assault, theft and murder in which black men and women were suspects at a rate that was far higher than the actual arrest rates for the same mentioned crimes (Adamson, 2017). The study also found out that black people are vilified by the news media by presenting black crime suspects as more dangerous and threatening than those from other dominant races like the whites.
The vilification is done by displaying the mug shots of African American suspects more frequently than those from the white community; depicting African American suspects in police cells more frequently; and paying deeper attention to criminal cases where the victims are strangers (Zack, 2015). Further, the news media has also played a part in worsening the racial differences and tensions between the white people and the blacks by particularly perpetuating and spread ...
RUNNING HEAD: Racial bias and double standards 1
Racial bias and double standards 8
Racial Bias and Double Standards
Assignment 3 Week 8
Mark Abbott
Professor PRIMM-BETHEA, ANGELA
11/30/2014
Double standards and racial bias are some of the biggest problems in the United States. Martin Luther King junior had this vision of People being judged by their personality instead of their skin color. He wished that there were no race boxes and that everything was color blind so that people did not face racial bias. It is unfortunate that people still use race as a factor when making decisions. Race preferences are wrong. It should be a thing of done with the past. There is a double regular in America .if you are black it is there was no questioning to be racist, but it is not okay when a white person says an offensive thing to a black person. It is considered to be racial. It’s okay to have organizations that allow black people only, but it would not be okay if an organization only had white people. It’s okay to have racist black entertainment channels in the United States, but it not very much okay to have a channel only for white people. The thought that only black people could present black, and white people only represent whites is outrageous. People should not choose their leaders because of their skin color, but they should consider their beliefs and ambitions.
Applicable Sociological Concepts. The socio-psychological theory lets us understand the human behavior and thoughts. Old-fashioned racism has replaced by a different form of racism. Unlike the old fashioned racism where people could feel the racism around them, the new racism is symbolic and not easy to notice. In fact in the American society many people believe that the racial equality is committed to diversity. Dislike is not a form of racism, but conscious hatred of people due to their race is only insufficient. Racism needs to take into account.
Social-structural theory. Unconscious racism or structured racism needs to be taken account. All Americans share a historical culture whether black, white or Hispania. Blatant prejudice is the traditional form while the subtle discrimination is in modern form and is indirect. The African Americans prefer to call them Americans since they are also of the American community. Unconscious racism changes the moral obligations imposed by the commonwealth and the equality. We are not obliged to impose assumptions that are discriminatory. The determination of who is who and who is not white has fluctuated the over time
Principled politics. Americans are Multiracial, and all have mixed ancestry. They have a sense of self-identity both culturally and socially. After racial segregation there have been inter-racial marriages that allow blacks, whites, and other race.
Persuasive Essay On The Death Penalty
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BShyenna Vega Professor Artist Writing for Crimina.docxrichardnorman90310
B
Shyenna Vega
Professor Artist
Writing for Criminal Justice
Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System
April 9, 2020
The primary duties of Police Officers (lower case) are to enforce the law, protect people, protect property, and patrol around to prevent incidents from happening (cite source) . The Criminal Justice (lower case) system is broken, and people of color are treated unequally. Police officers are influencing racial biases by their judgment of suspicion. In the courtroom, race plays a big role in decision making on how much time the individual serves. Racial Police biases are the leading cause of detention within for African Americans in America.
Police stops are caused by four mechanisms, which are racial profiling, stereotyping, cognitive bias, and being prejudice towards an individual (source). Police officers are makingconduct police stops with a lack of evidence in violation of the_____ amendment Amendments (state the specific amendment officers violate when making unlawful stops). According to Kenne (2017), Terry v. Ohio (ital) was a violation of the Fourth Amendment (Please restate this. The court case addressed a violation of the 4th A) Police Officers may stop a suspect on the street and frisk him or her without probable cause if the police officer believes the individual had committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. In Terry v. Ohio, police officers did an unreasonable search and seizure, and it was noticed that the police stop might be considered with the influence of racial bias (source). Discuss the four mechanisms
The Fourth Amendment protects their homes, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable search and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, upon probable cause. A search is a procedure led by approved operators of the law experiencing part or the entirety of a person's property, searching for explicit things that are identified with the wrongdoing that they are motivated to accept has been submitted. A seizure occurs if the officials claim things during the search. In Terry v. Ohio was an African American man that were unlawfully searched and seizers. Proofread
In Whren v. United States, the police officers violated the Fourth Amendment. Police officers used a traffic violation to stop these men. According to Keene (2017), The Police officer's racial bias may be influencing the officer's perceptions and judgments of the individual's behavior. The Fourth Amendment does require a balancing test between a search and seizures, and the harm it might cause the individual. There was nothing about the traffic violation that was harmful towards the officer for them to persuade the search and seizures, which is why the officers violated the Fourth Amendment.
A Traffic violation is an act or omission that’s prohibited by the law but is not a crime. Speeding, failing to stop or yield, falling to put your signal, seat belt violations, etc. are tra.
Jones 1Jones 7Kyle JonesMatthew ZimmermanEnglish 10222 N.docxpriestmanmable
Jones 1
Jones 7
Kyle Jones
Matthew Zimmerman
English 102
22 November 2014[Title]: [Subtitle]
In 2014, we live in a world with a media saturated culture. This is the era of digital news services, of 24-hour news channels, free newspapers, and even media based applications. For the majority of us, the way in which we learn about the world outside our personal perception is through the consumption of news, mainly still through broadcast or print (OFCOM 2007). Various forms of media has fed the public statistics that created a sense of stereotyping for each particular race. For example, the media and those on film, such as politics and leaders of the government, link together race and crime, which conveys a criminal image of the public’s consumption (St. John & Heald-Moore, 1995). Since race and crime are tied together, when one thinks of a crime, hears about a crime, or when crime is being reported, race is usually associated with it. In the American society, a frequent representation of crime is that it is majorly committed by African- Americans. The view of African Americans has been distorted and twisted by the media. Without question, almost everything that is being covered by the media is believed by most of society and it becomes their actual perceptual reality. Broadcast media and other various forms of media has a history for portraying African Americans in a biased manner, as if they were mostly reported involved in crime, drugs, or acts of violence. This has led to many cases of stereotyping, racial profiling, police brutality, prejudice, inhumane acts and has brain washed most of our society into believing that almost every African American is mischievous or a threat to their well-being. African Americans are unjustly, as well as unrealistically depicted on broadcast news and various other types of mass media. These negative connotations affects more than just African- Americans but also every other culture that exists in America.
African Americans have been associated with crime for quite some time. It was not until some in the 1970’s and early 1980s that the popular stereotype of the young black man evolved in the eyes of many from a petty thief or rapist into the notorious , malicious criminal predators, or what Kathery Russel ( 2002) has argued, is the world recognized “ criminalblackman”. Within the last few decades there have been controversial law enforcement practices of racial profiling. Law enforcement officials pursue minorities in an attempt to increase the likely hood of catching illegal activity or the predetermined act of illegal activity, which is part of a consequence from the racial profiling that the media has inflicted upon society. The questionable practices has led to negative effects on blacks. To the African American culture law officials are deemed more criminal or more of a threat than what the media and statistics has condemned blacks to be. The after math, after the many years of harassment, African ...
Running head RACIAL INEQUALITY JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM1RACI.docxtodd581
Running head: RACIAL INEQUALITY JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM
1
RACIAL INEQUALITY JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM
2
Racial Inequality Juvenile Justice System
School name
May 2019
Racial Inequality-Juvenile Justice System Case Study
Abstract:
While researchers have discovered that Black American Youth face higher chances of involvement with the juvenile justice system. This has raised eyebrows when compared with the Whites counterparts and the big question of my research is examining whether Black Americans are the criminal race? A sample of about 537 Black American adolescents residing in low-income urban communities took part in the survey connected with juvenile justice.
The report findings applying regression logistic models signaled that adolescents who reported engagement with juvenile injustice system; were 2.4 times as likely to present youth offending delinquent, substance abuse and psychological problems. The research paper suggests that targeting and recognizing several contacts of the juvenile justice system especially the minority race maybe profitable. Finally, the paper creates room for future research advancement to examine whether network peer norms might reconcile the connections between juvenile justice engagement and youth behavior challenges.
Introduction
For over 10 years, the Justice Department has been attempting to lessen the racial uniqueness found in adolescent captures and adolescent detainment, a reality that underscores the presence of racially dissimilar captures and sentences. According to Liberty (2013), African American youth capture rates for medication infringement, strikes, and weapon offenses are higher than capture rates for white youth; despite the fact that both report comparative rates of wrongdoing. While some have reprimanded the remarks by previous Education Secretary and Drug Czar William Bennett, they sadly trust his remarks are situated in reality.
The individuals who trust that African American or Latino youth are increasing; criminal than some other ethnic gatherings are just off-base. The genuine certainties disclose to us considerably more than generalizations, or musings both of which cloud the well-recorded divergent treatment, agreed African Americans contrasted with whites inside the equity framework. These remarks on racially divergent wrongdoing, additionally ignore the region of corporate wrongdoing. In an original meta-examination led by scientists Carl Pope and Richard Feyerherm for the Justice Department, 66% of the investigations of state and neighborhood adolescent equity frameworks found that; there was a "race impact" at some phase of the adolescent equity process that influenced results for minorities for the more regrettable.
Borrowing the perspective of Williams (2018), their examination proposed that the impacts of the race might be felt at different choice focuses, they might be immediate or backhanded, and they may amass as youth proceed through the framework. The absolute mos.
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Similar to httpsdoi.org10.11770963721418763931Current Directions (20)
Case Study Clinical LeadersDavid Rochester enjoys his role as a C.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study: Clinical Leaders
David Rochester enjoys his role as a Clinical Leader in a palliative care setting. On a typical day David troubleshoots problems as they arise. His job responsibilities include resolving personnel issues, integrating changes in policies, and communicating patient care protocols to the nursing staff. He displays competence and confidence in trouble-shooting issues and follow-up is his specialty. During the past month, David has noticed an increase in the number of problems on the unit. He is uncertain of the origin of all of the problems. This morning, David received an email communication from the Director of Palliative Care Services, detailing several changes in clinical practices. David is certain that the timing of these changes will create more daily problems.
Respond to the following questions:
What are the characteristics of leadership does David exhibit? What are the characteristics that David must embrace to be an effective leader of a clinical microsystem?
Changing leadership styles requires deliberate steps. What key steps does David need to take to assure his success as he moves forward?
** At least
4 pages long - includes title page and references
, at least
4 SCHOLARLY REFERENCES, APA format, 12 pt font times new roman - 1" margins
**
see grading rubric attachment
.
CASE STUDY Clinical Journal Entry 1 to 2 pages A 21 month .docxPazSilviapm
CASE STUDY: Clinical Journal Entry: 1 to 2 pages
A 21 month old Caucasian baby girl was brought to clinic by her mother with complaint of her baby getting irritable, easy tired during the day and sleeps more than usual after small activities at the day care and now she just noticed her skin is pale especially around her hands and eyelids and her husband also confirmed that she did look pale. So they are here today for a checkup even though she notices no other developmental changes. Mother denies any s/s of GI bleed like tarry stool. She has been current with her immunization and has no other medical or surgical history.
Assessment
An active toddler, with recent fatigue, has increase in sleeping, mild exercise intolerance.. She is a picky eater, enjoys small chicken, pork, and some vegetables, but loves milk and drinks about seven bottles of whole milk daily.
Family history reveals mother had anemia during her pregnancy. There is no history of splenectomy, gall stones at an early age, or other anemia in the family.
Physical Examination:
Vital Signs: Temperature 37.8 degrees C, Blood Pressure 95/50 mmHg, Pulse 144 beats/minute, Respiration 18 breaths/minute , Height 85.5 cm (50th %ile), Weight 13.2 kg (75th %ile). General appearance: He is a pale appearing, active toddler.
Reflect on the patient provided who presented with a hematologic disorder during your Practicum experience. Describe your experience in assessing and managing the patient and his or her family and follow up apt . Include details of your “aha” moment in identifying the patient’s disorder. Then, explain how the experience connected your classroom studies to the real-world clinical setting.
Readings( Provide 2 more Credible , recent references)
•Burns, C. E., Dunn, A. M., Brady, M. A., Starr, N. B., & Blosser, C. G. (2013). Pediatric primary care (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Chapter 26, “Hematologic Disorders” (pp. 557–584
.
CASE STUDY 5Exploring Innovation in Action The Dimming of the Lig.docxPazSilviapm
CASE STUDY 5
Exploring Innovation in Action: The Dimming of the Light Bulb
In the beginning….
God said let there be light. And for a long time this came from a rather primitive but surprisingly effective method – the oil lamp. From the early days of putting simple wicks into congealed animal fats, through candles to more sophisticated oil lamps, people have been using this form of illumination. Archaeologists tell us this goes back at least 40,000 years so there has been plenty of scope for innovation to improve the basic idea! Certainly by the time of the Romans, domestic illumination – albeit with candles – was a well-developed feature of civilised society.
Not a lot changed until the late eighteenth century when the expansion of the mining industry led to experiments with uses for coal gas – one of which was as an alternative source of illumination. One of the pioneers of research in the coal industry – Humphrey Davy – invented the carbon arc lamp and ushered in a new era of safety within the mines, but also opened the door to alternative forms of domestic illumination and the era of gas lighting began.
But it was not until the middle of the following century that researchers began to explore the possibilities of using a new power source and some new physical effects. Experiments by Joseph Swann in England and Moses Farmer in the USA (amongst others) led to the development of a device in which a tiny metal filament enclosed within a glass envelope was heated to incandescence by an electric current. This was the first electric light bulb – and it still bears more than a passing resemblance to the product found hanging from millions of ceilings all around the world.
By 1879 it became clear that there was significant commercial potential in such lighting – not just for domestic use. Two events occurred during that year which were to have far-reaching effects on the emergence of a new industry. The first was that the city of Cleveland – although using a different lamp technology (carbon arc) – introduced the first public street lighting. And the second was that patents were registered for the incandescent filament light bulb by Joseph Swann in England and one Thomas Edison in the USA.
Needless to say the firms involved in gas supply and distribution and the gas lighting industry were not taking the threat from electric light lying down and they responded with a series of improvement innovations which helped retain gas lighting’s popularity for much of the late nineteenth century. Much of what happened over the next 30 years is a good example of what is sometimes called the ‘sailing ship effect’. That is, just as in the shipping world the invention of steam power did not instantly lead to the disappearance of sailing ships but instead triggered a whole series of improvement in that industry, so the gas lighting industry consolidated its position through incremental product and process innovations.
But electric lighting was also improving and th.
Case Study 2A 40 year-old female presents to the office with the c.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study 2
A 40 year-old female presents to the office with the chief complaint of diarrhea. She has been having
recurrent episodes of abdominal pain, diarrhea, and rectal bleeding
.
She has lost 9 pounds
in the last month. She takes no medications, but is allergic to penicillin. She describes her life as
stressful,
but manageable. The physical exam reveals
a pale middle- aged
female in no acute distress. Her weight is 140 pounds (down from 154 at her last visit over a year ago), blood pressure of
94/60 sitting and 86/50
(orthostatic positive). standing, heart rate of 96 and regular without postural changes, respiratory rate of 18, and O2 saturation 99%. Further physical examination reveals:
Skin: w/d, no acute lesions or rashes
Eyes: sclera clear,
conj pale
Ears: no acute changes
Nose: no erythema or sinus tenderness
Mouth:
membranes pale,
some slight painful ulcerations
, right buccal mucosa,
tongue beefy red,
teeth good repair ( signs and symptoms of
Vitamin B12 deficiency
anemia)
Neck: supple, no thyroid enlargement or tenderness, no lymphadenopathy
Cardio: S1 S2 regular, no S3 S4 or murmur
Lungs: CTA w/o rales, wheezes, or rhonchi
Abdomen: scaphoid,
BS hyperactive
(due to diarrhea),
generalized tenderness
,
rectal +occult
blood
Post
APA format
1.
an explanation of the differential diagnosis (
Crohn disease
)
for the patient in the case study that you selected.
2.
Describe the role the patient history and physical exam (information from above) played in the diagnosis (of
Crohn disease
)
3.
Then, suggest potential treatment options based on your patient diagnosis (
Crohn disease
).
important information highlighted above
.
Case Study Horizon Horizon Consulting Patti Smith looked up at .docxPazSilviapm
Case Study
Horizon
Horizon Consulting Patti Smith looked up at the bright blue Carolina sky before she entered the offices of Horizon Consulting. Today was Friday, which meant she needed to prepare for the weekly status report meeting. Horizon Consulting is a custom software development company that offers fully integrated mobile application services for iPhone ™ , Android ™ , Windows Mobile ® and BlackBerry ® platforms. Horizon was founded by James Thrasher, a former Marketing executive, who quickly saw the potential for digital marketing via smartphones. Horizon enjoyed initial success in sports marketing, but quickly expanded to other industries. A key to their success was the decline in cost for developing smartphone applications which expanded the client base. The decline in cost was primarily due to learning curve and ability to build customized solutions on established platforms. Patti Smith was a late bloomer who went back to college after working in the restaurant business for nine years. She and her former husband had tried unsuc-cessfully to operate a vegetarian restaurant in Golden, Colorado. After her di-vorce, she returned to University of Colorado where she majored in Management Information Systems with a minor in Marketing. While she enjoyed her marketing classes much more than her MIS classes, she felt the IT know- how acquired would give her an advantage in the job market. This turned out to be true as Horizon hired her to be an Account Manager soon after graduation. Patti Smith was hired to replace Stephen Stills who had started the restaurant side of the business at Horizon. Stephen was “ let go” according to one Account Manager for being a prima donna and hoarding resources. Patti’s clients ranged from high- end restaurants to hole in wall Mom and Pop shops. She helped de-velop smartphone apps that let users make reservations, browse menus, receive alerts on daily specials, provide customer feedback, order take- out and in some cases order delivery. As an Account Manager she worked with clients to assess their needs, develop a plan, and create customized smartphone apps. Horizon appeared to be a good fit for Patti. She had enough technical training to be able to work with software engineers and help guide them to produce client-ready products. At the same time she could relate to the restaurateurs and enjoyed working with them on web design and digital marketing. Horizon was organized into three departments: Sales, Software Development, and Graphics, with Account Managers acting as project managers. Account Managers generally came from Sales, and would divide their time between proj-ects and making sales pitches to potential new clients. Horizon employed a core group of software engineers and designers, supplemented by contracted pro-grammers when needed. The first step in developing a smartphone application involved the Account Manager meeting with the client to define the requirements and vision for the application. .
Case Study EvaluationBeing too heavy or too thin, having a disabil.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study Evaluation
Being too heavy or too thin, having a disability, being from a family with same-sex parents, having a speech impediment, being part of a low socioeconomic class—each of these is enough to marginalize (placing one outside of the margins of societal expectations) a child or adolescent. When children and adolescents are marginalized, they often experience consequences like lower self-esteem, performing poorly in school, or feeling depressed and anxious. In order for social workers to help facilitate positive change for their clients, they must be aware of the issues that can affect their healthy development. For this Discussion, review the case study Working With the Homeless Population: The Case of Diane and consider the issues within her environment that serve to place her outside of the margins of society.
Post by Day 3
a brief explanation of the issues that place Diane outside of the margins of society. Be sure to include an explanation about how these issues may have influenced her social development from infancy through adolescence. Also explain what you might have done differently had you been Diane’s social worker. Please use the Learning Resources to support your answer.
.
Case Study Disney Corporation1, What does Disney do best to connec.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study Disney Corporation
1, What does Disney do best to connect with its core customers?
2. What are the risks and benfits of expanding Disney brand in new ways?
must use APA format
Reference at least 3 Peer reviewed journals
textbook
Kotler P & Keller KL Marketing management
.
Case Study 3 Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Un.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study 3: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood
Read Case Study 3 in the textbook and respond to the following questions:
What were the chief elements of John Gaus' administrative ecology that Robertson drew upon to run Los Angeles Bureau of Street Services?
Explain how these elements were critical to achieving his goals?
Were there any elements of Arnstein's ladder of participation in the discharge of street services function?
.
Case Study 2 Structure and Function of the Kidney Rivka is an ac.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study 2
Structure and Function of the Kidney
Rivka is an active 21-year-old who decided to take a day off from her university classes. The weather was hot and the sun bright, so she decided to go down to the beach. When she arrived, she found a few people playing beach volleyball, and they asked if she wanted to join in. She put down her school bag and began to play. The others were well prepared for their day out and stopped throughout the game to have their power drinks and soda pop. Several hours after they began to play, however, Rivka was not feeling so good. She stopped sweating and was feeling dizzy. One player noted she had not taken a washroom break at all during the day. They found a shaded area for her, and one of the players shared his power drink with her. Rivka was thirstier than she realized and quickly finished the drink.
In pronounced dehydration, hypotension can occur. How would this affect the glomerular filtration rate of the kidney? What actions by the juxtaglomerular apparatus would occur to restore GFR?
What is the effect aldosterone has on the distal convoluted tubule? Why would the actions of aldosterone be useful to Rivka in her situation?
What does a specific gravity test measure? If someone tested the specific gravity of Rivka’s urine, what might it indicate?
.
Case Study 2 Plain View, Open Fields, Abandonment, and Border Searc.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study 2: Plain View, Open Fields, Abandonment, and Border Searches as They Relate to Search and Seizures
Due Week 6 and worth 100 points
Officer Jones asked the neighborhood’s regular trash collector to put the content of the defendant’s garbage that was left on the curb in plastic bags and to turn over the bags to him at the end of the day. The trash collector did as the officer asked in order to not mix the garbage once he collected the defendant’s garbage. The officer searched through the garbage and found items indicative of narcotics use. The officer then recited the information that was obtained from the trash in an affidavit in support of a warrant to search the defendant’s home. The officer encountered the defendant at the house later that day upon execution of the warrant. The officer found quantities of cocaine and marijuana during the search and arrested the defendant on felony narcotics charges.
Write a one to two (1-2) page paper in which you:
Identify the constitutional amendment that would govern Officer Jones’ actions.
Analyze the validity and constitutionality of officer’s Jones’ actions.
Discuss if Officer Jones’ actions were justified under the doctrines of plain view, abandonment, open fields, or border searches.
Use at least two (2) quality references.
Note:
Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Research and analyze procedures governing the process of arrest through trial.
Critically debate the Constitutional safeguards of key Amendments with specific attention to the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 14th Amendments.
Describe the difference between searchers, warrantless searches, and stops.
Write clearly and concisely about the criminal procedure using proper writing mechanics.
.
Case Study 2 Collaboration Systems at Isuzu Australia LimitedDue .docxPazSilviapm
Case Study 2: Collaboration Systems at Isuzu Australia Limited
Due Week 7 and worth 150 points
Read the case study in Chapter 12 titled “Collaboration Systems at Isuzu Australia Limited”.
Write a two to three (2-3) page paper in which you:
Summarize the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
Identify the platform that IAL chose as an online portal and content management system, and describe the main reason(s) why IAL chose such a specific platform.
Discuss the significant attributes of a wiki, and describe the overall manner in which IAL uses wikis for its internal collaboration.
Speculate on the main challenges that IAL could face when implementing groupware, and suggest one (1) step that IAL could take in order to mitigate the challenges in question.
Use at least three (3) quality reference.
Note:
Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources. Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
Points: 150
Case Study 2: Collaboration Systems at Isuzu Australia Limited
Criteria
Unacceptable
Below 60% F
Meets Minimum Expectations
60-69% D
Fair
70-79% C
Proficient
80-89% B
Exemplary
90-100% A
1. Summarize the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
Weight: 20%
Did not submit or incompletely summarized the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
Insufficiently summarized the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
Partially summarized the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
Satisfactorily summarized the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
Thoroughly summarized the main reason(s) that prompted Isuzu Australia Limited (IAL) to use collaboration technologies.
2. Identify the platform that IAL chose as an online portal and content management system, and describe the main reason(s) why IAL chose such a specific platform.
Weight: 20%
Did not submit or incompletely identified the platform that IAL chose as an online portal and content management system; did not submit or incompletely described the main reason(s) why IAL chose such a specific platform.
Insufficiently identified the platform that IAL chose as an online portal and content management system; insufficiently described the main reason(s) why IAL chose such a specific platform.
Partiall.
Case FormatI. Write the Executive SummaryOne to two para.docxPazSilviapm
Case
Format
I.
Write the Executive Summary
One to two paragraphs in length
On cover page of the report
Briefly identify the major problems facing the manager/key person
Summarize the recommended plan of action and include a brief justification of the recommended plan
II. Statement of the Problem
State the problems facing the manager/key person
Identify and link the symptoms and root causes of the problems
Differentiate short term from long term problems
Conclude with the decision facing the manager/key person
III. Causes of the Problem
Provide a detailed analysis of the problems; identify in the Statement of the Problem
In the analysis, apply theories and models from the text and/or readings
Support conclusions and /or assumptions with specific references to the case and/or the readings
IV. Decision Criteria and Alternative
Solution
s
Identify criteria against which you evaluate alternative solutions (i.e. time for implementation, tangible costs, acceptability to management)
Include two or three possible alternative solutions
Evaluate the pros and cons of each alternative against the criteria listed
Suggest additional pros/cons if appropriate
V. Recommended
.
Case Study #2 Diabetes Hannah is a 10-year-old girl who has recentl.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study #2: Diabetes Hannah is a 10-year-old girl who has recently been diagnosed with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. She is a 4th grade student at Hendricks Elementary School. Prior to her diagnosis, Hannah was very involved in sports and played on the girls’ volleyball team. Her mother is concerned about how the diagnosis will affect Hannah.
Write a 2 page paper discussing the following points relating to the case study patient you selected:
● Include a definition of the actual disease or condition.
● The signs and symptoms of the disease.
● Identify the factors that could have caused or lead to the particular disease or condition (Pathogenesis).
● Describe body system changes as a result of the disease process.
● Discuss the economic impact of the chronic disease.
● Include a title and reference page (these do not count towards the 2 page requirement).
● The paper should be in APA format.
● At least two professional references (other than your text) must be included.
.
case scenario being used for this discussion postABS 300 Week One.docxPazSilviapm
case scenario being used for this discussion post:
ABS 300 Week One Assessment Scenario Donna, age 14, had consistently been a B+/A- student throughout elementary school and the beginning of middle school. However, in the 8th grade, she started demonstrating difficulty understanding some of her work. Increased difficulties were noted when she was required to work with abstract concepts rather than rely on rote memorization. Donna had always been fascinated with flowers, and she could remember the details of hundreds of different species of wild and domestic flower she encountered. Donna’s classmates and cousins thought she was odd, and her mother said that Donna was frequently picked on—at times without even realizing she was being made fun of. Donna was described as a confused and socially awkward girl who tended to keep to herself. The incident that led to her first psychological evaluation occurred after one of her classmates teased her repeatedly over several days to the point of making Donna upset. Donna decided to write a threatening note to the student as a warning for him to stop. The note included details of which species of flowers would be found growing on top of the place he would be buried. The boy’s parents brought the note to the principal and Donna was suspended from school and charged with terroristic threatening. The school ordered a psychological evaluation and risk assessment before they allowed her to return to school. Donna was observed to have awkward mannerisms, and she smiled at what appeared to be inappropriate times, for example, when she was talking about the teasing at school. She made very poor eye contact in ways that were atypical for her culture, and she had a difficult time staying on topic, frequently shifting the topic of conversation onto her interest in flower. Donna’s intelligence was found to be in the upper limits of the average range on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V). The Gilliam Asperger's Disorder Scale as rated by Donna and her mother together was in the clinically significant range, with her largest deficits being reflected in her social interactions scale. There were also deficits noted in pragmatic skills, restricted patterns of behavior, and cognitive patterns. Problems were also noted with reciprocal social interaction skills, communication skills, and stereotyped behaviors, interests, and activities. Donna's QEEG results showed multiple abnormalities. Her right parietal-temporal lobe showed excessively slow activity. This is an area important for facial recognition and empathy. She also had excessive mid-line frontal hi-beta, something that is often seen in those with mental rigidity and obsessive thinking. Multiple problems in coherence were noted, reflecting cognitive inefficiency in her mental processing. Excessive connectivity was noted in the frontal lobes areas and there were excessive disconnections between her frontal lobes and the central and bac.
Case Study #2Alleged improper admission orders resulting in mor.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study #2:
Alleged improper admission orders resulting in morphine overdose and death
There were multiple co-defendants in this claim who are not discussed in this scenario. Monetary amounts represent only the payments made on behalf of the nurse practitioner. Any amounts paid on behalf of the co-defendants are not available. While there may have been errors/negligent acts on the part of other defendants, the case, comments, and recommendations are limited to the actions of the defendant; the nurse practitioner.
The decedent patient (plaintiff) was a 72 year old woman who had been receiving hospital care for acute back pain resulting from a fall. Her past history included chronic pain management and end-stage renal disease for which she received hemodialysis. She was to be transferred to the co-defendant nursing facility for reconditioning and physical therapy prior to returning to her home.
The nurse practitioner (defendant) was on-call at the time of the patient’s transfer, and the nursing facility contacted her and read the orders to the defendant nurse practitioner over the telephone. The defendant nurse practitioner questioned the presence of two morphine orders for different dosages with both dosages administered twice daily. She instructed the nurse to clarify the correct morphine dosage with the transferring hospital’s pharmacist and to admit the patient only after the pharmacist clarified and approved the morphine orders. The defendant nurse practitioner had no further communication with the facility and no other involvement in the patient’s care. The facility nurse telephoned the hospital pharmacist who approved both morphine orders, and the patient was admitted to the nursing facility.
During the first evening and full day of her nursing facility stay, documentation revealed the patient to be alert and oriented. On the second day, she was found by nursing staff without vital signs. Despite immediate chest compressions and EMS additional resuscitation measures, the patient was pronounced dead. The autopsy results listed the cause of death as morphine intoxication. Surprisingly, the patient also had an elevated blood alcohol level (equal to drinking three to four alcoholic beverages). Because the source of the alcohol could not be identified, the medical examiner was unable to rule out accident, suicide or homicide and classified the manner of death as undetermined.
Resolution
Defense experts
presented testimony that
the nurse practitioner’s actions to be within the standard of care.
Defense experts
testimony was
that the patient’s final morphine blood levels, even considering her renal disease, could not have resulted from the amount of morphine ordered, administered and recorded in the patient’s health information record. The elevated morphine and alcohol levels led experts to the opinion that the patient may have ingested morphine and alcohol from a source other than the nursing facility.
Plaintiffs did not pres.
Case Study 1Denise is a sixteen-year old 11th grade student wh.docxPazSilviapm
Case Study 1
Denise is a sixteen-year old 11th grade student who started using marijuana and drinking at fourteen and has used heroin regularly for the past six months. Denise stopped attending school in January and hangs out with her friends. She lives at home with her mother and younger brother, but comes and goes and often isn’t seen by her mother for four or five days at a stretch. When Denise was fifteen, her mother, with the assistance of a school-based addiction treatment counselor, was able to get her enrolled in outpatient treatment to address her alcohol and marijuana use. Denise participated in the program and reduced her alcohol and marijuana use. The outpatient program diagnosed Denise with depression and mild anxiety, and she was prescribed medication. Denise seemed to be regaining her health, and she started high school classes in the fall. However, her mother began to notice troubling patterns of more serious drug use in November and was unable to get Denise to resume treatment at her outpatient program.
Denise’s mother now wants to have her daughter assessed for enrollment in a residential treatment program. She is afraid of the people her daughter hangs out with and does not want her son to be influenced by his sister’s friends and drug use. Denise recently had a scare about her heroin use when one of her friends suffered an overdose and barely survived. She agreed to go for an assessment at a residential program. The program agreed that Denise needed residential treatment and received authorization from the Medicaid managed care organization to provide services for a short length of stay. After three days in treatment, during which she was treated with suboxone to help her withdrawal, Denise began to resist care. She has decided to leave the program against medical advice and her mother’s wishes.
Questions:
Does alcohol and drug use uniquely affect an adolescent’s ability to make decisions about medical care for addiction; and, if so, should clinical and legal standards take this factor into consideration?
What if Denise had been arrested for drug possession with intent to distribute, placed in the juvenile justice system, and required to attend residential treatment. How should clinical care decisions and concepts of autonomy be addressed in the legal framework for juvenile justice drug treatment?
.
Case AssignmentI. First read the following definitions of biodiver.docxPazSilviapm
Case Assignment
I. First read the following definitions of biodiversity:
In Jones and Stokes Associates' “Sliding Toward Extinction: The State of California's Natural Heritage,” 1987:
Natural diversity, as used in this report, is synonymous with
biological diversity
...To the scientist, natural diversity has a variety of meanings. These include:
The number of different native species and individuals in a habitat or geographical area;
The variety of different habitats within an area;
The variety of interactions that occur between different species in a habitat; and
The range of genetic variation among individuals within a species.
In D. B. Jensen, M. Torn, and J. Harte, “In Our Own Hands: A Strategy for Conserving Biological Diversity in California,” 1990:
Biological diversity, simply stated, is the
diversity of life
...As defined in the proposed U.S. Congressional Biodiversity Act, HR1268 (1990), “
biological diversity means the full range of variety and variability within and among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur, and encompasses ecosystem or community diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity
.”
Genetic diversity
is the combination of different genes found within a population of a single species, and the pattern of variation found within different populations of the same species. Coastal populations of Douglas fir are genetically different from Sierra populations. Genetic adaptations to local conditions such as the summer fog along the coast or hot summer days in the Sierra result in genetic differences between the two populations of the same species.
Species diversity
is the variety and abundance of different types of organisms which inhabit an area. A ten square mile area of Modoc County contains different species than does a similar sized area in San Bernardino County.
Ecosystem diversity
encompasses the variety of habitats that occur within a region, or the mosaic of patches found within a landscape. A familiar example is the variety of habitats and environmental parameters that constitute the San Francisco Bay-Delta ecosystem: grasslands, wetlands, rivers, estuaries, fresh and salt water.
.
Case and questions are In the attchmentExtra resources given.H.docxPazSilviapm
Case and questions are In the attchment
Extra resources given.
Helpful resources:
Gentile, M. C. (2010). Keeping your colleagues honest.
Harvard Business Review
,
88
(3), 114-117
Nash, L. (1981). Ethics without the sermon.
Harvard Business Review
.
59
(6), 78-79,
.
Case C Hot GiftsRose Stone moved into an urban ghetto in order .docxPazSilviapm
Case C: "Hot" Gifts
Rose Stone moved into an urban ghetto in order to study strategies for survival used by low-income residents. During the first six months of research, Stone was gradually integrated into the community through invitations (which she accepted) to attend dances, parties, church functions, and family outings, and by "hanging out" at local service facilities (laundromats, health centers, recreation centers, and so on). She was able to discern that there were two important survival tactics used by the community residents which she could not engage in: the first was a system of reciprocity in the exchange of goods and services (neither of which she felt she had to offer), and the second was outright theft of easily pawned or sold goods (clothing, jewelry, radios, TVs, and so on).
One night, a friend from the community stopped by "for a cup of coffee" and conversation. After they had been talking for about two hours, Stone's friend told her that she had some things she wanted to give her. The friend went out to her car and returned with a box of clothing (Stone's size) and a record player. Stone was a bit overwhelmed by the generosity of the gift and protested her right to accept such costly items. Her friend laughed and said, "Don't you worry, it's not out of my pocket," but then she became more serious and said, "Either you are one of us or you aren't one of us. You can't have it both ways. "
Stone's Dilemma: Suspecting that the items she was being offered were probably "hot" (e.g., stolen), she was afraid that if she wore the clothes in public, or had the record player in her apartment, she would be arrested for "accepting stolen goods." At the same time, she knew that "hot" items were often given to close friends when it was observed that they could use them. Still, this implied that there would be reciprocal giving (not necessarily in kind) at a later date. So, should she accept or refuse the proffered gifts?
.
Case Assignment must be 850 words and use current APA format with a .docxPazSilviapm
Case Assignment must be 850 words and use current APA format with a cover page, 1” margins, 12-point font, content, in-text citations, and a references page (the word count does not include the questions, cover page, or references page). No abstract is required; simply type the questions as a heading and respond. In addition, you must incorporate 4 scholarly research articles in your response.
Question 8 and 9 of the attached document
·
.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
2. Criminal Justice System
In cities across the United States, racial disparities have
been documented throughout the criminal justice system,
from routine police stops to long-term imprisonment.
Analyzing traffic and pedestrian stops made in Oakland,
California, for example, our team uncovered a consistent
pattern of racial disparities. We found that 60% of police
stops were of Africans Americans, though they make up
only 28% of the population of Oakland. Once stopped,
African Americans were significantly more likely to be
handcuffed, searched, and arrested (Hetey, Monin,
Maitreyi, & Eberhardt, 2016). These disparities remained
statistically significant even after we controlled for more
than two dozen factors relevant to officer decision mak-
ing, including crime rates and the underlying racial and
socioeconomic demographics where the stop was made.
A similar pattern has emerged in other places, including
Boston; Greensboro, North Carolina; Los Angeles; and
New York City (American Civil Liberties Union Founda-
tion of Massachusetts, 2014; Ayres & Borowsky, 2008;
763931CDPXXX10.1177/0963721418763931Hetey,
EberhardtRacial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System
research-article2018
Corresponding Authors:
Jennifer L. Eberhardt, Department of Psychology, Stanford
University,
450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305
E-mail: [email protected]
Rebecca C. Hetey, Department of Psychology, Stanford
University,
450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305
E-mail: [email protected]
3. The Numbers Don’t Speak for Themselves:
Racial Disparities and the Persistence of
Inequality in the Criminal Justice System
Rebecca C. Hetey and Jennifer L. Eberhardt
Stanford University
Abstract
Many scholars and activists assume the public would be
motivated to fight inequality if only they knew the full
extent of existing disparities. Ironically, exposure to extreme
disparities can cause people to become more, not less,
supportive of the very policies that create those disparities
(Hetey & Eberhardt, 2014). Here, we focus on the criminal
justice system—policing and incarceration in particular. We
argue that bringing to mind racial disparities in this domain
can trigger fear and stereotypic associations linking Blacks with
crime. Therefore, rather than extending an invitation
to reexamine the criminal justice system, the statistics about
disparities may instead provide an opportunity to justify
and rationalize the disparities found within that system. With
the goals of spurring future research and mitigating this
paradoxical and unintended effect, we propose three potential
strategies for more effectively presenting information
about racial disparities: (a) offer context, (b) challenge
associations, and (c) highlight institutions.
Keywords
race, crime, disparities, mass incarceration, policing
Article
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/cdps
mailto:[email protected]
https://sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F09637214
4. 18763931&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2018-05-03
184 Hetey, Eberhardt
Dunn, 2013; Goel, Rao, & Shroff, 2016; LaFraniere &
Lehren, 2015).
Blacks feel they are treated with less respect than
Whites during these routine stops (Epp, Maynard-Moody,
& Haider-Markel, 2014). Using footage from officers’
body-worn cameras, our team developed computational
linguistic methods to analyze the respectfulness of the
language that police officers used with White and Black
community members during traffic stops in Oakland. We
found that officers’ language was less respectful when
directed at Blacks than when directed at Whites, even
after controlling for factors such as the race of the officer,
the severity of the infraction, the location of the stop,
and the outcome of the stop (Voigt et al., 2017).
In incarceration as well there are striking racial dis-
parities. Though only 13% of the U.S. population, African
Americans make up nearly 40% of the nation’s inmates
(Guerino, Harrison, & Sabol, 2012; U.S. Census Bureau,
2011). Black men are incarcerated in state or federal
prison at a rate 6 times that of White men (Carson, 2014).
During their lifetime, 1 in 3 African American males can
expect to be imprisoned compared with 1 in 17 White
males (Bonczar, 2003).
Do the Numbers Speak for Themselves?
People trying to motivate social change frequently
expose the public to grim statistics revealing gross
racial disparities. Ironically, researchers have found that
5. being presented with evidence of extreme racial dis-
parities in the criminal justice system can cause the
public to become more, not less, supportive of the
punitive criminal justice policies that produce those
disparities. When White participants were informed
about racial disparities in executions, 52% strongly
favored the death penalty compared with 36% in a
baseline condition (Peffley & Hurwitz, 2007). In another
study, we exposed White California voters to more or
less extreme racial disparities in the prison population
by having them view a set of photographs of incarcer-
ated people that showed either a higher (45%) or lower
(25%) percentage of Black inmates (Hetey & Eberhardt,
2014). When the prison population was “more Black,”
voters became significantly less likely to sign a real
petition aimed at lessening the severity of California’s
harsh three-strikes law. At the time we conducted the
study, California had the harshest three-strikes law in
the nation—a person with two prior felony convictions
could receive a life sentence for stealing a dollar in
loose change from a parked car. When we described
California’s three-strikes law and presented participants
with a prison population that was less Black, 52% of
them signed the petition compared with only 27% in
the more-Black condition.
Similarly, when White New York City residents read
that New York’s prison population was 60% Black, com-
pared with 40% Black, they became less likely to report
that they would sign a petition to end New York City’s
stop-and-frisk policy. The study was run at a time when
the number of Blacks detained by the New York Police
Department was dropping from a recent all-time high.
When exposed to a more-Black prison population, only
12% of participants said they would sign the petition,
compared with 33% of participants exposed to a less-
6. Black prison population. Taken together, these studies
suggest that informing White Americans of racially dis-
proportionate incarceration may paradoxically bolster
support for the very policies that perpetuate those
disparities.
These experiments were conducted with White par-
ticipants. While an open question, it is unlikely that
exposure to evidence of disparities has the same poten-
tial to backfire with people from other racial back-
grounds. People of color, and African Americans in
particular, are more likely than Whites to have direct
experience with, perceive, and engage in discussions
about racial inequality and discrimination. According to
a national Pew Research Center (2016) survey, 71% of
Blacks reported having personally experienced discrimi -
nation or having been treated unfairly because of their
race or ethnicity, compared with 30% of Whites. By wide
margins, Black respondents were more likely than White
respondents to say Blacks are treated less fairly across
a wide variety of settings, including the criminal justice
system. Eighty-four percent of Blacks, compared with
50% of Whites, say Blacks are treated less fairly in deal-
ing with the police. Indeed, 18% of Black Americans say
they have been unfairly stopped by the police over the
past year, compared with 3% of Whites.
In the absence of direct experience and engagement
with racial inequality, one reason disparities do not
speak for themselves is because there is more than one
interpretation of what those differences reveal. To some
people, the disparities in police stops and incarceration
are so extreme they can be interpreted only as signs of
systemic racial bias (e.g., Alexander, 2010). An alterna-
tive interpretation is that members of particular racial
groups must be doing something—namely committing
7. crime—to capture the attention of police and be impris-
oned at higher rates (e.g., B. Adams, 2016). By focusing
on group traits, the possibility that structural bias is at
play in creating disparities falls out of view. Further-
more, research shows that White Americans are sus-
ceptible to denying claims of bias (G. Adams, Tormala,
& O’Brien, 2006), in part to preserve views of the world
as fair and meritocratic—views that can blind Whites
to racial inequality and the role of institutional practices
that harm minorities (O’Brien et al., 2009).
Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System 185
Fear and stereotypic associations also contribute.
Indeed, we found that when Whites were exposed to
a “Blacker” prison population, they became significantly
more fearful of crime, which, in turn, increased their
support of punitive crime policies (Hetey & Eberhardt,
2014). Evidence of racial disparities in the criminal jus-
tice system, then, may activate implicit stereotypical
associations linking Blackness with crime, violence,
threat, and aggression (Correll, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink,
2002; Eberhardt, Goff, Purdie, & Davies, 2004; Payne,
2001; Richeson & Trawalter, 2008). If learning that Black
men are 6 times more likely than White men to be
imprisoned triggers the stereotype that Blacks are crimi -
nals and criminals are Black, then such information is
no longer concerning on its face. Rather, it becomes
expected or even justifiable. Motivated to maintain the
status quo, people take evidence of what is (such as
the overrepresentation of Blacks in prison) and justify
it as how things should be (Kay et al., 2009).
What Should We Do?
8. Given these ironic effects and what we know more
generally about people’s use of information to support
what they already believe or expect (Darley & Gross,
1983; Nickerson, 1998), what should people working
for social change do? We propose three potential strate-
gies that may mitigate the unintended consequences of
exposing Whites to evidence of racial inequalities: (a)
offer context, (b) challenge associations, and (c) high-
light institutions.
Offer context
Future research should test whether a more effective
way to frame inequality might be to present informa-
tion about disparities alongside a description of how
those disparities came to be. To contextualize is to
convey that racial disparities are not natural or due to
fixed stereotypical traits. Civil rights activists are aware
of the history of racial disparities and the larger forces
and processes by which these disparities are main-
tained, yet that history is not always highlighted in the
messages aimed at the broader public. Stripped of con-
text, stand-alone statistics may simply be used as “evi-
dence” of the stereotype that Blacks are prone to
criminality. Rather than leading the public to examine
the systemic forces involved, decontextualized infor-
mation about racial inequality can lead people to
engage in defensive processes that instead blame the
victim (Kaiser & Miller, 2003) while protecting the self
and the status quo (G. Adams et al., 2006; Lowery,
Knowles & Unzueta, 2007).
Challenge associations
Exposure to information about racial disparities in the
9. criminal justice system may activate and strengthen
implicit associations linking Blacks with crime, vio-
lence, threat, and aggression. Black Americans surely
feel the effects of these stereotypical associations:
Nearly half of Blacks (47%) say someone in the past
year has acted as if they were suspicious of them (Pew
Research Center, 2016). More research should investi -
gate the consequences of educating the public about
implicit bias and illustrating how implicit associations
linking Blacks with crime can profoundly affect our
perceptions, decision making, and actions without con-
scious awareness or malicious intentio n. Our team has
created an intervention to educate people on implicit
bias and where it comes from, how it operates, and
how it can be challenged. We are currently rolling out
this training to law enforcement agencies across Cali-
fornia. Preliminary results suggest the training is effec-
tive in increasing knowledge of implicit bias, and most
encouragingly, it leads law enforcement personnel to
desire better relations with the community, to have
more sympathy for community members, and to be
more likely to believe they personally can make a dif-
ference (Stanford SPARQ & California Department of
Justice, 2016).
Highlight institutions
Another contributing factor to the perpetuation of
inequality is the tendency to prioritize the role of indi -
viduals over institutions. We, as a field, are guilty of
this. Adams and colleagues describe how “as psycholo-
gists, social psychologists tend to understand their task
to be the study of individual experience . . . [suggesting]
a standard approach to racism as a problem of biased
individuals rather than a systemic force embedded in
American society” (G. Adams, Edkins, Lacka, Pickett, &
10. Cheryan, 2008, p. 350, emphasis in original). This con-
ception or portrayal of inequality as an individual—
rather than systemic—phenomenon can blind White
Americans to racism and can guide policy attitudes and
preferences in ways that perpetuate racial disparities.
The individualistic portrayal is problematic because
institutions and systems greatly contribute to reinforc-
ing and reproducing inequality. In the criminal justice
system, numerous distinct actors must be endowed by
the system with the power to investigate, arrest, charge,
prosecute, judge, sentence, and deprive people of their
freedom, if not their lives.
In the abstract, it can be difficult to conceptualize of
vast systems and institutions. Lived experience grounds
186 Hetey, Eberhardt
an understanding and recognition of structural racism.
African Americans who say they have personally expe-
rienced discrimination are equally divided over whether
institutional racism or individual prejudice is the bigger
problem for Black people today (44% each; Pew
Research Center, 2016). African Americans who say they
have never experienced discriminatio n, however, are
nearly twice as likely to see individual racism as the
bigger problem (59% vs. 32%). This lack of personal
experience might explain why 70% of Whites in the
same survey point to individual prejudice as the bigger
problem, compared with only 19% of Whites who
believe racism built into laws and institutions is the big-
ger problem. Awareness of the power of institutions can
be taught. Tutorials about structural or sociocultural
racism have been shown to decrease the extent to which
11. White Americans define racism in terms of individual
biases, increase perceptions and acknowledgment of
systemic racism, and increase endorsement of policies
designed to promote equality (G. Adams et al., 2008).
One specific way to highlight the role of institutions
in perpetuating inequality may be to demonstrate how
disparities can be attenuated by changing policy. Racial
disparities in the use of consent searches (LaFraniere
& Lehren, 2015; Palomino, 2016), for instance, have led
to policy changes that mandate officers to obtain writ-
ten consent or explicitly tell community members they
have the right to deny an officer’s request to search
them (LaFraniere, 2016). In Oakland, this policy change
led to a massive reduction in consent searches without
increasing crime. As another example, consensus to end
mass incarceration has been building. Over 100 of the
nation’s police chiefs and law enforcement officials
joined together to call for a reduction in incarceration
rates and the end of certain “tough-on-crime” policies
(Williams, 2015). States including Texas, New York,
Georgia, and California have eased minimum sentenc-
ing and repeat offender laws. The result has been a
reduction in both incarceration and crime (Chettiar,
2015), thus illustrating the role of laws and policies to
actively shape, rather than passively respond to, crime
and punishment.
Conclusion
To make the most meaningful change, we as social
psychologists need to become more willing to intervene,
not only with individuals but also by working to under-
stand and change institutions, policies, and practices.
Such a broader view could only enrich our science.
12. Recommended Reading
Adams, G., Edkins, V., Lacka, D., Pickett, K. M., & Cheryan, S.
(2008). (See References). An article illustrating that the
standard portrayal of racism in social psychology is as
an individual prejudice but that, as the authors show,
an awareness of structural or sociocultural racism can
be taught.
Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G.
(2004). (See References). A series of studies showing
that stereotypical associations linking Blacks and crime
are bidirectional and can act as visual tuning devices; for
instance, exposure to Black faces facilitates the detection
of weapons and activating the concept of crime creates
an attentional bias toward Black faces.
Hetey, R. C., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2014). (See References). Two
experiments showing that exposure to extreme disparities
can cause people to become more, not less, supportive
of the very policies that create those disparities.
Peffley, M., & Hurwitz, J. (2007). (See References). An article
showing how informing Whites about racial disparities in
executions bolsters support of the death penalty.
Western, B. (2006). Punishment and inequality in America.
New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. An exploration
of the scope and consequences of mass incarceration in
America, in particular the role of imprisonment in exac-
erbating inequality.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared that there were no conflicts of interest
13. with respect to the authorship or the publication of this
article.
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21. Information Systems Success: The Quest for
the Dependent Variable .
William H. DeLone Department of Management
The American University
Washington, D.C. 20016
Ephraim R. McLean Computer Information Systems
Georgia State University
Atlanta, Georgia 30302-4015
A large number of studies have been conducted during the last
decade and a
half attempting to identify those factors that contribute to
information sys-
tems success. However, the dependent variable in these
studies—I/S success
—has been an elusive one to define. Different researchers have
addressed
different aspects of success, making comparisons difficult and
the prospect of
building a cumulative tradition for I/S research similarly
elusive. To organize
this diverse research, as well as to present a more integrated
view of the
concept of I/S success, a comprehensive taxonomy is
introduced. This taxon-
omy posits six major dimensions or categories of I/S success —
SYSTEM
OUALITY, INFORMATION QUALITY, USE, USER
SATISFACTION,
INDIVIDUAL IMPACT, and ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACT.
Using these
dimensions, both conceptual and empirical studies are then
23. Information Systems Success
Of the five, the second item, the dependent variable in MIS
research, is a particu-
larly important issue. If information systems research is to make
a contribution to the
world of practice, a well-defined outcome measure (or
measures) is essential. It does
littie good to measure various independent or input variables,
such as the extent of
user participation or the level of I/S investment, if the
dependent or output variable
—I/S success or MIS effectiveness—cannot be measured with a
similar degree of
accuracy.
The importance of defining the I/S dependent variable cannot be
overemphasized.
The evaluation of I/S practice, policies, and procedures requi res
an I/S success mea-
sure against which various strategies can be tested. Without a
well-defined dependent
variable, much of I/S research is purely speculative.
In recognition of this importance, this paper explores the
research that has been
done involving MIS success since Keen first issued his
challenge to the field and
attempts to synthesize this research into a more coherent body
of knowledge. It
covers the formative period 1981 -87 and reviews all those
empirical studies that have
attempted to measure some aspects of "MIS success" and which
have appeared in
one of the seven leading publications in the I/S field. In
addition, a number of other
24. articles are included, some dating back to 1949. that make a
theoretical or conceptual
contribution even though they may not contain any empirical
data. Taken together,
these 180 references provide a representative review of the
work that has been done
and provide the basis for formulating a more comprehensive
model of I/S success
than has been attempted in the past.
A Taxonomy of Information Systems Success
Unfortunately, in searching for an I/S success measure, rather
than finding none,
there are nearly as many measures as there are studies. The
reason for this is under-
standable when one considers that "information." as the output
of an information
system or the message in a communication system, can be
measured at different
levels, including the technical level, the semantic level, and the
effectiveness level. In
their pioneering work on communications. Shannon and Weaver
(1949) defined the
technical level as the accuracy and efficiency of the system
which produces the infor-
mation, the semantic level as the success of the information in
conveying the in-
tended meaning, and the effectiveness level as the effect of the
information on the
receiver.
Building on this. Mason (1978) relabeled "effectiveness" as
"influence" and de-
fined the influence level of information to be a "hierarchy of
events which take place
25. at the receiving end of an information system which may be
used to identify the
various approaches that might be used to measure output at the
influence level"
(Mason 1978. p. 227). This scries of influence events includes
the receipt of the
information, an evaluation of the information, and the
application of the informa-
tion, leading to a change in recipient behavior and a change in
system performance.
The concept of levels of output from communication theory
demonstrates the
serial nature of information (i.e., a form of communication).
The information system
creates information which is communicated to the recipient who
is then influenced
(or not!) by the information. In this sense, information flows
through a series of stages
from its production through its use or consumption to its
influence on individual
and/or organizational performance. Mason's adaptation of
communication theory
March 1992
DeLone •
Shannon
Weaver
(1949)
Mason
27. on
Recipent
User Individual
Satisfaction Impact
Influence
on
System
Organizational
Impact
FIGURE 1. Categories of [/S Success.
to the measurement of information systems suggests therefore
that there may need to
be separate success measures for each of the levels of
information.
In Figure 1, the three levels of information of Shannon and
Weaver are shown,
together with Mason's expansion of the effectiveness or
influence level, to yield six
distinct categories or aspects of information systems. They are
SYSTEM QUALITY,
INFORMATION QUALITY, USE. USER SATISFACTION,
INDIVIDUAL IM-
PACT, and ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACT.
Looking at the first of these categories, some I/S researcher s
have chosen to focus
on the desired characteristics of the information system itself
which produces the
28. information (SYSTEM QUALITY). Others have chosen to study
the information
product for desired characteristics such as accuracy, meaningful
ness, and timeliness
(INFORMATION QUALITY). In the influence level, some
researchers have ana-
lyzed the interaction of the information product with its
recipients, the users and/or
decision makers, by measuring USE or USER SATISFACTION.
Still other re-
searchers have been interested in the influence which the
information product has on
management decisions (INDIVIDUAL IMPACT). Finally, some
I/S researchers,
and to a larger extent I/S practitioners, have been concerned
with the eifect of
the information product on organizational performance
(ORGANIZATIONAL
IMPACT).
Once this expanded view of I/S success is recognized, it is not
surprising to find that
there are so many different measures of this success in the
literature, depending upon
which aspect of I/S the researcher has focused his or her
attention. Some of these
measures have been merely identified, but never used
empirically. Others have been
used, but have employed different measurement instruments,
making comparisons
among studies difficult.
Two previous articles have made extensive reviews of the
research literature and
have reported on the measurement of MIS success that had been
used in empirical
29. studies up until that time. In a review of studies of user
involvement, Ives and Olson
(1984) adopted two classes of MIS outcome variables: system
quality and system
acceptance. The system acceptance category was defined to
include system usage,
system impact on user behavior, and information satisfaction.
Haifa decade earlier,
in a review of studies of individual differences. Zmud (1979)
considered three catego-
ries of MIS success: user performance, MIS usage, and user
satisfaction.
Eoth of these literature reviews made a valuable contribution to
an understanding
of MIS success, but both were more concerned with
investigating independent
62 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
variables (i.e., user involvement in the case of Ives and Olson
and individual differ-
ences in the case of Zmud) than with the dependent variable
(i.e.. MIS success). In
contrast, this paper has the measurement of the dependent
variable as its primary
focus. Also, over five years have passed since the Ives and
Olson study was published
and over ten years since Zmud's article appeared. Much work
has been done since
these two studies, justifying an update of their findings.
30. To review this recent work and to put the earlier research into
perspective, the six
categories of I/S success identified in Figure I—SYSTEM
QUALITY. INFORMA-
TION QUALITY. INFORMATION USE, USER
SATISFACTION, INDIVIDUAL
IMPACT. AND ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACT—are used in the
balance of this
paper to organize the I/S research that has been done on I/S
success.
In each of the six sections which follow, both conceptual and
empirical studies are
cited. While the conceptual citations are intended to be
comprehensive, the empirical
studies are intended to be representative, not exhaustive. Seven
publications, from
the period January 1981 to January 1988. were selected as
reflecting the mainstream
of I/S research during this formative period. Additional studies,
from other publica-
tions, as well as studies from the last couple of years, could
have been included; but
after reviewing a number of them, it became apparent that they
merely reinforced
rather than modified the basic taxonomy of this paper.
In choosing the seven publications to be surveyed. fyQ
(Management Science, MIS
Quarterly, Communications of the ACM, Decision Sciences, and
Information & Man-
agement) were drawn from the top six journals cited by
Hamilton and Ives (1983) in
their study of the journals most respected by MIS researchers.
(Their sixth journal.
Transactions on Database Systems, was omitted from this study
31. because of its special-
ized character.) To these five were added the Journal of MIS. a
relatively new but
important journal, and the ICIS Proceedings, which is not a
journal per se but repre-
sents the published output of the central academic conference in
the I/S field. A total
of 100 empirical studies are included from these seven sources.
As with any attempt to organize past research, a certain degree
of arbitrariness
occurs. Some studies do not fit neatly into any one category and
others fit into
several. In the former case, every effort was made to make as
close a match as possible
in order to retain a fairly parsimonious framework. In the latter
case, where several
measures were used which span more than one category (e.g..
measures of informa-
tion quality and extent of use and user satisfaction), these
studies are discussed in
each of these categories. One consequence of this multiple
listing is that there appear
to be more studies involving I/S success than there actually are.
To decide which empirical studies should be included, and
which measures fit in
which categories, one of the authors of this paper and a doctoral
student (at another
university) reviewed each of the studies and made their
judgments independently.
The interrater agreement was over 90%. Conflicts over selection
and measure assign-
ment were resolved by the second author.
In each of the following sections, a table is included which
32. summarizes the empiri-
cal studies which address the particular success variable in
question. In reporting the
success measures, the specific description or label for each
dependent variable, as
used by the author(s) of the study, is reported. In some cases the
wording of these
labels may make it appear that the study would be more
appropriately listed in
another table. However, as was pointed out earlier, all of these
classification decisions
March 1992 63
DeLone • McLean
are somewhat arbitrary, as is true of almost al! attempts to
organize an extensive body
of research on a retrospective basis.
System Quality: Measures of the Information Processing System
Itself
In evaluating the contribution of information systems to the
organization, some
I/S researchers have studied the processing system itself.
Kriebel and Raviv (1980,
1982) created and tested a productivity model for computer
systems, including such
performance measures as resource utilization and investment
utilization. Alloway
(1980) developed 26 criteria for measuring the success of a data
processing operation.
The efficiency of hardware utilization was among Alloway's
33. system success criteria.
Other authors have developed multiple measures of system
quality. Swanson
(1974) used several system quality items to measure MIS
appreciation among user
managers. His items included the reliability of the computer
system, on-line response
time, the ease of terminal use. and so forth. Emery (1971) also
suggested measuring
system characteristics, such as the content of the data base,
aggregation of details,
human factors, response time, and system accuracy. Hamilton
and Chervany (1981)
proposed data currency, response time, turnaround time, data
accuracy, reliability,
completeness, system flexibility, and ease of use among others
as part of a "formative
evaluation" scheme to measure system quality.
In Table I are shown the empirical studies which had explicit
measures of system
quality. Twelve studies were found within the referenced
journals, with a number of
distinct measures identified. Not surprisingly, most of these
measures are fairly
straightforward, reflecting the more engineering-oriented
performance characteris-
tics of the systems in question.
Information Quality: Measures of Information System Output
Rather than measure the quality of the system performance,
other 1/S researchers
have preferred to focus on the quality of the information system
output, namely, the
34. quality of the information that the system produces, primarily in
the form of reports.
Larcker and Lessig (1980) developed six questionnaire items to
measure the per-
ceived importance and usableness of information presented in
reports. Bailey and
Pearson (1983) proposed 39 system-related items for measuring
user satisfaction.
Among their ten most important items, in descending order of
importance, were
information accuracy, output timeliness, reliability,
completeness, relevance, preci-
sion, and currency.
In an early study, Ahituv (1980) incorporated five information
characteristics into
a multi-attribute utility measure of information value: accuracy,
timeliness, rele-
vance, aggregation, and formatting. Gallagher (1974) develoiJed
a semantic differen-
tial instrument to measure the value of a group of I/S reports.
That instrument
included measures of relevance, informativeness, usefulness,
and importance.
Munro and Davis (1977) used Gallagher's instrument to measure
a decision maker's
perceived value of information received from information
systems which were cre-
ated using different methods for determining information
requirements. Additional
information characteristics developed by Swanson (1974) to
measure MIS apprecia-
tion among user managers included uniqueness, conciseness,
clarity, and readability
measures. Zmud (1978) included report format as an
information quality measure in
35. his empirical work. Olson and Lucas (1982) proposed report
appearance and accu-
racy as measures of information quality in office automation
information systems.
Lastly, King and Epstein (1983) proposed multiple information
attributes to yield a
64 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
Authors
Bailey and Pearson
(1983)
BartiandHuff(l985)
Belardo. Kanvan. and
Wallace (1982)
Con kiln. Gotterer.
and Rick man
(1982)
Franz and Robey
(1986)
Goslar(1986)
Hiltz and Turoff
(1981)
Kxiebel and Raviv
36. (1982)
Lehman (1986)
Mahmood(1987)
Morey(1982)
Srinivasan(1985)
TABLE 1
Empirical Measures of System Quality
Description of Study
Overall I/S; 8 organizations,
32 managers
DSS: 9 organizations. 42
decision makers
Emergency management
DSS; 10 emergency
dispatchers
Transaction processing; one
organization
Specific I/S; 34 organizations.
118 user managers
Marketing DSS; 43 marketers
Electronic information
exchange system; 102 users
37. Academic information
system; one university
Overall I/S; 200 I/S directors
Specific I/S; 61 I/S managers
Manpower management
system; one branch of the
military
Computer-based modeling
systems; 29 firms
Type
Field
Field
Lab
U b
Field
Lab
Field
Case
Field
Field
38. Case
Field
Description of Measure(s)
(1) Convenience of access
(2) Flexibility of system
(3) Integration of systems
(4) Response time
Realization of user expectations
(1) Reliability
(2) Response time
(3) Ease of use
(4) Ease of learning
Response time
Perceived usefulnessofl/S
(12 items)
LJsefulness of DSS features
Usefulness of specific functions
(1) Resource utilization
(2) Investment utilization
I/S sophistication (use of new
technology)
Flexibility of system
Stored record error rate
39. (1) Response time
(2) System reliability
(3) System accessibility
composite measure of information value. The proposed
information attributes in-
cluded sufficiency, understandability, freedom from bias,
reliability, decision rele-
vance, comparability, and quantitativeness.
More recently, numerous information quality criteria have been
included within
the broad area of "User Information Satisfaction" (Iivari 1987;
Iivari and Koskela
1987). The Iivari-Koskela satisfaction measure included three
information quality
constructs: "informativeness" which consists of relevance,
comprehensiveness, re-
centness. accuracy, and credibility; "accessibility" which
consists of convenience,
timeliness, and interpretability; and "adaptability."
In Table 2. nine studies which included information quality
measures are shown.
Understandably, most measures of information quality are from
the perspective of
the user of this information and are thus faidy subjective in
character. Also, these
March 1992 65
DeLone • McLean
40. measures, while shown here as separate entities, are often
included as part of the
measurers of user satisfaction. The Bailey and Pearson (1983)
study is a good exam-
ple of this cross linkage.
Information Use: Recipient Consumption of the Output of an
Information System
The use of information system reports, or of management
science/operations re-
search models, is one of the most frequently reported measures
of the success of an
information system or an MS/OR model. Several researchers
(Lucas 1973; Schultz
andSlevin 1975; Ein-Dor and Segev 1978; Ives, Hamilton, and
Davis 1980; Hamil-
ton and Chervany 1981) have proposed I/S use as an MIS
success measure in concep-
tual MIS articles. Ein-Dor and Segev claimed that different
measures of computer
success are mutually interdependent and so they chose system
use as the primary
criterion variable for their I/S research framework. "Use of
system" was also an
integral part of Lucas's descriptive model of information
systems in the context of
organizations. Schultz and Slevin incorporated an item on the
probability of MS/OR
model use into their five-item instrument for measuring model
success.
In addition to these conceptual studies, the use of an
information system has often
been the MIS success measure of choice in MIS empirical
research (Zmud 1979). The
41. broad concept of use can be considered or measured from
several p>erspectives. It is
clear that actual use, as a measure of I/S success, only makes
sense for voluntary or
discretionary users as opposed to captive users (Lucas 1978;
Weike and Konsynski
1980). Recognizing this, Maish (1979) chose voluntary use of
computer terminals
and voluntary requests for additional reports as his measures of
I/S success. Similarly,
Kim and Lee (1986) measured voluntariness of use as part of
their measure of
success.
Some studies have computed actual use (as opposed to reported
use) by managers
through hardware monitors which have recorded the number of
computer inquiries
(Swanson 1974; Lucas 1973, 1978; King and Rodriguez 1978.
1981), or recorded the
amount of user connect time (Lucas 1978; Ginzberg 1981a).
Other objective mea-
sures of use were the number of computer functions utilized
(Ginzberg 1981 a), the
number of client records processed (Robey 1979), or the actual
charges for computer
use (Gremillion 1984). Still other studies adopted a subjective
or perceived mea-
sure of use by questioning managers about their use of an
information system
(Lucas 1973, 1975. 1978; Maish 1979; Fuerst and Cheney 1982;
Raymond 1985;
DeLone 1988).
Another issue concerning use of an information system is "Use
by whom?" (Huys-
42. mans 1970). In surveys of MIS success in small manufacturing
firms, DeLone (1988)
considered chief executive use of information systems while
Raymond (1985) consid-
ered use by company controllers. In an earlier study. Culnan
(1983a) considered both
direct use and chaufFeured use (i.e.. use through others).
There are also different levels of use or adoption. Ginzberg
(1978) discussed the
following levels of use, based on the earlier work by Huysmans;
(1) use that results in
management action, (2) use that creates change, and (3)
recurring use of the system.
Earlier, Vanlommel and DeBrabander (1975) proposed four
levels of use: use for
getting instructions, use for recording data, use for control, and
use for planning.
Schewe (1976) introduced two forms of use: general use of
"routinely generated
computer reports" and specific use of "personally initiated
requests for additional
66 Information Systems Research 3 :
Information Systems Success
TABLE 2
Empirical Measures of Information Quality
Authors Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
Bailey and Pearson
(1983)
43. BlaylockandRees(l984)
Jones and McLeod
(1986)
King and Epstein (1983)
Mahniood(1987)
Mahmood and Medewitz
(1985)
Mitlerand Doyle (1987)
RivardandHuff(l985)
Srinivasan (1985)
Overall I/S; 8 organizations.
32 managers
Financial; one university. 16
MBA students
Several information sources;
5 senior executives
Overall I/S; 2 firms. 76
managers
Specific I/S; 61 I/S managers
DSS; 48 graduate students
Overall 1/S; 21 financial
44. firms. 276 user managers
User-developed I/S; 10
firms, 272 users
Computer-based modeling
systems; 29 firms
Field Output
(1) Accuracy
(2) Precision
(3) Currency
(4) Timeliness
(5) Reliability
(6) Completeness
(7) Conciseness
(8) Format
(9) Relevance
Lab Perceived usefulness of specific
report items
Field Perceived importance of each
information item
Field Information
(1) Currency
(2) Sufficiency
(3) Understandability
(4) Freedom from bias
(5) Timeliness
(6) Reliability
(7) Relevance to decisions
(8) Comparability
(9) Quantitativeness
45. Field (I) Report accuracy
(2) Report timeliness
Lab Report usefulness
Field (1) Completeness of information
(2) Accuracy ofinformation
(3) Relevance of reports
(4) Timeliness of report
Field Usefulness ofinformation
Field (1) Report accuracy
(2) Report relevance
(3) Underslandability
(4) Report timeliness
information not ordinarily provided in routine reports." By this
definition, specific
use reflects a higher level of system utilization. Fuerst and
Cheney (1982) adopted
Schewe's classification of general use and specific use in the ir
study of decision sup-
port in the oil industry.
Bean et al. (1975); King and Rodriguez {1978, 1981), and
DeBrabander and Thiers
(1984) attempted to measure the nature of system use by
comparing this use to the
March 1992 67
DeLone • McLean
46. decision-making purpose for which the system was designed.
Similarly, livari {1985)
suggested appropriate use or acceptable use as a measure of
MIS success. In a study by
Robey and Zeller (1978), I/S success was equated to the
adoption and extensive use of
an information system.
After reviewing a number of empirical studies involving use,
Trice and Treacy
(1986) recommend three classes of utilization measures based
on theories from refer-
ence disciplines: degree of MIS institutionalization, a binary
measure of use vs. non-
use, and unobtrusive utilization measures such as connect time
and frequency of
computer acce^. The degree of institutionalization is to be
determined by user de-
pendence on the MIS, user feelings of system ownership, and
the degree to which MIS
is routinized into standard operating procedures.
Table 3 shows the 27 empirical studies which were found to
employ system use as
at least one of their measures of success. Of all the measures
identified, the system use
variable is probably the most objective and the easiest to
quantify, at least concep)-
tually. Assuming that the organization being studied is {1)
regularly monitoring such
usage patterns, and (2) willing to share these data with
researchers, then usage is a
fairly accessible measure of I/S success. However, as pointed
out earlier, usage, either
actual or perceived, is only pertinent when such use is
voluntary.
47. User Satisfaction: Recipient Response to the Use ofthe Output
of an
Information System
When the use of an information system is required, the
preceding measures be-
come less useful; and successful interaction by management
with the information
system can be measured in terms of user satisfaction. Several
I/S researchers have
suggested user satisfaction as a success measure for their
empirical I/S research (Ein-
Dor and Segev 1978; Hamilton and Chervany 1981). These
researchers have found
user satisfaction as especially appropriate when a specific
information system was
involved. Once again a key issue is whose satisfaction should be
measured. In at-
tempting to determine the success ofthe overall MIS effort,
McKinsey & Company
(1968) measured chief executives' satisfaction.
In two empirical studies on implementation success, Ginzberg
(1981a, b) chose
user satisfaction as his dependent variable. In one of those
studies (1981 a), he
adopted both use and user satisfaction measures. In a study by
Lucas (1978), sales
representatives rated their satisfaction with a new computer
system. Later, in a differ-
ent study, executives were asked in a laboratory setting to rate
their enjoyment and
satisfaction with an information system which aided decisions
relating to an inven-
tory ordering problem (Lucas 1981).
48. In the Powers and Dickson study on MIS project success (1973),
managers were
asked how well their information needs were being satisfied.
Then, in a study by King
and Epstein (1983), I/S value was imputed based on managers"
satisfaction ratings.
User satisfaction is also recommended as an appropriate success
measure in experi-
mental I/S research (Jarvenpaa, Dickson, and DeSanctis 1985)
and for researching
the effectiveness of group decision support systems (DeSanctis
and Gallupe 1987).
Other researchers have developed multi-attribute satisfaction
measures rather than
relying on a single overall satisfaction rating. Swanson (1974)
used 16 items to mea-
sure I/S appreciation, items which related to the characteristics
of reports and ofthe
underlying information system itself. Pearson developed a 39-
item instrument for
measuring user satisfaction. The full instrument is presented in
Bailey and Pearson
68 lnfortnation Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
(1983), with an earlier version reviewed and evaluated by
KHebel (1979) and by Ives,
Olson, and Baroudi (1983). Raymond (1985) used a subset of 13
items from Pear-
son's questionnaire to measure manager satisfaction with MIS in
49. small manufactur-
ing firms. More recently, Sanders (1984) developed a
questionnaire and used it
(Sanders and Courtney 1985) to measure decision support
systems (DSS) success.
Sanders' overall success measure involves a number of measures
of user and decision-
making satisfaction.
Finally, studies have found that user satisfaction is associated
with user attitudes
toward computer systems (Igerhseim 1976; Lucas 1978) so that
user-satisfaction
measures may be biased by user computer attitudes. Therefore,
studies which include
user satisfaction as a success measure should ideally also
include measures of user
attitudes so that the potentially biasing effects of those attitudes
can be controlled for
in the analysis. Goodhue (1986) further suggests "information
satisfactoriness" as an
antecedent to and surrogate for user satisfaction. Information
satisfactoriness is de-
fined as the degree of match between task characteristics and
I/S functionality.
As the numerous entries in Table 4 make clear, user satisfaction
or user informa-
tion satisfaction is probably the most widely used single
measure of I/S success. The
reasons for this are at least threefold. First, "satisfaction" has a
high degree of face
validity. It is hard to deny the success ofa system which its
users say that they like.
Second, the development ofthe Bailey and Pearson instrument
and its derivatives
50. has provided a reliable tool for measuring satisfaction and for
making comparisons
among studies. The third reason for the appeal of satisfaction as
a success measure is
that most of the other measures are so poor; they are either
conceptually weak or
empirically difficult to obtain.
Individual Impact: The Effect ofinformation on the Behavior
ofthe Recipient
Of all the measures of I/S success, "impact" is probably the
most difficult to define
in a nonambiguous fashion. It is closely related to performance,
and so "improving
my—or my department's—performance" is certainly evidence
that the information
system has had a positive impact. However, "impact" could also
be an indication
that an information system has given the user a better
understanding ofthe decision
context, has improved his or her decision-making productivity,
has produced a
change in user activity, or has changed the decision maker's
perception ofthe impor-
tance or usefulness ofthe information system. As discussed
earlier. Mason (1978)
proposed a hierarchy of impact (influence) levels from the
receipt ofthe information,
through the understanding ofthe information, the application
ofthe information to a
specific problem, and the change in decision behavior, to a
resultant change in organi-
zational performance. As Emery (1971, p. I) states:
"Information has no intrinsic
value; any value comes only through the influence it may have
51. on physical events.
Such influence is typically exerted through human decision
makers."
In an extension ofthe traditional statistical theory ofinformation
value. Mock
(1971) argued for the importance ofthe "learning value
ofinformation." In a labora-
tory study ofthe impact ofthe mode ofinformation presentation,
Lucas and Nielsen
(1980) used learning, or rate of performance improvement, as a
dependent variable.
In another laboratory setting, Lucas (1981) tested participant
understanding ofthe
inventory problem and used the test scores as a measure of I/S
success. Watson and
Driver (1983) studied the impact of graphical presentation on
information recall.
Meador, Guyote, and Keen (1984) measured the impact of a
DSS design
March 1992
DeLone • McLean
TABLE 3
Empirical Measures ofinformation System Use
Authors Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
Alavi and Henderson
(1981)
Baroudi, Olson, and Ives
52. (1986)
BartiandHuff(1985)
Bell (1984)
Work force and production Lab
scheduling DSS; one
university. 45 graduates
Overall I/S; 200 finns, 200
production managers
DSS; 9 organizations, 42 Field
decision makers
Financial; 30 financial Lab
Use or nonuse of computer-based
decision aids
Field Use of 1/S to support production
Percentage of time DSS is used in
decision making situations
Use of numerical vs.
nonnumerical information
Benbasat. Dexter, and
Masulis(1981)
Bergeron (1986b)
Chandrasekaran and Kirs
53. (1986)
Culnan (1983a)
Culnan (1983b)
DeBrabander and Thiers
(1984)
DeSanctis (1982)
Ein-Dor. Segev, and
Steinfeld(l98l)
Green and Hughes(1986)
Fuerst and Cheney (1982)
Glnzberg(198la)
Hogue(1987)
Gremillion (1984)
Pricing: one university. 50
students and faculty
Overall I/S; 54
organizations. 471 user
managers
Reporting systems; MBA
students
Overall I/S; one
organization, 184
54. professionals
Overall I/S; 2
organizations, 362
professionals
Specialized DSS: one
university, 91 two-person
teams
DSS; 88 senior level
students
PERT: one R & D
organization, 24
managers
DSS; 63 city managers
DSS; 8 oil companies, 64
users
On-line portfolio
management system;
U.S. bank, 29 portfolio
managers
DSS; 18 organizations
Overall I/S; 66 units of tbe
National Forest system
Lab
Field
56. Use vs. nonuse of data sets
Motivation to use
(I) Frequency of past use
(2) Frequency of intended use
Number of DSS features used
(I) Frequency of general use
(2) Frequency of specific use
(1) Number of minutes
(2) Number of sessions
(3) Number of functions used
Frequency of voluntary use
Expenditures/charges for
computing use
70 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
Authors
Kim and Lee (1986)
King and Rodriguez
(1981)
Mahmood and Medewitz
57. (1985)
Nelson and Cbeney
(1987)
Perry (1983)
Raymond (1985)
Snitkin and King (1986)
Srinivasan (1985)
Swanson (1987)
Zmud. Boynton. and
Jacobs(1987)
TABLE 3 {cont d)
Description of Study
Overall [/S; 32
organizations, 132 users
Strategic system; one
university. 45 managers
DSS; 48 graduate students
Overall I/S; 100 top/middle
managers
Office 1/S; 53 firms
Overall 1/S; 464 small
58. manufacturing Brms
Personal DSS; 31 users
Computer-based modeling
systems; 29 firms
Overall I/S; 4
organizations, 182 users
Overall I/S; Sample A: 132
firms
Sample B: one firm
Type
Field
Lab
Lab
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
59. Description of Measure(s)
(1) Frequency of use
(2) Voluntariness of use
(1) Number of queries
(2) Nature of queries
Extent of use
Extent of use
Use at anticipated level
(1) Frequency of use
(2) Regularity of use
Hours per week
(1) Frequency of use
(2) Time per computer session
(3) Number of reports generated
Average frequency with which
user discussed report
information
Use in support of
(a) Cost reduction
(b) Management
(c) Strategy planning
(d) Competitive thrust
methodology using questionnaire items relating to resulting
decision effectiveness.
60. For example, one questionnaire item referred specifically to the
subject's perception
of the improvement in his or her decisions.
In the information system framework proposed by Chervany,
Dickson, and Kozar
(1972), which served as the model for the Minnesota
Experiments (Dickson. Cher-
vany. and Senn 1977). the dependent success variable was
generally defined to be
decision effectiveness. Within the context of laboratory
experiments, decision effec-
tiveness can take on numerous dimensions. Some of these
dimensions which have
been reported in laboratory studies include the average time to
make a decision
(Benbasat and Dexter 1979, 1985; Benbasat and Schroeder
1977; Chervany and
Dickson 1974; Taylor 1975), the confidence in the decision
made (Chervany and
Dickson 1974; Taylor 1975), and the number of reports
requested (Benbasat and
Dexter 1979; Benbasat and Schroeder 1977). DeSanctis and
Gallupe (1987) sug-
gested member participation in decision making as a measure of
decision effective-
ness in group decision making.
In a study which sought to measure the success of user-
developed applications,
Rivard and Huff (1984) included increased user productivity in
their measure of
success. DeBrabander and Thiers (1984) used efficiency of task
accomplishment
(time required to find a correct answer) as the dependent
variable in their laboratory
61. March 1992 71
DeLone • McLean
TABLE 4
Empirical Measures of User Satisfaction
Author(s) Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
Alavi and Henderson
(1981)
Baitey and Pearson
(1983)
Baroudi, Olson, and
Ives(1986)
Barti and Huff(l985)
Work force and production
scheduling DSS; one
university; 45 graduate
students
Overall I/S; 8 organizations.
32 managers
Overall I/S; 200 firms. 200
production managers
DSS; 9 organizations, 42
decision makers
62. Lab Overall satisfaction witb DSS
Field User satisfaction (39-item instrument)
Field User information satisfaction
Field User information satisfaction
(modified Bailey & Pearson
instrument)
Bruwer(1984)
Cats-Baril and Huber
(1987)
DeSanctis (1986)
Doll and Ahmed (1985)
Edmundson and JefFery
(1984)
Ginzberg (1981a)
Ginzberg(l981b)
Hogue(1987)
Ives. Olson, and
Baroudi(1983)
Jenkins, Naumann, and
Wetherbe (1984)
King and Epstein (1983)
63. Langle, Leitheiser, and
Naumann (1984)
Lehman, Van Wetering.
and Vogel (1986)
Lucas(1981)
Overall I/S; one organization,
114 managers
DSS; one university, 101
students
Human resources 1/S; 171
human resource system
professionals
Specificl/S; 55 firms, 154
managers
Accounting software package;
12 organizations
On-line portfolio
management system; U.S.
bank. 29 portfolio managers
Overall I/S; 35 I/S users
DSS; 18 organizations
Overall I/S; 200 firms, 200
production managers
64. A specific I/S; 23
corporations, 72 systems
development managers
Overall I/S; 2 firms. 76
managers
Overall 1/S; 78 oi^nizations,
I/S development managers
Business graphics; 200
organizations, DP managers
Inventory ordering system;
one university, 100
executives
Field
Lab
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
65. Field
Field
Field
U b
User satisfaction
Satisfaction with a DSS (multi-item
scale)
(1) Top management satisfaction
(2) Personal management satisfaction
User satisfaction (11 -item scale)
User satisfaction (1 question)
Overall satisfaction
Overall satisfaction
User satisfaction (1 question)
User satisfaction (Bailey & Pearson
instrument)
User satisfaction (25-item instrument)
User satisfaction (1 item: scale 0 to
100)
User satisfaction (1 question)
66. (1) Software satisfaction
(2) Hardware satisfaction
(1) Enjoyment
(2) Satisfaction
72 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
TABLE 4
Author(s) Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
Mahmood (1987)
Mahmood and Becker
(1985-1986)
Mahmood and
Medewitz (1985)
McKeen(l983)
Nelson and Cheney
(1987)
Olson and Ives (1981)
Olson and Ives (1982)
Raymond (1985)
67. Raymond (1987)
Rivard and Huff (1984)
Rushinek and Rushinek
(1985)
Rushinek and Rushinek
(1986)
Sanders and Courtney
(1985)
Sanders, Courtney, and
Uy(I984)
Taylor and Wang(1987)
Specificl/S; 61 I/S managers Field Overall satisfaction
Overall I/S; 59 firms. 118 Field User satisfaction
managers
DSS; 48 graduate students Lab User satisfaction (multi-Item
scale)
Application systems; 5
organizations
Overall I/S; 100 top/middle
managers
Field Satisfaction with the development
project (Powers and Dickson
instrument)
68. Field User satisfaction (Bailey & Pearson
instrument)
Overall I/S; 23 manufacturing Field Information dissatisfaction
difference
firms. 83 users between information needed and
amount ofinformation received
Overall I/S; 23 manufacturing Field Information satisfaction,
difference
firms, 83 users between information needed and
information received
Overall I/S; 464 small
manufacturing firms
Overall I/S; 464 small-firm
finance managers
User-developed applications;
10 large companies
Accounting and billing
system; 4448 users
Overall I/S; 4448 users
Financial DSS; 124
organizations
Field Controller satisfaction (modified
Bailey & Pearson instrument)
Field User satisfaction (modified Bailey &
69. Pearson instrument)
Field User complaints regarding
Information Center services
Field Overall user satisfaction
Field Overall user satisfaction
Field (1) Overall satisfaction
(2) Decision-making satisfaction
Interactive Financial Planning Field (I) Decision-making
satisfaction
System (IFPS); 124 (2) Overall satisfaction
oi^nizations, 373 users
DBMS with multiple dialogue Lab User satisfaction with
interface
modes; one university, 93
students
experiment. Finally, Sanders and Courtney (1985) adopted the
speed of decision
analysis resulting from DSS as one item in their DSS success
measurement in-
strument.
Mason (1978) has suggested that one method of measuring I/S
impact is to deter-
mine whether the output ofthe system causes the receiver (i.e.,
the decision maker) to
change his or her behavior. Ein-Dor, Segev, and Steinfeld
(1981) asked decision
makers: "Did use of PERT [a specific information system] ever
lead to a change in a
70. March 1992 73
DeLone • McLean
decision or to a new decision?" Judd, Paddock, and Wetherbe
(1981) measured
whether a budget exception reporting system resulted in
managers' taking investiga-
tive action.
Another approach to the measurement ofthe impact of an
information system is to
ask user managers to estimate the value of the information
system. Cerullo (1980)
asked managers to rank the value of their computer-based MIS
on a scale of one to
ten. Ronen and Falk (1973) asked participants to rank the value
ofinformation
received in an experimental decision context. Using success
items developed by
Schultz and Slevin (1975), King and Rodriguez (1978. 1981)
asked users of their
"Strategic Issue Competitive Information System" to rate the
worth of that 1/S.
Other researchers have gone a step further by asking
respondents to place a dollar
value on the information received. Gallagher (1974) asked
managers about the maxi-
mum amount they would be willing to pay for a particular
report. Lucas (1978)
reported using willingness to pay for an information system as
one of his success
71. measures. Keen (1981) incorporated willingness to pay
development costs for im-
proved DSS capability in his proposed "Value Analysis" for
justification ofa DSS. In
an experiment involving MBA students, Hilton and Swieringa
(1982) measured what
participants were willing to pay for specific information which
they felt would lead to
higher decision payoffs. Earlier. Garrity (1963) used MIS
expenditures as a percent-
age of annual capital expenditures to estimate the value ofthe
MIS effort.
Table 5, with 39 entries, contains the largest number of
empirical studies. This in
itself is a healthy sign, for it represents an attempt to move
beyond the earlier inward-
looking measures to those which offer the potential to gauge the
contribution of
information systems to the success ofthe enterprise. Also worth
noting is the predomi-
nance of laboratory studies. Whereas most ofthe entries in the
preceding tables have
been field experiments, 24 ofthe 39 studies reported here have
used controlled labora-
tory experiments as a setting for measuring the impact
ofinformation on individuals.
The increased experimental rigor which laboratory studies offer,
and the extent to
which they have been utilized at least in this success category,
is an encouraging sign
for the maturing of the field.
Organizational Impact: The Effect of Information on
Organizational
Performance
72. In a survey by Dickson, Leitheiser. Wetherbe, and Nechis
(1984). 54 information
systems professionals ranked the measurement ofinformation
system effectiveness
as the fifth most important I/S issue for the 1980s. In a recent
update of that study by
Brancheau and Wetherbe (1987). I/S professionals ranked
measurement ofinforma-
tion system effectiveness as the ninth most important I/S issue.
Measures of individ-
ual performance and, to a greater extent, organization
performance are of consider-
able importance to I/S practitioners. On the other hand. MIS
academic researchers
have tended to avoid performance measures (except in
laboratory studies) because of
the difficulty of isolating the effect ofthe I/S effort from other
effects which influence
organizational performance.
As discussed in the previous section, the effect of an
information system on individ-
ual decision performance has been studied primarily in
laboratory experiments using
students and computer simulations. Many of these experiments
were conducted at
the University of Minnesota (Dickson, Chervany. and Senn
1977). Among these
"Minnesota Experiments" were some that studied the effects of
different information
74 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
73. Information Systems Success
formats and presentation modes on decision performance as
measured in terms of
lower production, inventory, or purchasing costs. King and
Rodriguez (1978. 1981)
measured decision performance by evaluating participant tests
responses to various
hypothesized strategic problems.
In another laboratory study. Lucas and Nielsen (1980) measured
participant perfor-
mance (and thus, indirectly, organizational performance) in
terms of profits in a
logistics management game. In a later experiment, Lucas (1981)
investigated the
efiect of computer graphics on decisions involving inventory
ordering. Finally,
Remus (1984) used the costs of various scheduling decisions to
evaluate the effects of
graphical versus tabular displays.
Field studies and case studies which have dealt with the
influence ofinformation
systems have chosen various organizational performance
measures for their depen-
dent variable. In their study, Chervany, Dickson, and Kozar
(1972) chose cost reduc-
tions as their dependent variable. Emery (1971. p. 6) has
observed that: "Benefits
from an information system can come from a variety of sources.
An important one is
the reduction in operating costs of activities external to the
information processing
system."
74. Several researchers have suggested that the success of the MIS
department is re-
flected in the extent to which the computer is applied to critical
or major problem
areas ofthe firm (Garrity 1963; Couger and Wergin 1974; Ein-
Dor and Segev 1978;
Rockart 1979; Senn and Gibson 1981). In Garrity's early article
(1963), company I/S
operations were ranked partly on the basis o f t h e range and
scope of its computer
applications. In a later McKinsey study (1968), the authors used
the range of "mean-
ingful, functional computer applications" to distinguish between
more or less success-
ful MIS departments. In a similar vein, Vanlommel and
DeBrabander (1975) used a
weighted summation ofthe number of computer applications as a
measure of MIS
success in small firms. Finally, Cerullo (1980) ranked MIS
success on the basis o f a
firms's ability to computerize high complexity applications.
In a survey of several large companies, Rivard and Huff (1984)
interviewed data
processing executives and asked them to assess the cost
reductions and company
profits realized from specific user-developed application
programs. Lucas (1973) and
Hamilton and Chervany (1981) suggested that company
revenues can also be im-
proved by computer-based information systems. In a study o f a
clothing manufac-
turer, Lucas (1975) used total dollar bookings as his measure of
organizational perfor-
mance. Chismar and Kriebel (1985) proposed measuring the
relative efficiency ofthe
75. information systems effort by applying Data Envelopment
Analysis to measure the
relationship of corporate outcomes such as total sales and return
on investment to I/S
inputs.
More comprehensive studies ofthe effect of computers on an
organization include
both revenue and cost issues, within a cost/benefit analysis
(Emery 1971). McFadden
(1977) developed and demonstrated a detailed computer
cost/benefit analysis using a
mail order business as an example. In a paper entitled "What is
the Value of Invest-
ment in Information Systems?," Matlin (1979) presented a
detailed reporting system
for the measurement ofthe value and costs associated with an
information system.
Cost/benefit analyses are often found lacking due to the
difficulty of quantifying
"intangible benefits." Building on Keen's Value Analysis
approach (1981). Money,
Tromp. and Wegner (1988) proposed a methodology for
identifying and quantifying
March 1992 75
DeLone • McLean
Authors)
Aldag and Power
(1986)
76. Belardo, Kanvan,
and Wallace
(1982)
Benbasat and
Dexter (1985)
Benbasat and
Dexter (1986)
Benbasat. Dexter,
and Masulis
(1981)
Bergeron (1986a)
Cats-Baril and
Huber (1987)
Crawford (1982)
DeBrabanderand
Thiers(l984)
DeSanctis and
Jarvenpaa
(1985)
Dickson,
DeSanctis, and
McBride
(1986)
Drury(1982)
Ein-Dor, Segev,
77. and Steinfeld
(1981)
TABLE 5
Empiricat Measures of Individual Impact
Description of Study
DSS; 88 business
students
Emergency
management DSS;
10 emergency
dispatchers
Financiai; 65
business students
Financial; 65
business students
Pricing; one
university, 50
students and
factuly
DP chargeback
system; 54
organizations, 263
user managers
DSS; one university,
101 students
Electronic mail;
78. computer vendor
organization
Specialized DSS; one
university, 91 two-
person teams
Tables vs. graphs; 75
MBA students
Graphics system; 840
undei^raduate
students
Chargeback system;
173 organizations,
senior DP
managers
PERT; one R & D
organization. 24
managers
Type
Lab
U b
Lab
U b
Lab
Field
79. Lab
Case
Lab
U b
U b
Field
Field
Description of Measure(s)
(1) User confidence
(2) Quality of decision
analysis
(1) Efficient decisions
(2) Time to arrive at a
decision
Time taken to complete a task
Time taken to complete a task
Time to make pricing
decisions
Extent to which users analyze
charges and investigate
80. budget variances
(1) Quality of career plans
(2) Number of objectives and
• alternatives generated
Improved personal
productivity, hrs/wk/
manager
(1) Time efficiency of task
accomplishment
(2) User adherence to plan
Decision quality, forecast
accuracy
(1) Interpretation accuracy
(2) Decision quality
(1) Computer awareness
(2) Cost awareness
Change in decision behavior
76 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
TABLE 5 ( a w / y )
Author(s) Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
81. Fuerst and
Cheney(1982)
Goslar, Green,
and Hughes
(1986)
Goul, Shane, and
Tonge(1986)
Green and
Hughes (1986)
DSS; 8 oil
companies, 64
users
DSS: 19
organizations, 43
sales and
marketing
personnel
Knowledge-based
DSS; one
university, 52
students
DSS; 63 city
managers
Field Value in assisting decision
making
Lab (I) Number of altematives
82. considered
(2) Time to decision
(3) Confidence in decision
(4) Ability to identify
solutions
L ^ Ability to identify strategic
opoortunities or problems
Lab (I) Time to decision
(2) Number of alternatives
considered
(3) Amount of data
considered
Grudmtski(I98l)
Gueutal.
Surprenant,
and Bubeck
(1984)
Hilton and
Swieringa
(1982)
Hughes (1987)
Judd. Paddock,
and Wetherbe
(1981)
84. university. 45
managers
Performance I/S; 45
naarketing students
Inventory ordering
system; one
university, 100
executives
Lab
Lab
Lab
Field
Lab
U b
U b
U b
U b
Precision of decision maker's
forecast
(I) Task performance
(2) Confidence in
performance
85. Dollar value ofinformation
(1) Time to reach decision
(2) Number of alternatives
considered
Management takes
investigative action
Ability to forecast firm
performance
(1) Worth of information
system
(2) Quality of policy decisions
(I) Accuracy of information
interpretation
(2) Time to solve problem
User understanding of
inventory problem
March 1992 77
DeLone • Mcl^an
Author(s)
Lucas and Palley
86. (1987)
Luzi and
Mackenzie
(1982)
Meador, Guyote,
and Keen
(1984)
Millman and
Hanwick
(1987)
Rivard and Huff
(1984)
Rivard and Huff
(1985)
Sanders and
Courtney
(1985)
Snitkin and King
(1986)
Srinivasan (1985)
Vogel. Lehman,
and Dickson
(1986)
Watson and
Driver (1983)
87. Zmud (1983)
Zmud. Blocher.
and Moffie
(1983)
TABLE
Description of Study
Overall 1/S; 3
manufacturing
firms, 87 plant
managers
Performance
information
system; one
university, 200
business students
DSS; 18 firms, 73
users
Office I/S; 75 middle
managers
User-developed
applications; 10
large companies
User-developed I/S;
10 firms 272 users
Financial DSS; 124
oi^nizations
88. Personal DSS; 31
users
Computer-based
modeling systems;
29 firms
Graphical
Presentation
System; 174
undergraduate
students
Graphical
presentation of
information; 29
undergraduate
business students
External information
channels; 49
software
development
managers
Invoicing system; 51
internal auditors
5 (cont'd)
Type
Field
U b
89. Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
Field
U b
U b
Field
U b
Description of Measure(s)
(1) Power of I/S department
(2) Influence of I/S
department
(1) Time to solve problem
(2) Accuracy of problem
solution
(3) Ffficiency of effort
90. (1) Effectiveness in
supporting decisions
(2) Time savings
Personal effectiveness
User productivity
Productivity improvement
Decision-making efficiency
and effectiveness
Effectiveness of personal DSS
(1) Problem identification
(2) Generation of alternatives
Change in commitment of
time and money
(1) Immediate recall of
information
(2) Delayed recall of
information
Recognition and use of
modern software practices
(1) Decision accuracy
(2) Decision confidence
78 Information Systems Research 3 ; 1
91. Information Systems Success
intangible benefits. The proposed methodology then applied a
statistical test to deter-
mine whether "significant" value can be attached to a decision
support system.
With the corporate "bottom line" in mind, several MIS
frameworks have proposed
that MIS effectiveness be determined by its contribution to
company profits (Cher-
vany, Dickson. and Kozar 1972; Lucas 1973; Hamilton and
Chervany 1981), but few
empirical studies have attempted to measure actual profit
contribution. Ferguson
and Jones (1969) based their evaluation of success on more
profitable job schedules
which resulted from decision-maker use ofthe information
system. Ein-Dor, Segev,
and Steinfeld (1981) attempted to measure contribution to profit
by asking users ofa
PERT system what savings were realized from use of PERT and
what costs were
incurred by using PERT.
Another measure of organizational performance which might be
appropriate for
measuring the contribution of MIS is return on investment. Both
Garrity (1963) and
the McKinsey study (1968) reported using return on investment
calculations to as-
sess the success of corporate MIS efforts. Jenster (1987)
included nonfinancial mea-
sures of organizational impact in a field study of 124
92. organizations. He included
productivity, innovations, and product quality among his
measures of I/S success. In
a study of 53 firms, Perry (1983) measured the extent to which
an office information
system contributed to meeting organizational goals.
Strassmann, in his book Information Payoffil9S5), presented a
particularly com-
prehensive view of the role of information systems with regards
to performance,
looking at it from the perspective ofthe individual, the
organization, the top execu-
tive, and society. His measure of performance was a specially
constructed "Return on
Management" (ROM) metric.
In nonprofit organizations, specifically government agencies,
Danziger (i 977) pro-
posed using productivity gains as the measure ofinformation
systems impact on the
organization. He explained that productivity gains occur when
the "functional out-
put ofthe government is increased at the same or increased
quality with the same or
reduced resources inputs" (p. 213). In a presentation of several
empirical studies
conducted by the University of California, Irvine, Danziger
included five productiv-
ity measures: staff reduction, cost reduction, increased work
volume, new informa-
tion, and increased effectiveness in serving the public.
The success of informati on systems in creating competitive
advantage has
prompted researchers to study I/S impacts not only on firm
93. performance but also on
industry structure (Clemons and Kimbrough 1986). Bakos
(1987) reviewed the litera-
ture on the impacts of information technology on firm and
industry-level perfor-
mance from the perspective of organization theory and
industrial economics. At the
firm level, he suggested measures of changes in organizational
structure and of im-
provements in process efficiency using Data Envelopment
Analysis (Chismar and
Kriebel 1985) as well as other financial measures. At the
industry level, he found
impact measures (e.g., economies of scale, scope, and market
concentration) harder
to identify in any readily quantifiable fashion and suggested
that further work is
needed.
Johnston and Vitale (1988) have proposed a modified
cost/benefit analysis ap-
proach to measure the effects of interorganizational systems.
Traditional cost/benefit
analysis is applied to identify quantifiable benefits such as cost
reductions, fee reve-
nues, and increased product sales. Once the quantifiable costs
and benefits have been
identified and compared, Johnston and Vitale suggest that top
management use
March 1992 79
DeLone • McLean
94. judgment to assess the value ofthe benefits which are more
difficult to quantify such
as reduction of overhead, increases in customer switching costs,
barriers to new firm
entry, and product differentiation.
Table 6 is the last ofthe six tables summarizing the I/S success
measures identified
in this paper. Somewhat surprisingly, 20 empirical studies were
found, with 13 using
field-based measures (as opposed to the laboratory experiments
characterizing the
individual impacts) to get at the real-world effects of the impact
of information
systems on organizational performance. However, this is only a
beginning; and it is in
this area, "assessing the business value of information systems,"
where much work
needs to be done.
Discussion
In reviewing the various approaches that I/S researcher s have
taken in measuring
MIS success, the following observations emerge.
1. As these research studies .show, the I/S researcher has a
broad list of individual
dependent variables from which to choose.
It is apparent that there is no consensus on the measure of
information systems
success. Just as there are many steps in the production and
dissemination ofinforma-
tion, so too are there many variables which can be used as
measures of "I/S success."
95. In Table 7, all ofthe variables identified in each ofthe six
success categories discussed
in the preceding sections are listed. These include success
variables which have been
suggested but never used empirically as well as those that have
actually been used in
experiments.
In reviewing these variables, no single measure is intrinsically
better than another;
so the choice ofa success variable is often a function ofthe
objective ofthe study, the
organizational context, the aspect ofthe information system
which is addressed by
the study, the independent variables under investigation, the
research method, and
the level of analysis, i.e., individual, organization, or society
(Markus and Robey
1988). However, this proliferation of measures has been
overdone. Some consolida-
tion is needed.
2. Progress toward an MIS cumidative tradition dictates a
significant reduction in
the number of different dependent variable measures so that
research results can be
compared.
One of the major purposes of this paper is the attempt to reduce
the myriad of
variables shown in Table 7 to a more manageable taxomony.
However, within each
of these major success categories, a number of variables still
exist. The existence of so
many different success measures makes it difficult to compare
the results of similar
96. studies and to build a cumulative body of empirical knowledge.
There are, however,
examples of researchers who have adopted measurement
instruments developed in
earlier studies.
Ives, Olson, and Baroudi (1983) have tested the validity and
reliability ofthe
user-satisfaction questionnaire developed by Bailey and Pearson
(1983) and used that
instrument in an empirical study of user involvement (Baroudi,
Olson and Ives
1986). Raymond (1985. 1987) used a subset ofthe Bailey and
Pearson user-satisfac-
tion instrument to study MIS success in small manufacturing
firms. Similarly, Mah-
mood and Becker (1986) and Nelson and Cheney (1987) have
used the Bailey and
Pearson instrument in empirical studies. In another vein,
McKeen (1983) adopted
80 Information Systems Research 3 : 1
Information Systems Success
the Powers and Dickson (1973) satisfaction scale to measure the
success of I/S devel-
opment strategies.
King and Rodriguez (1978, 1981), Robey (1979), Sanders
(1984). and Sanders and
Courtney (1985) have adopted parts ofa measurement
instrument which Schultz and
Slevin (1975) developed to measure user attitudes and
97. perceptions about the value of
operations research models. Munro and Davis (1977) and Zmud
(1978) utilized
Gallaghef s questionnaire items (1974) to measure the perceived
value of an informa-
tion system. Finally, Blaylock and Rees (1984) used Larcker
and Lessig's 40 informa-
tion items (1980) to measure perceived information usefulness.
These are encouraging trends. More MIS researchers should
seek out success mea-
sures that have been developed, validated, and applied in
previous empirical re-
search.
3. Not enough MIS field study research attempts to measure the
influence ofthe
MIS effort on organizational performance.
Attempts to measure MIS impact on overall organizatio nal
performance are not
often undertaken because ofthe difficulty of isolating the
contribution ofthe infor-
mation systems function from other contributors to
organizational performance.
Nevertheless, this connection is of great interest to information
system practitioners
and to top corporate management. MIS organizational
performance measurement
deserves further development and testing.
Cost/benefit schemes such as those presented by Emery (1971),
McFadden (1977),
and MatHn (1979) offer promising avenues for further study.
The University of Cali-
fornia, Irvine, research on the impact ofinformation systems on
98. government activity
(Danziger 1987) suggests useful impact measures for public as
well as private organi-
zations. Lucas (1975) included organizational performance in
his descriptive model
and then operationalized this variable by including changes in
sale revenues as an
explicit variable in his field study ofa clothing manufacturer.
Garrity (1963) and the
McKinsey & Company study (1968) reported on early attempts
to identify MIS
returns on investment. McLean (1989), however, pointed out the
difficulties with
these approaches, while at the same time attempting to define a
framework for such
analyses. Strassmann (1985) has developed his "Return on
Management" metric as a
way to assess the overall impact ofinformation systems on
companies.
These research efforts represent promising beginnings in
measuring MIS impact
on performance.
4. The six success categories and the many specific I/S
measures within each of
these categories clearly indicaie that MIS success is a
multidimensional construct and
that it should he measured as such.
Vanlomme! and DeBrabander (1975) early pointed out that the
success ofa com-
puter-based information system is not a homoge neous concept
and therefore the
attempt should not be made to capture it by a simple measure.
Ein-Dor and Segev
99. (1978) admitted that their selection of MIS use as their
dependent variable may not
be ideal. They stated that "A better measure of MIS success
would probably be some
weighted average for the criteria mentioned above" (i.e.. use,
profitability, applica-
tion to major problems, performance, resulting quality decision,
and user satis-
faction).
In reviewing the empirical studies cited in Tables 1 through 6. it
is clear that most
of them have attempted to measure I/S success in only one or
possibly two success
March 1992 81
DeLone • McLean
TABLE 6
Measures of Organizational Impact
Author(s) Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
Benbasat and IDexter
(1985)
Benbasat and Dexter
(1986)
Benbasat. Dexter, and
Masulis(198l)
Bender(1986)
100. CronandSobol(1983)
Edelman(I981)
Ein-Dor. Segev. and
Steinfeld (1981)
Griese and Kurpicz
(1985)
Jenster (1987)
Kaspar and Cerveny
(1985)
Lincoln (1986)
Lucas(I981)
Miller and Doyle
(1987)
Miilman and Hartwick
(1987)
Perry (1983)
Remus (1984)
Financial; 65 business
students
Financial; 65 business
students
101. Pricing; one university. 50
students and faculty
Overall I/S; 132 life
insurance companies
Overall I/S; 138 small to
medium-sized
wbolesalers
Industrial relations; one
firm, 14 operating units
PERT; one R & D
organization 24 managers
Overall I/S; 69 firms
I/S which monitors critical
success factors; 124
organizations
End user systems; 96 MBA
students
Specific 1/S applications; 20
organizations. 167
applications
Inventory ordering system:
one university, 100
executives
Overall I/S; 21 financial
firms, 276 user managers
102. Office I/S; 75 middle
managers
Office 1/S; 53 firms
Production scheduling
system; one university,
53 junior business
students
Lab Profit performance
Lab Profit performance
Lab Profit
Field Ratio of total general expense to total
premium income
Field (I) Pretax return on assets
(2) Return on net worth
(3) Pretax profits (% of sales)
(4) Average 5-year sales growth
Field Overall manager productivity (cost of
information per employee)
Field Profitability
Field Number of computer applications
Field (I) Economic performance
(2) Marketing achievements
(3) Productivity in production
(4) Innovations
103. (5) Product and management quality
Lab (1) Return on assets
(2) Market share
(3) Stock price
Field (I) Internal rate of return
(2) Cost-benefit ratio
L^b Inventory ordering costs
Field Overall cost-effectiveness of I/S
Field Organizational effectiveness
Field I/S contribution to meeting goals
Lab Production scheduling costs
82 Information Systems Research 3 :
Information Systems Success
TABLE 6 (com "rf)
Author(s) Description of Study Type Description of Measure(s)
Rivard andHuff(1984)
Turner (1982)
Vasarhelyi(l981)
Yap and Walsham