The aim of this study is to explore the structure and the dynamics of regional labour markets in terms of gross job and worker flows. The regional turnover rates are related to macroeconomic indicators, demographic factors and industry-structure by employing the data of 85 Finnish regions over the period of 1988–1997. The results imply that different factors can have similar effects on net changes in employment and unemployment by various means of affecting gross changes.
This study addresses the connection between reorganization and unemployment in the labour market. Reorganization of regional labour markets measured by simultaneous gross migration flows lowers the unemployment rate, based on evidence from a panel of Finnish regions. However, reorganization is shown to be unrelated to long-term unemployment.
1. The document analyzes firm and job dynamics in the UK before, during, and after the Great Recession using data from 1998-2014.
2. It finds that changes in the stock of firms, rather than jobs per firm, accounted for most of the contraction during the recession, driven by a collapse in startups in 2009.
3. The recovery was signaled by a dramatic increase in births in 2010, almost matching the decrease in 2009 that marked the recession's onset, as well as a steep drop in deaths.
The nature of co-movement between total output and employment during the 1990s indicates that the relationship between employment growth and economic activity has been peculiar in Finland. This has been reflected, for example, in the developments of aggregate labour productivity. In particular, the years from 1992 to 1994 were exceptional. During that period productivity growth was very rapid, and, what is important, the trend of aggregate labour productivity shifted upwards. By only analysing the relationship between total output and employment it is impossible to say what happened during the period between 1992 and 1994. In this paper the relationship is analysed by utilizing industry-level data. The analysis shows that the rapid growth in aggregate productivity and the upward shift in the productivity trend mainly reflect similar developments in manufacturing, particularly in the metal industry. Even though the investigation is based on the use of industry-level data, it is still aggregative, which makes the interpretation of the results less clearcut. The existing studies which are based on the use of micro-level (e.g. plant-level) data support the interpretation which emphasizes the role of business restructuring and labour reallocation within manufacturing as the causes of rapid productivity growth and the upward shift in the trend productivity. The analysis is based on the estimation of simple structural VAR models.
In this study, productivity growth of the Finnish regions is decomposed by using plantlevel data from 1975 to 1999. The results show that there was an extremely strong performance in terms of labour and total factor productivity growth in the province of Oulu during the 1990s and an increasing part of the productivity growth in the province of Oulu can be explained by the reshuffling of the input shares among incumbent plants. The evolution of the so-called ”between component” of aggregate productivity growth is therefore the key to the understanding of the recent surge in productivity growth in certain regions of Finland. We further show that the acceleration of productivity growth through plant level restructuring has entailed compression of productivity dispersion between plants within regions. We examine factors behind productivity-enhancing restructuring as well. There seems to be evidence that exports stimulate productivity-enhancing restructuring at the plant level of the Finnish regions.
This paper uses panel data from 1989 to 1995 on blue-collar workers in Finnish manufacturing industries and their establishments to assess the extent to which hours of work are affected by individual or establishment characteristics – observed as well as unobserved. We argue that the recent research on hours of work has focused almost exclusively on the supply of labor, but that insights into the extent to which hours variation is driven not by supply but by demand will affect the likelihood that supply-side policies will succeed to overcome the high European unemployment trap. Our estimates show that establishment level variation is almost as important as that on the individual level in the total variation of hours. This suggests that at least part of the variation of hours is driven by demand
Cyclical trend of labor reallocation: transition and structural change GRAPE
This document summarizes a presentation on cyclical trends in labor reallocation during Poland's transition period from 1995 to 2015. It finds that while theories predicted large flows between public/private and manufacturing/services sectors, reallocation was more nuanced with most changes coming from demographic flows of young entry and elderly exit. Flows from the public sector declined steadily over time but showed no clear cyclical pattern, though trends were amplified during periods of economic prosperity. The analysis is limited to one country with data only available from 1995 onward.
Productivity and Inequality Effects of Labor Reallocation Transition -- Insig...GRAPE
This document presents a meta-analysis of the literature on the productivity and inequality effects of rapid labor reallocation during economic transitions. It examines over 450 estimates of job and worker flows from 10 transition economies over 18 years. The analysis finds little support for simple stories about the relationship between transition speed and outcomes. In the short run, inequality increases with job destruction but productivity effects are unclear. In the long run, job creation is positively connected to inequality but productivity effects remain uncertain. The evidence together does not support or reject theories about an optimal transition speed based on synchronizing job destruction and creation.
A study on industrial agglomeration in manufacturing sector of pakistan using...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes industrial agglomeration in Pakistan's manufacturing sector from 2000 to 2012. It finds that industrial concentration has increased steadily over this period using the Ellison-Glaeser index to measure geographic concentration. Some key industries like other manufacturing are highly localized in only one district, indicating importance of technological spillovers. The study develops an understanding of Pakistan's industrial transformation and spatial distribution of manufacturing industries, with implications for regional development policies.
This study addresses the connection between reorganization and unemployment in the labour market. Reorganization of regional labour markets measured by simultaneous gross migration flows lowers the unemployment rate, based on evidence from a panel of Finnish regions. However, reorganization is shown to be unrelated to long-term unemployment.
1. The document analyzes firm and job dynamics in the UK before, during, and after the Great Recession using data from 1998-2014.
2. It finds that changes in the stock of firms, rather than jobs per firm, accounted for most of the contraction during the recession, driven by a collapse in startups in 2009.
3. The recovery was signaled by a dramatic increase in births in 2010, almost matching the decrease in 2009 that marked the recession's onset, as well as a steep drop in deaths.
The nature of co-movement between total output and employment during the 1990s indicates that the relationship between employment growth and economic activity has been peculiar in Finland. This has been reflected, for example, in the developments of aggregate labour productivity. In particular, the years from 1992 to 1994 were exceptional. During that period productivity growth was very rapid, and, what is important, the trend of aggregate labour productivity shifted upwards. By only analysing the relationship between total output and employment it is impossible to say what happened during the period between 1992 and 1994. In this paper the relationship is analysed by utilizing industry-level data. The analysis shows that the rapid growth in aggregate productivity and the upward shift in the productivity trend mainly reflect similar developments in manufacturing, particularly in the metal industry. Even though the investigation is based on the use of industry-level data, it is still aggregative, which makes the interpretation of the results less clearcut. The existing studies which are based on the use of micro-level (e.g. plant-level) data support the interpretation which emphasizes the role of business restructuring and labour reallocation within manufacturing as the causes of rapid productivity growth and the upward shift in the trend productivity. The analysis is based on the estimation of simple structural VAR models.
In this study, productivity growth of the Finnish regions is decomposed by using plantlevel data from 1975 to 1999. The results show that there was an extremely strong performance in terms of labour and total factor productivity growth in the province of Oulu during the 1990s and an increasing part of the productivity growth in the province of Oulu can be explained by the reshuffling of the input shares among incumbent plants. The evolution of the so-called ”between component” of aggregate productivity growth is therefore the key to the understanding of the recent surge in productivity growth in certain regions of Finland. We further show that the acceleration of productivity growth through plant level restructuring has entailed compression of productivity dispersion between plants within regions. We examine factors behind productivity-enhancing restructuring as well. There seems to be evidence that exports stimulate productivity-enhancing restructuring at the plant level of the Finnish regions.
This paper uses panel data from 1989 to 1995 on blue-collar workers in Finnish manufacturing industries and their establishments to assess the extent to which hours of work are affected by individual or establishment characteristics – observed as well as unobserved. We argue that the recent research on hours of work has focused almost exclusively on the supply of labor, but that insights into the extent to which hours variation is driven not by supply but by demand will affect the likelihood that supply-side policies will succeed to overcome the high European unemployment trap. Our estimates show that establishment level variation is almost as important as that on the individual level in the total variation of hours. This suggests that at least part of the variation of hours is driven by demand
Cyclical trend of labor reallocation: transition and structural change GRAPE
This document summarizes a presentation on cyclical trends in labor reallocation during Poland's transition period from 1995 to 2015. It finds that while theories predicted large flows between public/private and manufacturing/services sectors, reallocation was more nuanced with most changes coming from demographic flows of young entry and elderly exit. Flows from the public sector declined steadily over time but showed no clear cyclical pattern, though trends were amplified during periods of economic prosperity. The analysis is limited to one country with data only available from 1995 onward.
Productivity and Inequality Effects of Labor Reallocation Transition -- Insig...GRAPE
This document presents a meta-analysis of the literature on the productivity and inequality effects of rapid labor reallocation during economic transitions. It examines over 450 estimates of job and worker flows from 10 transition economies over 18 years. The analysis finds little support for simple stories about the relationship between transition speed and outcomes. In the short run, inequality increases with job destruction but productivity effects are unclear. In the long run, job creation is positively connected to inequality but productivity effects remain uncertain. The evidence together does not support or reject theories about an optimal transition speed based on synchronizing job destruction and creation.
A study on industrial agglomeration in manufacturing sector of pakistan using...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes industrial agglomeration in Pakistan's manufacturing sector from 2000 to 2012. It finds that industrial concentration has increased steadily over this period using the Ellison-Glaeser index to measure geographic concentration. Some key industries like other manufacturing are highly localized in only one district, indicating importance of technological spillovers. The study develops an understanding of Pakistan's industrial transformation and spatial distribution of manufacturing industries, with implications for regional development policies.
Can we really explain worker flows in transition economies?GRAPE
We test the validity of Aghion & Blanchard (1994) as well as Caballero & Hammour (1996, 2001) in the context of 26 transition economies over the period 1989-2006. We find that demographics and education can accommodate a fair share of shift from public to private and from manufacturing to services -- as opposed to the actual worker flows between jobs. Whether or not this results in reduced employment at the end of the transition process stems not from the wage setting mechanism (such as collective bargaining, indexation, etc.) but rather seems to be related to the policies able to keep older cohorts in employment.
The paper investigates the employment effects of working time reductions in Finland by dividing the economy into six main sectors from 1960 to 1996. Work-sharing works if there exists a tradeoff between the average working time and employment. This means that a reduction in average working hours delivers an increase in employment. The main result is that a reduction in actual average hours seems to deliver an increase in employment in the short run on condition that output does not deteriorate as a result of shorter average working time.
Labour reallocation over the business cycle during transition and post-transi...GRAPE
This document outlines a presentation on labour reallocation over the business cycle in Poland during and after transition. It discusses two key features of labour reallocation: shifts between public and private sectors and between manufacturing and services. The presentation reviews literature on labour market transitions in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, presents Polish data and methodology analyzing employment flows from 1995-2012, and reports results showing cyclical patterns in different sectors and flows. In conclusion, it finds job creation in services and destruction in public sectors, and that gross flows between sectors are generally procyclical while links to the public sector and some cross-sector flows are weaker.
Wcces reallocation, productivity and inequalitiesGRAPE
This document presents a meta-analysis of literature on the productivity and inequality effects of rapid labor reallocation during economic transitions. The analysis uses data from 18 years across 10 transition economies. Key findings include: 1) Estimates from the literature do not support simple stories about the relationship between transition and productivity/inequality; 2) No clear evidence was found of "creative destruction" effects on productivity in the short-run; 3) Reallocation was positively associated with short-term increases in inequality but long-term effects were mainly through job creation.
1. Labor reallocation during transition in post-Soviet countries was driven primarily by ownership flows from public to private sector and sectoral flows between manufacturing and services.
2. Demographic changes, particularly high rates of labor market entry and exit, played a significant role in transition processes. Younger workers experienced more ownership and sectoral mobility while retirement decisions were influenced by personal factors and the pace of economic restructuring.
3. Survival analysis showed that female workers and those with medium education bore more of the burden of transition and were more likely to exit the labor market earlier. The growth of new private firms positively correlated with later retirement, consistent with theories of labor reallocation during transition.
Vacancies continue to rise at marked pace, candidate availability falls furtherSteven Jagger
Staff appointments and vacancies continued to rise strongly in September according to a survey of recruitment consultancies:
- Permanent placements and temp billings increased sharply, with the rise in permanent placements only slightly below July's 40-month high.
- Demand for staff also continued to increase markedly, with the rate of growth in vacancies similar to August's fastest pace in over six years.
- However, candidate availability fell further, contributing to an acceleration in salary inflation to its sharpest rate since February 2008 for permanent salaries.
Labour reallocation over the business cycle during transition and post-transi...GRAPE
This document outlines a study examining labour reallocation over the business cycle in Poland during its transition and post-transition periods. It presents literature on labour market changes in transitioning economies, describes the data and methodology used, and provides results on flows between sectors and the relationship to the business cycle. The key findings are that job creation occurred in services while destruction happened in the public sector, and that gross flows in services and manufacturing as well as youth and elderly employment were procyclical.
Sathe structural change in indian economy some evidence from the pr reform pe...Rishikesh Singh
This document examines the sources of structural change in the Indian economy from 1951-52 to 1983-84 using input-output tables and the Chenery-Syrquin model. It finds that non-proportional growth was largely due to technological change and import substitution from 1951-52 to 1983-84, with import substitution playing a dominant role in the 1950s-1960s. Export expansion contributed little to structural change. At the sectoral level, traditional sectors like agriculture and textiles grew at less than the proportional rate, while non-traditional sectors contributed more to structural change.
This document discusses productivity, how it is measured, why it is important, and trends in Canada over recent decades. Productivity is a measure of economic output per unit of input, usually measured as GDP per hour worked. It is important because higher productivity leads to higher standards of living and competitiveness. While Canada saw strong productivity growth from 1961-1975, its growth has slowed since then, averaging 1.4% annually from 1982-1991. This weaker growth has contributed to Canada losing some competitive advantage internationally in recent years. However, some industries and sectors have maintained stronger productivity, and recent signs suggest productivity may be improving again.
The transformation of post Soviet countries from centrally planned to market economies is well-known. Or is it? We explore labor market flows after 1989 for all former Soviet countries and argue that demographics played a much more important role than the flows expected from the theoretical literature.
This document summarizes research testing alternative specifications of Verdoorn's Law for Portuguese regions from 1986-1994. It analyzes the relationship between productivity, employment, and output growth. It also examines convergence in productivity across regions and the importance of natural resources and industrial policies for manufacturing concentration. Regression models are estimated using regional and industry data to explore these relationships.
The document summarizes labour market data from the UK for October 2015:
- Staff appointments through recruitment consultancies increased at a faster rate in October, with growth of both permanent placements and temporary billings accelerating.
- Demand for staff continued to rise sharply in October, underpinned by robust hiring across most sectors of the economy. However, the construction sector was suffering from a chronic skills shortage.
- Salary growth remained strong, though the availability of staff to fill roles continued to decline sharply, indicating ongoing skills shortages in the labour market.
Productivity and inequality effects of rapid labor market reallocationGRAPE
Periods of economic distress are usually followed by changes in the productive structure. In our paper, we explore a particularly strong shock: transition to a market economy, and analyze the short and long run effects on inequalities.
This document presents a model for analyzing net migration between Portuguese regions from 1996 to 2002. The model shows that regional mobility is positively influenced by output growth and negatively by unemployment rates and the agricultural sector size. Regression analysis of the data from Portuguese national statistics supports the model's conclusions. Specifically, regions with higher unemployment and more agricultural jobs attracted fewer migrants, while regions with stronger economic growth attracted more.
The aim of the article is to analyse labour productivity key indicators of manufacturing or working efficiency of European Union (EU), it the theoretical bases and the regularities of these changes. We use regression analysis. Knowledge of the regularities of labour productivity changes allows predicting future changes and make optimal business decisions. The basis is gross domestic product (GDP) analysis. We will analyse labour productivity by turnover and gross value added per person employed of manufacturing total and partly by countries, but also GDP per capita. Taking the basis this publication and the previous works of the authors, draws conclusions and suggestions.
Misallocations go a long way. Firm-level evidence from PolandGRAPE
We analyze the link between prior resource misallocation and subsequent long-run economic growth. We use two unique and novel sources of data for Poland and measure misallocation inherited from the period of central planning, i.e. period where input prices did not determine the use of inputs at firm, industry and country level. We find that regions with more misaligned firms under central planning (especially in terms of under-capitalization) experienced lower economic growth once market mechanisms were reinstated. This result proves highly robust, even three decades since the market mechanisms were reinstated. To explain this finding, we assess regional, sectoral, and cohort dimension of the inputs misallocation. We show that under-capitalization was more prevalent that over-capitalization, and that it was due mostly to the firm and sector level variation in factor inputs. Given this insight, subsequent reallocation of the resources required shifting of inputs not only between firms, but also between sectors: a process which is relatively more prone to specificity and information frictions.
An empirical analysis of the incidence of corporate income taxAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the incidence of corporate income tax in Ghana from 1997-2006. The study uses regression analysis of financial statement data from 10 manufacturing companies. The results showed:
1) A negative relationship between returns to shareholders and tax, indicating returns decrease as tax increases.
2) A negative relationship between labor costs and tax, indicating wages decrease as tax increases.
3) A positive relationship between gross profit percentage and tax, indicating consumer prices may increase as tax increases.
Most people agree that extending the working life is a desirable goal. Yet, there is much to be known about the factors determining the decision to retire. In this paper, we analyze the role played by one of them: routine intensity of the occupation. We show that workers in more routine occupations tend to work less hours, but we did not find any significant effect on the decision to retire.
Tämä tutkimus tarkastelee luonnonvarojen ja maantieteen vaikutusta työn tuottavuuteen ja asukaslukuun suhteutettuun BKT:hen eri maissa. Vaikutukset ovat joko suoria tai ne välittyvät T&K-intensiteetin, koulutuksen tason ja/tai teollisuuden tuotantorakenteen kautta. Tutkimus tarkastelee 42 kehittynyttä ja kehittyvää maata. Tutkimuksen maatiedemuuttujat ovat väestötiheys, maantieteellinen keskeisyys ja väestön koko. Tulosten mukaan maatalousmaan osuuden, metsämaan osuuden sekä kaasu- ja öljyvarojen kokonaisvaikutus tuottavuuteen on keskimäärin negatiivinen. Mineraalivaroilla, joita mitattiin mineraalien tuotannolla, ja maataloudella on positiivinen vaikutus. Maantiedemuuttujista väestötiheys lisää T&K-investointeja ja nostaa sitä kautta tuottavuutta. Tämä vaikutus syntyy siitä huolimatta, että koulutustaso reagoi väestötiheyteen negatiivisesti. Maan keskeinen sijainti, sen rajojen läheisyydessä olevan taloudellisen aktiviteetin perusteella, vaikuttaa negatiivisesti tuottavuuteen. Vastoin odotuksia väestön koon kokonaisvaikutus tuottavuuteen on negatiivinen useimmissa estimoiduissa malleissa. Vaikutus syntyy, kun väestön koko supistaa T&K-investointeja ja alentaa koulutustasoa.
Can we really explain worker flows in transition?GRAPE
Labor reallocation in transition economies has been described using relatively simple models, where workers migrate from the less productive public sector to the private sector. While this might be true, it is only a part of the stories. Other changes happened at the same time as well, in particular a global shift towards services and a generational change. Our presentation explores the relative importance of those changes.
Macro-labour linkages are being studied on the basis of an unemployment flow model with a macro-economic closure, using a reduced-form New Keynesian Phillips Curve. The presentation gives an overview of the main model mechanisms and estimation resutls. In a policy section, the working of tighter employment protection and more rigid wage developments are being presented.
Can we really explain worker flows in transition economies?GRAPE
We test the validity of Aghion & Blanchard (1994) as well as Caballero & Hammour (1996, 2001) in the context of 26 transition economies over the period 1989-2006. We find that demographics and education can accommodate a fair share of shift from public to private and from manufacturing to services -- as opposed to the actual worker flows between jobs. Whether or not this results in reduced employment at the end of the transition process stems not from the wage setting mechanism (such as collective bargaining, indexation, etc.) but rather seems to be related to the policies able to keep older cohorts in employment.
The paper investigates the employment effects of working time reductions in Finland by dividing the economy into six main sectors from 1960 to 1996. Work-sharing works if there exists a tradeoff between the average working time and employment. This means that a reduction in average working hours delivers an increase in employment. The main result is that a reduction in actual average hours seems to deliver an increase in employment in the short run on condition that output does not deteriorate as a result of shorter average working time.
Labour reallocation over the business cycle during transition and post-transi...GRAPE
This document outlines a presentation on labour reallocation over the business cycle in Poland during and after transition. It discusses two key features of labour reallocation: shifts between public and private sectors and between manufacturing and services. The presentation reviews literature on labour market transitions in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, presents Polish data and methodology analyzing employment flows from 1995-2012, and reports results showing cyclical patterns in different sectors and flows. In conclusion, it finds job creation in services and destruction in public sectors, and that gross flows between sectors are generally procyclical while links to the public sector and some cross-sector flows are weaker.
Wcces reallocation, productivity and inequalitiesGRAPE
This document presents a meta-analysis of literature on the productivity and inequality effects of rapid labor reallocation during economic transitions. The analysis uses data from 18 years across 10 transition economies. Key findings include: 1) Estimates from the literature do not support simple stories about the relationship between transition and productivity/inequality; 2) No clear evidence was found of "creative destruction" effects on productivity in the short-run; 3) Reallocation was positively associated with short-term increases in inequality but long-term effects were mainly through job creation.
1. Labor reallocation during transition in post-Soviet countries was driven primarily by ownership flows from public to private sector and sectoral flows between manufacturing and services.
2. Demographic changes, particularly high rates of labor market entry and exit, played a significant role in transition processes. Younger workers experienced more ownership and sectoral mobility while retirement decisions were influenced by personal factors and the pace of economic restructuring.
3. Survival analysis showed that female workers and those with medium education bore more of the burden of transition and were more likely to exit the labor market earlier. The growth of new private firms positively correlated with later retirement, consistent with theories of labor reallocation during transition.
Vacancies continue to rise at marked pace, candidate availability falls furtherSteven Jagger
Staff appointments and vacancies continued to rise strongly in September according to a survey of recruitment consultancies:
- Permanent placements and temp billings increased sharply, with the rise in permanent placements only slightly below July's 40-month high.
- Demand for staff also continued to increase markedly, with the rate of growth in vacancies similar to August's fastest pace in over six years.
- However, candidate availability fell further, contributing to an acceleration in salary inflation to its sharpest rate since February 2008 for permanent salaries.
Labour reallocation over the business cycle during transition and post-transi...GRAPE
This document outlines a study examining labour reallocation over the business cycle in Poland during its transition and post-transition periods. It presents literature on labour market changes in transitioning economies, describes the data and methodology used, and provides results on flows between sectors and the relationship to the business cycle. The key findings are that job creation occurred in services while destruction happened in the public sector, and that gross flows in services and manufacturing as well as youth and elderly employment were procyclical.
Sathe structural change in indian economy some evidence from the pr reform pe...Rishikesh Singh
This document examines the sources of structural change in the Indian economy from 1951-52 to 1983-84 using input-output tables and the Chenery-Syrquin model. It finds that non-proportional growth was largely due to technological change and import substitution from 1951-52 to 1983-84, with import substitution playing a dominant role in the 1950s-1960s. Export expansion contributed little to structural change. At the sectoral level, traditional sectors like agriculture and textiles grew at less than the proportional rate, while non-traditional sectors contributed more to structural change.
This document discusses productivity, how it is measured, why it is important, and trends in Canada over recent decades. Productivity is a measure of economic output per unit of input, usually measured as GDP per hour worked. It is important because higher productivity leads to higher standards of living and competitiveness. While Canada saw strong productivity growth from 1961-1975, its growth has slowed since then, averaging 1.4% annually from 1982-1991. This weaker growth has contributed to Canada losing some competitive advantage internationally in recent years. However, some industries and sectors have maintained stronger productivity, and recent signs suggest productivity may be improving again.
The transformation of post Soviet countries from centrally planned to market economies is well-known. Or is it? We explore labor market flows after 1989 for all former Soviet countries and argue that demographics played a much more important role than the flows expected from the theoretical literature.
This document summarizes research testing alternative specifications of Verdoorn's Law for Portuguese regions from 1986-1994. It analyzes the relationship between productivity, employment, and output growth. It also examines convergence in productivity across regions and the importance of natural resources and industrial policies for manufacturing concentration. Regression models are estimated using regional and industry data to explore these relationships.
The document summarizes labour market data from the UK for October 2015:
- Staff appointments through recruitment consultancies increased at a faster rate in October, with growth of both permanent placements and temporary billings accelerating.
- Demand for staff continued to rise sharply in October, underpinned by robust hiring across most sectors of the economy. However, the construction sector was suffering from a chronic skills shortage.
- Salary growth remained strong, though the availability of staff to fill roles continued to decline sharply, indicating ongoing skills shortages in the labour market.
Productivity and inequality effects of rapid labor market reallocationGRAPE
Periods of economic distress are usually followed by changes in the productive structure. In our paper, we explore a particularly strong shock: transition to a market economy, and analyze the short and long run effects on inequalities.
This document presents a model for analyzing net migration between Portuguese regions from 1996 to 2002. The model shows that regional mobility is positively influenced by output growth and negatively by unemployment rates and the agricultural sector size. Regression analysis of the data from Portuguese national statistics supports the model's conclusions. Specifically, regions with higher unemployment and more agricultural jobs attracted fewer migrants, while regions with stronger economic growth attracted more.
The aim of the article is to analyse labour productivity key indicators of manufacturing or working efficiency of European Union (EU), it the theoretical bases and the regularities of these changes. We use regression analysis. Knowledge of the regularities of labour productivity changes allows predicting future changes and make optimal business decisions. The basis is gross domestic product (GDP) analysis. We will analyse labour productivity by turnover and gross value added per person employed of manufacturing total and partly by countries, but also GDP per capita. Taking the basis this publication and the previous works of the authors, draws conclusions and suggestions.
Misallocations go a long way. Firm-level evidence from PolandGRAPE
We analyze the link between prior resource misallocation and subsequent long-run economic growth. We use two unique and novel sources of data for Poland and measure misallocation inherited from the period of central planning, i.e. period where input prices did not determine the use of inputs at firm, industry and country level. We find that regions with more misaligned firms under central planning (especially in terms of under-capitalization) experienced lower economic growth once market mechanisms were reinstated. This result proves highly robust, even three decades since the market mechanisms were reinstated. To explain this finding, we assess regional, sectoral, and cohort dimension of the inputs misallocation. We show that under-capitalization was more prevalent that over-capitalization, and that it was due mostly to the firm and sector level variation in factor inputs. Given this insight, subsequent reallocation of the resources required shifting of inputs not only between firms, but also between sectors: a process which is relatively more prone to specificity and information frictions.
An empirical analysis of the incidence of corporate income taxAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the incidence of corporate income tax in Ghana from 1997-2006. The study uses regression analysis of financial statement data from 10 manufacturing companies. The results showed:
1) A negative relationship between returns to shareholders and tax, indicating returns decrease as tax increases.
2) A negative relationship between labor costs and tax, indicating wages decrease as tax increases.
3) A positive relationship between gross profit percentage and tax, indicating consumer prices may increase as tax increases.
Most people agree that extending the working life is a desirable goal. Yet, there is much to be known about the factors determining the decision to retire. In this paper, we analyze the role played by one of them: routine intensity of the occupation. We show that workers in more routine occupations tend to work less hours, but we did not find any significant effect on the decision to retire.
Tämä tutkimus tarkastelee luonnonvarojen ja maantieteen vaikutusta työn tuottavuuteen ja asukaslukuun suhteutettuun BKT:hen eri maissa. Vaikutukset ovat joko suoria tai ne välittyvät T&K-intensiteetin, koulutuksen tason ja/tai teollisuuden tuotantorakenteen kautta. Tutkimus tarkastelee 42 kehittynyttä ja kehittyvää maata. Tutkimuksen maatiedemuuttujat ovat väestötiheys, maantieteellinen keskeisyys ja väestön koko. Tulosten mukaan maatalousmaan osuuden, metsämaan osuuden sekä kaasu- ja öljyvarojen kokonaisvaikutus tuottavuuteen on keskimäärin negatiivinen. Mineraalivaroilla, joita mitattiin mineraalien tuotannolla, ja maataloudella on positiivinen vaikutus. Maantiedemuuttujista väestötiheys lisää T&K-investointeja ja nostaa sitä kautta tuottavuutta. Tämä vaikutus syntyy siitä huolimatta, että koulutustaso reagoi väestötiheyteen negatiivisesti. Maan keskeinen sijainti, sen rajojen läheisyydessä olevan taloudellisen aktiviteetin perusteella, vaikuttaa negatiivisesti tuottavuuteen. Vastoin odotuksia väestön koon kokonaisvaikutus tuottavuuteen on negatiivinen useimmissa estimoiduissa malleissa. Vaikutus syntyy, kun väestön koko supistaa T&K-investointeja ja alentaa koulutustasoa.
Can we really explain worker flows in transition?GRAPE
Labor reallocation in transition economies has been described using relatively simple models, where workers migrate from the less productive public sector to the private sector. While this might be true, it is only a part of the stories. Other changes happened at the same time as well, in particular a global shift towards services and a generational change. Our presentation explores the relative importance of those changes.
Macro-labour linkages are being studied on the basis of an unemployment flow model with a macro-economic closure, using a reduced-form New Keynesian Phillips Curve. The presentation gives an overview of the main model mechanisms and estimation resutls. In a policy section, the working of tighter employment protection and more rigid wage developments are being presented.
ETT Jonathan Chaloff jmc Riga 11 5-15 Macro-Economic Aspects of Peoples Mob...euromonde
Macro Economic Aspects Of People's Mobility
Mr. Jonathan Chaloff, Administrator, International Migration Division,
Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, OECD
http://euromonde.eu
This presentation summarizes Philip's curve and Okun's law. It discusses how Philip's curve shows the relationship between unemployment and inflation in an economy based on data from the UK. It also explains how Okun's law describes a negative relationship between GDP and unemployment, with the economy experiencing a 1 percentage point rise in unemployment for every 3 percentage point decrease in GDP. Graphs are presented analyzing the relationships between GDP and unemployment from 1980-2012 and between inflation and unemployment from 1980-2012 in the UK.
Chapter 2 (Personal Habits of Food Service Workers)ASU-CHARRM
The document discusses principles of personal hygiene and sanitation for food service workers. It outlines requirements for proper hair restraints, work clothes, footwear, facial masks, and gloves. It also discusses employers' responsibilities to ensure food handlers maintain proper hygiene and cleanliness, including providing accessible hand washing facilities and training in food safety. Food businesses must make sure sick employees do not handle food to prevent contamination.
The document discusses supply-side competitiveness and growth in the UK economy. It identifies several key supply-side challenges facing the UK, including a persistent productivity gap, high youth unemployment, low investment and research spending. It also discusses some potential policies to boost long-run supply-side growth, such as improving labour supply and mobility through immigration, investing in skills and training to boost productivity, and improving infrastructure to reduce bottlenecks. The effectiveness of these policies depends on overcoming challenges such as political opposition, significant costs, and long timeframes to see results.
This document discusses market failure in the labour market. It identifies four potential causes: labour immobility and skills gaps, disincentives to work like poverty and unemployment traps, discrimination, and monopsony power of employers. Labour immobility can arise from occupational and geographical barriers. Disincentives to work include high effective marginal tax rates from losing benefits when income rises. Discrimination reflects prejudice and information failures. Monopsony power allows major employers to pay wages below competitive levels. Government interventions aim to address these market failures through policies like job training, minimum wages, anti-discrimination laws, and reforming taxes and benefits.
AS Macro - Unemployment and the Labour Markettutor2u
Unemployment is one of the major macro-economic
performance indicators. The more unemployed people
in our economy the more we are producing below our
potential, less income is earned (reducing saving,
consumption and tax revenue) and there is a negative
impact on the welfare of society.
AS Macro Revision: Macro Objectives and Conflictstutor2u
This document discusses possible conflicts that can arise between different macroeconomic objectives:
1. It is rare for a country to achieve full employment, price stability, economic growth, and a balanced external account simultaneously, as pursuing one objective can undermine others.
2. For example, policies to reduce unemployment can cause inflationary pressures if they stimulate demand too much when the economy is near capacity.
3. Rapid economic growth risks inflation and worsening the trade balance if domestic demand grows faster than supply.
4. The document examines these trade-offs and provides UK economic data to illustrate instances of conflicting macroeconomic objectives.
This document summarizes the key differences between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines individual markets and consumer behavior, while macroeconomics looks at aggregate variables for the whole economy. Specifically, microeconomics is concerned with supply and demand in individual markets, while macroeconomics focuses on monetary/fiscal policy and economic growth at the national level. A key difference is that microeconomics assumes markets will quickly reach equilibrium, but macroeconomics recognizes economies may remain in disequilibrium like during recessions.
Module 1 introduction to labour markets & labour market institution finalJinha
This document provides an introduction to labour markets and labour market institutions. It discusses the history of labour protection and labour movements. It also defines key concepts in labour economics like labour markets and labour market indicators. Furthermore, it outlines current debates on the relationship between labour market rigidity and unemployment. Specifically, it discusses whether labour market rigidity is truly to blame for high unemployment. Finally, it introduces the concept of "flexicurity," which aims to balance labour market flexibility with security for workers.
The document discusses the relationship between inflation and unemployment as depicted by the Phillips curve. It explains that demand-pull inflation is caused by increases in aggregate demand, while cost-push inflation stems from increases in costs of production. The Phillips curve shows an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment in the short run, but this relationship breaks down in the long run as inflation expectations rise. The natural rate of unemployment is the rate at which inflation remains stable in the long run.
Basic Food Handling Training Power Point Presentationbadalkumar
This document provides an overview of basic food handling and safety training. It discusses foodborne illness and contamination, important food safety terms like hygiene and sanitation, the three types of bacteria, temperature dangers zones for bacterial growth, sources of contamination, and methods for preventing contamination and food poisoning such as proper food storage, cleaning, pest control, and food preservation techniques. It also outlines premises and equipment requirements and cleaning procedures to ensure food safety.
This document provides an overview of food contaminants and how to prevent foodborne illness. It defines key terms like food safety, sanitation, and microorganisms. The main types of food contaminants are biological, physical and chemical. Biological contaminants like bacteria and viruses can cause foodborne illness. Time-temperature abuse and cross-contamination are two major causes when harmful microbes spread. Proper handwashing, cleaning, cooking, cooling and separating foods are important to prevent contamination.
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD SANITATION, SAFETY & HYGIENEBean Malicse
The document discusses principles of food sanitation, safety, and hygiene. It covers key definitions, the importance of food safety, causes of foodborne illness including cross-contamination and time-temperature abuse. It also discusses potentially hazardous foods and understanding microorganisms like bacteria, conditions needed for bacteria to grow, and how to control bacterial growth in food. The primary goals of food sanitation are cleanliness, preventing contamination, and destroying harmful bacteria through proper cooking and handling of food.
The document discusses food hygiene and safety. It describes the role of Environmental Health Officers in ensuring food safety through inspection of food premises, enforcement of food law, and ability to shut down or prosecute businesses for violations. It provides examples of restaurants fined for various food hygiene violations found during inspections such as presence of pests, poor cleaning and cooling practices, and risk of cross-contamination.
We examine the effects of establishment- and industry-level labor market turnover on employees’ well-being. The linked employer-employee panel data contain both survey information on employees’ subjective well-being and comprehensive register-based information on job and worker flows. Labor market turbulence decreases well-being as experienced job satisfaction and satisfaction with job security are negatively related to the previous year’s flows. We test for the existence of compensating wage differentials by explaining wages and job satisfaction with average uncertainties, measured by an indicator for a high moving average of past excessive turnover (churning) rate. The results are consistent with compensating wage differentials, since high uncertainty increases real wages, but has no effect on job satisfaction.
The high level of restructuring at the establishment level of the economy in terms of excess job reallocation (i.e. simultaneous gross job creation and destruction) and churning (i.e. excess worker turnover) lowers the unemployment rate in the Finnish regions.
Shift share analysis is a traditional tool; through a descriptive analysis of the productive structure, it allows the comparison of regional differences within a country, region or state (SIMÕES, 2004).Shift-share analysis is one way to account for the competitiveness of a region's industries and to analyze the local economic base. This analysis is primarily used to decompose employment changes within an economy over a specific period of time into mutually exclusive factors. Like other analytical economic tools, the shift-share technique is only a descriptive tool that should be used in combination with other analysis to provide a summary of a region's key employment potential industries.
This paper investigates the extent and determinants of employer demand for part-time work in the three Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland and Sweden) by making a distinction between establishments’ two main reasons for introducing part-time work, i.e. establishment needs and wishes of employees. We study the importance of different characteristics (such as e.g. size, industry, sector, share of female workers) of establishment to the probability of employerbased and of employee-based part-time work. We also put under scrutiny whether different motivations for part-time work also have different outcomes for companies and workers, and how these reasons shape the nature of part-time work. In the analyses we use the Establishment Survey on Working Time and Work-Life Balance (ESWT) in 21 EU Member States including Finland, Sweden and Denmark.
This document analyzes trends in labor income shares and the substitution of ICT capital for routine labor between 1979-2012 in the US. It finds that the routine labor income share declined substantially while the ICT capital income share nearly doubled. It uses these trends to estimate an elasticity of substitution between 1.5-4.5 for ICT capital and routine labor. A calibrated model suggests the decline in the aggregate labor share was primarily due to automation of routine tasks, while changing specialization patterns primarily drove the reallocation of labor across occupations.
1
Australian productivity trends and the effect of
structural change
Simon Campbell and Harry Withers
For a small open economy like Australia, which specialises in commodity exports, fluctuations in the
terms of trade and productivity growth are the primary drivers of per capita income growth. Because
the global mining sector responds to higher commodity prices by expanding capacity, the terms of
trade are unlikely to provide sustained boosts to Australia’s living standards. As such, labour
productivity is likely to be the main driver of future growth in living standards. This paper analyses
trends in Australia’s productivity performance and disaggregates productivity growth into industry
contributions to evaluate how structural change is affecting productivity growth.
Australian productivity trends and the impact of structural change
2
Introduction
Labour productivity growth is, and is expected to continue to be, the key determinant of growth in
Australian living standards. In terms of the size of the economy, economic growth is determined by
growth in labour utilisation1 and growth in labour productivity. 2 At an individual level, the primary
drivers of per capita income growth are fluctuations in the terms of trade and labour productivity
growth.
Because the global mining sector responds to higher commodity prices by expanding capacity, the
terms of trade are unlikely to provide sustained boosts to Australia’s living standards. As such,
labour productivity is likely to be the main driver of future growth in living standards.
Despite concerns, Australia’s labour productivity growth over recent years is in line with its
longer-term performance. In the five years to 2015-16, labour productivity in the whole economy has
grown at an average annual rate of 1.8 per cent. This compares to an average annual rate of
1.4 per cent over the past 15 years and 1.6 per cent over the past 30 years.3
Given the importance of labour productivity growth in improving living standards, an understanding
of trends in Australia’s productivity performance and the impact of structural change on productivity
growth can help reveal where we stand and implications for the future. This paper discusses sources
of productivity growth in the Australian context, followed by an examination of sectoral productivity
growth to highlight how within-sector productivity growth and across-sector productivity growth (or
the effects of structural change on productivity) contribute to aggregate productivity growth.
In analysing sources of labour productivity growth, we address the tension between labour
productivity growth and multifactor productivity (MFP) metrics. Commentators who view labour
productivity growth through the lens of a closed economy neoclassical growth framework have
voiced concerns about the slow growth of MFP (Garnaut, 2015). This concern, in large part, stems
from the belief that sustainable long-run economic growt ...
1 Australian productivity trends and the effect of strucAbbyWhyte974
1
Australian productivity trends and the effect of
structural change
Simon Campbell and Harry Withers
For a small open economy like Australia, which specialises in commodity exports, fluctuations in the
terms of trade and productivity growth are the primary drivers of per capita income growth. Because
the global mining sector responds to higher commodity prices by expanding capacity, the terms of
trade are unlikely to provide sustained boosts to Australia’s living standards. As such, labour
productivity is likely to be the main driver of future growth in living standards. This paper analyses
trends in Australia’s productivity performance and disaggregates productivity growth into industry
contributions to evaluate how structural change is affecting productivity growth.
Australian productivity trends and the impact of structural change
2
Introduction
Labour productivity growth is, and is expected to continue to be, the key determinant of growth in
Australian living standards. In terms of the size of the economy, economic growth is determined by
growth in labour utilisation1 and growth in labour productivity. 2 At an individual level, the primary
drivers of per capita income growth are fluctuations in the terms of trade and labour productivity
growth.
Because the global mining sector responds to higher commodity prices by expanding capacity, the
terms of trade are unlikely to provide sustained boosts to Australia’s living standards. As such,
labour productivity is likely to be the main driver of future growth in living standards.
Despite concerns, Australia’s labour productivity growth over recent years is in line with its
longer-term performance. In the five years to 2015-16, labour productivity in the whole economy has
grown at an average annual rate of 1.8 per cent. This compares to an average annual rate of
1.4 per cent over the past 15 years and 1.6 per cent over the past 30 years.3
Given the importance of labour productivity growth in improving living standards, an understanding
of trends in Australia’s productivity performance and the impact of structural change on productivity
growth can help reveal where we stand and implications for the future. This paper discusses sources
of productivity growth in the Australian context, followed by an examination of sectoral productivity
growth to highlight how within-sector productivity growth and across-sector productivity growth (or
the effects of structural change on productivity) contribute to aggregate productivity growth.
In analysing sources of labour productivity growth, we address the tension between labour
productivity growth and multifactor productivity (MFP) metrics. Commentators who view labour
productivity growth through the lens of a closed economy neoclassical growth framework have
voiced concerns about the slow growth of MFP (Garnaut, 2015). This concern, in large part, stems
from the belief that sustainable long-run economic growt ...
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työmarkkinoiden polarisoitumista Suomessa. Aiemmat tutkimukset tarkastelevat kehitystä koko talouden, toimialojen tai alueiden tasolla. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työpaikkojen rakennemuutosta yritystasolla. Tulokset osoittavat, että rutiiniluonteiset työtehtävät ovat vähentyneet merkittävästi suomalaisissa yrityksissä. Palkkajakauman keskivaiheilla olevien rutiiniluonteisten työtehtävien väheneminen kytkeytyy informaatio- ja kommunikaatioteknologian käyttöönottoon yrityksissä.
Fluctuations of employment across age and gender - Enrico Zaninotto, Roberto ...OECD CFE
The document summarizes two studies examining how employment fluctuations affect different age and gender groups in Italy. Study 1 uses provincial data to analyze how employment levels respond differently across age groups during economic upturns and downturns. Preliminary results suggest younger and prime-age workers see larger employment declines during downturns while older groups are more stable. Study 2 will analyze individual work transitions and how workforce composition changes during the business cycle may impact productivity. The research aims to understand how Italy's labor market regulations have influenced these patterns.
This document presents a decomposition method for analyzing changes in a country or industry's labor share over time. The method distinguishes between two factors influencing labor share changes: 1) Changes within individual continuing plants from period to period; and 2) Microstructural changes in the industry/country due to some plants gaining market share while others lose market share. The document applies this decomposition method to longitudinal plant-level data from Finland's manufacturing sector over 30 years to examine how globalization has impacted labor shares through its effects on productivity and wages at the plant level.
This paper focuses on the share and incidence of nominal and real wages cuts in the Finnish private sector. It complements other analyses of downward wage rigidities especially by looking for individual and employer characteristics that might explain the likelihood of observing an individual’s wage cut. The examinations are based on Probit models that include individual characteristics, employer characteristics, and the form of remuneration as explanatory variables. We find relatively few individual or employer characteristics that have a strong and common influence on the likelihood of wage decline across the different segments of labour markets. However, the full-time workers have had a lower likelihood of nominal and real wage declines during the 1990s compared with part-time workers. Declines in wages have also been more common in small plants/firms. In addition, nominal wage declines have been more transitory by their nature within the segments of the Finnish labour markets in which they are more common. Overall, the frequency of nominal wage declines has been fairly low for manufacturing nonmanuals and service sector workers but somewhat higher for manual workers in manufacturing. However, nominal wage moderation together with a positive inflation rate produced real wage cuts for a large proportion of employees during the worst recession years of the early 1990s.
This document analyzes the effect of trade liberalization on employment in Tanzania's textile industry through econometric modeling. It reviews literature on the theoretical linkages between trade reforms and labor markets. The study develops models of employment and wages as a function of variables like output, import penetration, export intensity, and technology. It finds that import competition had a larger negative impact on employment than export orientation. Wages also declined with import penetration but were less affected by other factors. The results suggest Tanzania's trade reforms hurt the textile industry's labor market and that a more gradual liberalization coupled with institutional support could have made the reforms more effective.
This document analyzes the relationship between inter-industry, intra-industry, and inter-regional clustering and the demand for labor by companies in Portugal. It develops an equation to model the relationship between the relative growth of regional employment in an industry and factors representing transportation costs, backward and forward linkages between industries, and agglomeration economies. The document uses statistical data on employment, wages, and goods flows for Portugal's five regions and nine manufacturing industries from 1986 to 1994 to estimate the model.
Labour productivity can be measured in different ways, such as output per worker or output per hour. Long-term UK productivity growth has averaged around 2% annually. UK productivity lags behind competitors like France and the US. The main drivers of productivity are skills, innovation, investment, competition and enterprise. Skills are particularly important, and in the UK a lower proportion of people have higher skills compared to other nations. Around 6% of UK employees have skills that do not meet their employers' needs.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä yrityksissä että yritysrakenteiden muutoksen välityksellä. Aineistona käytetään Suomen yritys-työntekijäaineistoja, jotka ulottuvat pitkälle aikavälille ja kattavat suuren osan yrityksistä. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Keskitason tuotantotehtäviä ja toimistotehtäviä sisältävien ammattien osuus on pienentynyt. Samaan aikaan matalan osaamistason palveluammattien ja korkean osaamistason erityisasiantuntija-ammattien osuus on puolestaan ollut kasvussa. Kehityskulut ovat tapahtuneet osin jatkavien yritysten sisällä, mutta osin myös yritysten välillä tapahtuneiden rakennemuutosten kautta. Osa polarisaatiosta johtuu siitä, että kasvavien yritysten ammattirakenteet poikkeavat pienentyvien yritysten ammattirakenteista sekä siitä, että uusien yritysten ammattirakenteet poikkeavat poistuvien yritysten rakenteista. Palveluammattien osuutta on kasvattanut se, että uusissa yrityksissä palveluammattien osuus on ollut suuri ja poistuvissa yrityksissä pieni. Toisaalta palveluammattien osuus on kasvanut myös jatkavissa yrityksissä. Erilaisia keskitason rutiinitehtäviä on kadonnut sekä yritysten sisällä että yritysten vaihtuvuuden kautta. Sen sijaan korkean osaamistason ammattien osuuden kasvu selittyy ennen kaikkea yrityksien sisällä tapahtuneiden muutosten kautta. Jatkavissa yrityksissä tapahtunut ammattirakenteiden muutos on kytkeytynyt sekä tavaroiden ja palveluiden ulkomaankauppaan että tehtävien ulkoistamiseen maasta. Paljon T&K:hon panostavat ja ICT:tä käyttävät yritykset vähentävät tuotantotyöntekijöitä.
This document discusses the methodology used by the EU Economic Policy Committee and Ageing Working Group to project the impact of pension reforms on macroeconomic indicators like GDP and unemployment. It specifically examines Greece's 2010 pension reform and compares the 2008 and 2010 projections.
The methodology projects labor market participation rates over time based on historical entry and exit rates from the labor force, adjusting the exit rates for older workers based on estimated effects of pension reforms. Higher participation leads to increased employment, lowering unemployment per Okun's Law, and increasing GDP per standard production functions.
The 2010 Greek reform was estimated to increase the effective retirement age by 1 year for men and 2 years for women. While the reform was projected to positively impact participation rates long
This paper studies wage adjustment during the recent crisis in regulated and unregulated labor markets in Italy. Using a unique dataset on immigrant workers, we show that before the crisis wages in the formal/regulated and informal/unregulated sectors moved in parallel (with a 15 percent premium in the formal labor market). During the crisis, however, formal wages did not adjust down while wages in the unregulated informal labor market fell so that by 2013 the gap had grown to 32 percent. The dierence is especially salient for workers in "simple" occupations where there is high substitutability between immigrant and native workers. Our results are consistent with the view that labor market regulation prevents downward wage adjustment during recessions.
by Sergei Guriev, Biagio Speciale and Michele Tuccio. November 2015
Read more research analysis at https://www.hhs.se/site
International Industrial Rope Access Trade Association (IRATA) membership increased to 217 companies worldwide with over 10,000 workers. Total reported working hours exceeded 10.5 million, with half spent doing rope access work. There were 65 reported injuries/illnesses, including 19 resulting in over 3 days off work and one fatality. The injury rate for secure ground work was nearly three times greater than for rope access work or training. Overall, IRATA injury rates were lower than average rates in the UK, EU and USA.
Shift share analysis is a traditional tool; through a descriptive analysis of the productive structure, it allows the comparison of regional differences within a country, region or state (SIMÕES, 2004).Shift-share analysis is one way to account for the competitiveness of a region's industries and to analyze the local economic base. This analysis is primarily used to decompose employment changes within an economy over a specific period of time into mutually exclusive factors. Like other analytical economic tools, the shift-share technique is only a descriptive tool that should be used in combination with other analysis to provide a summary of a region's key employment potential industries.
This document summarizes a study that analyzes the employment effects of minimum wage increases using panel data from nine cities in Hubei Province, China from 1995 to 2012. It describes the selection of variables like employment, minimum wage, lagged minimum wage, and GDP as a control. It also discusses the use of fixed effects and random effects models for panel data analysis and describes limitations of prior time series and natural experiment studies on minimum wages. The key findings were that minimum wage increases did not have significant negative effects on current employment but may have effects in the future, suggesting China's labor market follows monopolistic theories more than competitive theories.
Similar to Sources of Job and Worker Flows: Evidence from a Panel of Regions (20)
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numero 4/2019 sisältää artikkeleita ja haastattelun, jotka kertovat alueellista keskittymistä käsitelleistä tutkimuksista. Suomen seitsemän suurimman kaupunkiseudun väestö kasvaa nopeimmin, kun taas pienempien kaupunkien ja maaseudun väestöosuus supistuu. Muutos on kuitenkin verrattain hidasta, ja sille on myös vastavoimia.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numeron 3/2019 teemana on työ ja terveys. Artikkeleissa tarkastellaan Suomen terveydenhuoltojärjestelmän toimivuutta ja pohditaan mitä voitaisiin oppia Ruotsissa jo tehdyistä terveydenhuollon uudistuksista. Muissa artikkeleissa käsitellään terveyskäyttäytymisen ja työmarkkinamenestyksen yhteyttä, työttömien aktivointia, työikäisten eritasoisia terveyspalveluja, työaikajoustojen vaikutusta terveyteen sekä informaatioteknologian ja tekoälyn käyttöä mielenterveyspalvelujen tukena. Haastateltavana on THL:n tutkimusprofessori Unto Häkkinen. Hänen mielestään sote-uudistus on tehtävä, vaikka se vaatiikin vielä monen yksityiskohdan ratkaisemista.
Opiskelijavalinta ylioppilaskirjoitusten nykyarvosanojen perusteella ei ole täysin perusteltua, todetaan Aalto-ylipiston ja Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitoksen uudessa tutkimuksessa. Ylioppilaskirjoitusten arvosanoilla on pitkän ajan vaikutuksia. Hienojakoisempi arvosteluasteikko tekisi opiskelijavalinnasta nykyistä reilumman.
Esimerkkiperhelaskelmissa tarkastellaan seitsemää kotitaloutta. Laskelmat kuvaavat ansiotulojen, tulonsiirtojen sekä verojen ja veronluonteisten maksujen kehityksen vaikutusta perheiden ostovoimaan. Perheille lasketaan Tilastokeskuksen tietoihin perustuvat perhekohtaiset kulutuskorit, jotka mahdollistavat perhekohtaisten inflaatiovauhtien ja reaalitulokehitysten arvioinnin. Ensi vuonna eläkeläispariskunnan ostovoima kasvaa eniten ja työttömien vähiten. Esimerkkiperhelaskelmia on tehty Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitoksella vuodesta 2009 lähtien.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos ennustaa Suomen talouskasvuksi tänä vuonna 1,3 prosenttia ja ensi vuonna 1,1 prosenttia. Kasvua hidastaa eniten yksityisen kulutuksen kasvun hidastuminen. Toisaalta vienti kasvaa tänä vuonna hieman ennakoitua nopeammin, neljä prosenttia, ja ensi vuonnakin vielä kaksi prosenttia. Tuotannollisten investointien kasvu jatkuu maltillisena, mutta rakentamisen vähentyminen kääntää yksityiset investoinnit kokonaisuutena pieneen laskuun ensi vuonna. Hallituksen vuoteen 2023 mennessä tavoittelemien 75 prosentin työllisyysasteen ja julkisen talouden tasapainon toteutumista on vaikea arvioida, koska nämä tavoitteet on määritelty rakenteellisina ja niiden eri arviointimenetelmät saattavat tuottaa hyvin erilaisia tuloksia.
Suomen palkkataso oli 2015 ylempää eurooppalaista keskitasoa. Suomen suhteellinen asema ei ole juurikaan muuttunut 2010-luvun alun tilanteesta. Hintatason huomioiminen kuitenkin heikentää asemaamme palkkavertailussa. Palkkaerot meillä olivat vertailumaiden pienimpiä ja pysyivät melko samalla tasolla koko tarkastelujakson 2007–2015 ajan. EU-maissa havaittiin erisuuntaista kehitystä palkkaeroissa. Suurin osa palkkojen kokonaisvaihteluista selittyi taustaryhmien sisäisillä palkkaeroilla.
Suomessa toteutettiin vuonna 2005 laaja eläkeuudistus, jossa vanhuuseläkkeen alaikärajaa laskettiin. Tutkimuksessa havaitaan, että ikärajan lasku aikaisti eläkkeelle jäämistä. Kun alaraja laskettiin 65:stä 63:een, myös yleinen eläköitymisikä laski. Taloudellisten kannustimien muutosten vaikutukset eläköitymiseen jäivät paljon heikommiksi alaikärajan muuttamiseen verrattuna. Eläköitymisikään voidaan siis vaikuttaa tehokkaasti ja vähäisin kustannuksin lakisääteistä eläkeikää muuttamalla.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numeron 2/2019 artikkelit ja haastattelu kertovat tutkimuksista, joita on tehty Suomen Akatemian strategisen tutkimuksen neuvoston hankkeessa "Osaavat työntekijät - menestyvät työmarkkinat". Keskeinen kysymys on, miten sopeudutaan teknologisen kehityksen mukanaan tuomaan työn murrokseen.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä sitä, että mihin supistuvissa ja rutiininomaisissa ammateissa olevat työntekijät päätyvät hyödyntämällä kokonaisaineistoa vuosille 1970-2014. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Ammattirakennemuutoksen kehityskulku on pääosin tapahtunut siten, että keskitason tuotanto- ja toimistotyöntekijät ovat nousseet urapolkuja pitkin asiantuntijatöihin. Viimeaikaista palveluammattien osuutta on puolestaan kasvattanut se, että nuoret siirtyvät työmarkkinoille palvelutöihin. Rutiininomaisia ja kognitiivisia taitoja vaativien ammattien työntekijöillä on kuitenkin suurempi todennäköisyys nousta korkeammille palkkaluokille rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekeviin työntekijöihin verrattuna. Rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekevät tippuvat puolestaan suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä matalapalkka-aloille, ja heidän ansiotason kehitys on myös heikompaa.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos on alentanut Suomen talouskasvun ennustettaan kuluvalle vuodelle viimesyksyisestä 2,3 prosentista 1,4 prosenttiin. Kansainvälisen talouden näkymien epävarmuus hidastaa Suomen talouskasvua etenkin kuluvana vuonna. Jos pahimmat uhkakuvat jäävät toteutumatta, kasvu piristyy ensi vuonna hivenen 1,5 prosenttiin. Viime vuonna pysähtynyt viennin kasvu elpyy, ja myös yksityisen kulutuksen kasvu tukee talouskasvua. Suomi on sopeutunut ammattirakenteiden murrokseen yleisesti ottaen hyvin, mutta etenkin perusasteen koulutuksen varassa olevien varttuneiden työntekijöiden työllistämiseen voi olla vaikea löytää työkaluja.
The Labour Institute for Economic Research has lowered its forecast of Finland’s economic growth for the current year from last autumn’s 2.4 per cent to 1.4 per cent. Uncertainty in the international economic outlook will slow Finland’s economic growth, particularly this year. If the worst threats do not materialise, growth will pick up slightly next year to 1.5 per cent. Export growth, which came to a halt last year, will recover and growth in private consumption growth will also provide support to economic growth. In general, Finland has adjusted well to occupational restructuring, but it may be difficult to find means to employ older workers who only have basic education.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos on alentanut Suomen talouskasvun ennustettaan kuluvalle vuodelle vii-mesyksyisestä 2,3 prosentista 1,4 prosenttiin. Kansainvälisen talouden näkymien epävarmuus hidastaa Suomen talouskasvua etenkin kuluvana vuonna. Jos pahimmat uhkakuvat jäävät toteutumatta, kasvu piristyy ensi vuonna hivenen 1,5 prosenttiin. Viime vuonna pysähtynyt viennin kasvu elpyy, ja myös yksityisen kulutuksen kasvu tukee talouskasvua. Suomi on sopeutunut ammattirakenteiden murrokseen yleisesti ottaen hyvin, mutta etenkin perusasteen koulutuksen varassa olevien varttuneiden työntekijöiden työllistämiseen voi olla vaikea löytää työkaluja.
Tämä PT Policy Brief tuo esiin havaintoja Suomen tuloerojen kehityksestä 1990-luvun puolivälin jälkeen. Tällä ajanjaksolla tuloerot ovat kasvaneet. Aluksi kasvu oli hyvin nopeaa, kunnes kehitys tasaantui finanssikriisin myötä. Tämä näkyy tarkasteltaessa kehitystä viiden vuoden ajalta lasketuissa keskituloissa. Taloudessa on tuloliikkuvuutta, ts. tulot vaihtelevat vuodesta toiseen. Havaitsemme, että liikkuvuus tuloportaikossa on vähentynyt. Samalla kun tuloerot ovat kääntyneet kasvuun, on tuloverotuksen progressiivisuus alentunut. Valtion tuloveron alennusten ohella tähän on erityisesti tulojakauman huipulla vaikuttanut pääomatulojen voimakas kasvu.
Julkisen budjetin sopeuttamistoimia toteutetaan usein etuuksien indeksileikkauksina tai tuloverojen korotuksina. Näillä toimenpiteillä on tulonjako- ja työllisyysvaikutuksia. Tämä PT Policy Brief esittää SISU-mallilla lasketut vaikutukset käytettävissä oleviin tuloihin tuloluokittain, jos valtion tuloveroasteikkoa korotettaisiin 0,4 prosenttiyksiköllä tai jos kansaneläkeindeksiä leikattaisiin. Molemmissa toimenpiteissä budjetti vahvistuisi 180 miljoonalla eurolla mutta tulonjakovaikutukset ovat huomattavan erilaiset. Oheisen kuvion mukaisesti indeksileikkaukset kohdistuvat voimakkaasti alempiin tulonsaajakymmenyksiin, kun taas tuloveron korotukset kohdistuvat ylempiin kymmenyksiin. Kun huomioidaan muutosten aiheuttamat työllisyysvaikutukset, kokonaiskuva muuttuu vain hieman.
Makeisvero otettiin käyttöön makeisille ja jäätelölle vuoden 2011 alusta. Virallinen perustelu oli kerätä verotuloja, mutta poliittisessa keskustelussa selvä tavoite oli ohjata kulutusta terveellisempään suuntaan. Makeisvero nosti selvästi makeisten kuluttajahintoja, mutta se ei vaikuttanut makeisten kysyntään. Toisaalta vuonna 2014 virvoitusjuomavero nousi sokerillisille juomille, mutta sokerittomat juomat jäivät alemmalle verotasolle. Tämä muutos alensi sokerillisten juomien kulutusta ja ohjasi kulutusta sokerittomiin juomiin. Onnistunut terveellisiin tuotteisiin ohjailu näyttääkin vaativan riittävän läheisen terveellisempien tuotteiden ryhmän olemassaolon.
Talous & Yhteiskunta-lehden "Suuren vaalinumeron" 1/2019 jutut käsittelevät aiheita, jotka voivat nousta esille kevään vaalikeskusteluissa. Pääpaino on ilmastonmuutoksessa: haastateltavana on Maailman ilmatieteen järjestön pääsihteeri Petteri Taalas, ja kahdessa eri artikkelissa pohditaan metsien hiilinielujen ja yhdyskuntarakenteen merkitystä pyrittäessä hillitsemään ilmaston lämpenemistä. Muut artikkelit käsittelevät tuloerojen kasvua, sotea, eläkkeiden riittävyyttä, maahanmuuttajien työllistymistä, EMUn uudistamista, eurooppalaista palkkavertailua ja kestävyysvajeen sopimattomuutta talouspolitiikan suunnitteluun.
Raportissa tehdään laskelmia korkeakouluopiskelijoille suunnatun opintotuen tulorajojen muutosten vaikutuksista. Opintotuen tulorajojen tavoite on, että suurituloisille opiskelijoille ei makseta opintotukea. Samalla nykyiset tulorajat kuitenkin estävät opiskelijoita tienaamasta niin paljon kuin he haluaisivat. Laskelmissa hyödynnetään simulaatiomallia, jonka avulla voidaan arvioida miten opiskelijoiden tulojakauma muuttuisi eri vaihtoehtoisissa opintotuen tulorajojen muutoksissa. Tulosten mukaan nykyisiä tulorajaoja voisi nostaa esimerkiksi 50 prosentilla, jolloin yhdeksän kuukauden ajan opintotukea nostavan opiskelijan vuosituloraja olisi 18 000 euroa nykyisen noin 12 000 euron sijaan. Laskelmien mukaan tällöin päästäisiin opintotuen nykyisten tulorajojen haitallisista tulovaikutuksista laajasti ottaen eroon, koska vain harva opiskelija tienaisi tätä tulorajaa enempää. Ottaen huomioon verotulot ja tulonsiirrot tämä vaihtoehto lisäisi julkisyhteisöjen nettotuloja arviolta 5,9 miljoonaa euroa vuodessa.
Tässä tutkimuksessa tutkitaan diskreettien valintajoukkojen vaikutusta palkansaajien työn tarjonnan reagoimiseen tuloveroihin. Artikkelin empiirisessä osiossa hyödynnetään opintotuen tulorajojen aiheuttamaa tuloveroissa tapahtuvaa äkillistä nousua, ja reformia, jossa tulorajoja nostettiin. Tulosten mukaan vuoden 2008 reformi, jossa tulorajaa nostettiin 9 opintotukikuukautta nostaneille 9000 eurosta 12000 euroon, aiheutti merkittäviä muutoksia opiskelijoiden tulojakaumassa. Tulojakauma siirtyi korkeammalle tasolle lähtien noin 2000 euron tuloista. Koska opiskelijoiden verojärjestelmässä ei tapahtunut muutoksia näin alhaisella tasolla vuoden 2008 reformissa, eivät työn taloustieteen normaalit mallit pysty selittämään tätä siirtymää. Artikkelissa esitetään empiirisiä lisätuloksia, teoreettisia argumentteja ja simulaatiomalli, jotka kaikki viittaavat siihen, että tuloksen pystyy selittämään diskreettien valintajoukkojen mallilla. Lisäksi artikkelissa esitetään, että verotuksen hyvinvointitappiot voivat olla suuremmat kuin empiirisesti estimoidut, jos valintajoukot ovat diskreettejä, mutta niiden ajatellaan olevan jatkuvia.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden uuteen numeroon sisältyy artikkeleita veropohjasta ja -vajeesta, liikenteen veroista, naisista tulojakauman huipulla, työllisyyden kasvusta, mikrosimulaatiomalleista ja digitalisaatiosta. Lehdessä on myös Helsingin yliopiston professori Uskali Mäen haastattelu, jossa käsitellään tieteenfilosofista näkökulmaa taloustieteeseen.
Tutkimuksessa rakennettiin uusia makrotaloudellisia malleja PT:n ennustetyötä varten. Malleilla tehtiin ennusteita vuosille 2017 ja 2018. Mallien BKT-ennuste vuodelle 2017 on 3,1 prosenttia (vrt. toteutunut 2,8 prosenttia) ja vuodelle 2018 1,8 prosenttia (vrt. PT:n 11.9 ennuste 2,7 prosenttia).
About Potato, The scientific name of the plant is Solanum tuberosum (L).Christina Parmionova
The potato is a starchy root vegetable native to the Americas that is consumed as a staple food in many parts of the world. Potatoes are tubers of the plant Solanum tuberosum, a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern United States to southern Chile
Synopsis (short abstract) In December 2023, the UN General Assembly proclaimed 30 May as the International Day of Potato.
Donate to charity during this holiday seasonSERUDS INDIA
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Working with data is a challenge for many organizations. Nonprofits in particular may need to collect and analyze sensitive, incomplete, and/or biased historical data about people. In this talk, Dr. Cori Faklaris of UNC Charlotte provides an overview of current AI capabilities and weaknesses to consider when integrating current AI technologies into the data workflow. The talk is organized around three takeaways: (1) For better or sometimes worse, AI provides you with “infinite interns.” (2) Give people permission & guardrails to learn what works with these “interns” and what doesn’t. (3) Create a roadmap for adding in more AI to assist nonprofit work, along with strategies for bias mitigation.
Contributi dei parlamentari del PD - Contributi L. 3/2019Partito democratico
DI SEGUITO SONO PUBBLICATI, AI SENSI DELL'ART. 11 DELLA LEGGE N. 3/2019, GLI IMPORTI RICEVUTI DALL'ENTRATA IN VIGORE DELLA SUDDETTA NORMA (31/01/2019) E FINO AL MESE SOLARE ANTECEDENTE QUELLO DELLA PUBBLICAZIONE SUL PRESENTE SITO
This report explores the significance of border towns and spaces for strengthening responses to young people on the move. In particular it explores the linkages of young people to local service centres with the aim of further developing service, protection, and support strategies for migrant children in border areas across the region. The report is based on a small-scale fieldwork study in the border towns of Chipata and Katete in Zambia conducted in July 2023. Border towns and spaces provide a rich source of information about issues related to the informal or irregular movement of young people across borders, including smuggling and trafficking. They can help build a picture of the nature and scope of the type of movement young migrants undertake and also the forms of protection available to them. Border towns and spaces also provide a lens through which we can better understand the vulnerabilities of young people on the move and, critically, the strategies they use to navigate challenges and access support.
The findings in this report highlight some of the key factors shaping the experiences and vulnerabilities of young people on the move – particularly their proximity to border spaces and how this affects the risks that they face. The report describes strategies that young people on the move employ to remain below the radar of visibility to state and non-state actors due to fear of arrest, detention, and deportation while also trying to keep themselves safe and access support in border towns. These strategies of (in)visibility provide a way to protect themselves yet at the same time also heighten some of the risks young people face as their vulnerabilities are not always recognised by those who could offer support.
In this report we show that the realities and challenges of life and migration in this region and in Zambia need to be better understood for support to be strengthened and tuned to meet the specific needs of young people on the move. This includes understanding the role of state and non-state stakeholders, the impact of laws and policies and, critically, the experiences of the young people themselves. We provide recommendations for immediate action, recommendations for programming to support young people on the move in the two towns that would reduce risk for young people in this area, and recommendations for longer term policy advocacy.
United Nations World Oceans Day 2024; June 8th " Awaken new dephts".Christina Parmionova
The program will expand our perspectives and appreciation for our blue planet, build new foundations for our relationship to the ocean, and ignite a wave of action toward necessary change.
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed online journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
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2. 1
PALKANSAAJIEN TUTKIMUSLAITOS ••TYÖPAPEREITA
LABOUR INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC RESEARCH •• DISCUSSION PAPERS
1
We are grateful to Eija Savaja (Labour Institute for Economic Research) for her help with
the construction of the data.
*Labour Institute for Economic Research. Pitkänsillanranta 3A, FIN–00530 Helsinki, Finland.
Fax: +358–9–2535 7332. E-mail: petri.bockerman@labour.fi
**Government Institute for Economic Research. Hämeentie 3, FIN–00530 Helsinki, Finland.
Fax: +358–9–703 2968. E-mail: kari.hamalainen@vatt.fi
***Statistics Finland. Työpajakatu 13, FIN–00022 Tilastokeskus. E-mail: mika.maliranta@stat.fi
+
Corresponding author
Helsinki 2002
178
SOURCES OF
JOB AND
WORKER
FLOWS:
EVIDENCE
FROM A PANEL
OF REGIONS1
Petri Böckerman*
Kari Hämäläinen**+
Mika Maliranta***
4. 3
Abstract
The aim of this study is to explore the structure and the dynamics of regional labour
markets in terms of gross job and worker flows. The regional turnover rates are related
to macroeconomic indicators, demographic factors and industry-structure by employing
the data of 85 Finnish regions over the period of 1988–1997. The results imply that
different factors can have similar effects on net changes in employment and
unemployment by various means of affecting gross changes.
Tiivistelmä
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan alueellisten työpaikka- ja työntekijävirtojen rakennetta ja
kehitystä. Työpaikkojen ja työntekijöiden vaihtuvuutta selitetään makrotaloudellisilla ja
demografisilla tekijöillä sekä toimialarakenteella käyttäen 85 seutukunnan aineistoa
vuosilta 1988–1997. Selittävillä tekijöillä voi olla samankaltaisia vaikutuksia työllisyy-
den nettomuutokseen siten, että ne vaikuttavat eri tavoin työmarkkinoiden bruttovir-
toihin.
JEL classification: C23, J63, R23.
Keywords: job flows, worker flows, dynamic panel data estimation.
5. 4
1. Introduction
Market economies are in a state of continuous turbulence. During the past ten years a
growing body of literature has emerged that employs longitudinal, linked employer-
employee data in analysing the pace of job reallocation and worker flows. The novelty
of this approach follows from the possibility to decompose net employment changes
into gross job and worker flows. These gross flows are much larger in magnitude than
the observed net changes in employment. Davis and Haltiwanger (1999) report that in
most Western economies roughly ten per cent of jobs is created/destroyed each year.
Worker flows are even larger in magnitude.
Establishment-level studies have mainly focused on the pace of job reallocation and
worker flows in different phases of business cycles and across regions. The U.S.
evidence points out that the components of net employment change behave quite
differently over time and across regions. Job destruction is primarily associated with
cyclical variation, and job creation with regional variation, Eberts and Montgomery
(1995). A typical finding is also that gross job flows are persistent; the majority of
newly destroyed (created) jobs are not reopened (destroyed) within the next few years.
In addition, a substantial part of gross job flows follows from rather large annual
changes in plant-level employment, according to Davis and Haltiwanger (1999).
When it comes to country differences, the turnover rates are found to be fairly similar
across countries regardless of different labour market institutions (e.g. Nickell, 1998).
This observation is consistent with the view put forward in Bertola and Rogerson
(1997), according to which the rate of job reallocation is a decreasing function of wage
dispersion that tends to be larger in less regulated labour markets.
Even though the differences in job and worker reallocation in different phases of a
business cycle and between countries/regions are well reported, the determinants of this
evolution have remained relatively unexplored. We aim at shedding some additional
light on this issue by analysing the establishment-level turnover rates during the years
1988–1997 in 85 Finnish regional labour markets that share the same labour market
institutions and roughly the same wage dispersion. In particular, an effort is made to
investigate the impact of macroeconomic factors, migration flows, demographic factors
and industry-structure on job reallocation and worker flows.
6. 5
The issue of interest in this study is closely connected to a large body of literature that
explores regional unemployment differentials. An extensive survey by Elhorst (2000)
reveals that almost all of these studies have analysed the determinants of regional
unemployment through net measures. Against this background, the examination of
gross turnover flows along with net flows is interesting in its own right. It may provide
new explanations for the factors hanging behind the persistence of regional
unemployment disparities.
The study is organised as follows. The second section provides the definitions of the
measures of gross job and worker flows. The section also provides stylized facts of
gross job and worker flows in Finnish regions. The third section introduces the data and
the econometric methods employed in analyses. The fourth section provides the
estimation results concerning the effects of various factors on regional job and worker
flows. The fifth section concludes.
2. Job and worker flows
The gross flows of jobs and workers measure the number of jobs created/destroyed
within establishments, and workers moving in and out of establishments (i.e. hiring and
separation of workers). The measure of the job creation rate (JC) is given by
(1) JCt = ∑i∆ +
itE / ((∑i Eit + ∑i Ei, t-1) /2),
where E denotes employment in an establishment i in year t and the superscript “+”
refers to a positive change in employment. To get the turnover rate, the overall sum of
jobs created is divided by the average employment in periods t and t-1. It can be shown
that this definition has several technical advantages over more conventional growth rate
measures, see Davis et al. (1996).
The measure of the job destruction rate (JD) is calculated similarly as
(2) JDt = ∑i∆ −
itE / ((∑i Eit + ∑i Ei, t-1) /2),
7. 6
where the superscript “-” refers to a negative change in employment in an establishment
i. The job destruction rate is defined as the absolute value of the sum of negative
changes in employment within establishments, divided by the average number of
employees in time periods t and t-1.
The definitions above can be employed in measuring the net rate of employment change
NETt = JCt - JDt, the gross job reallocation rate JRt = JCt + JDt and the excess job
reallocation rate EJRt = JRt - NETt . The excess job reallocation is an index of
simultaneous job creation and destruction (e.g. Davis and Haltiwanger, 1999). If this
measure is positive, the magnitude of (gross) job reallocation in a region exceeds the
change in net employment.
In addition to gross job flows, linked employer-employee data provides means to
measure gross worker flows. By combining data from two consecutive years, it is
possible to calculate the number of employees who have entered a plant during a given
year and who are still working at the same plant at the end of the year. The sum of these
employees over all plants gives the total worker inflow. By the same token the total
worker outflow is obtained by summing up the number of employees who have
separated from plants during a year.
Worker inflow (WIF) and outflow (WOF) rates are obtained in a similar fashion to job
flows by dividing the total worker inflow/outflow by the average of employment in
periods t and t-1. The difference between the hiring rate and the separation rate gives the
net rate of change in employment, i.e. NETt = WIFt - WOFt.
The hiring (separation) rate can be decomposed by the source (destination) of worker
inflow (outflow). To examine the regional dynamics of unemployment, it is convenient
to measure the worker inflow rate from unemployment (WIFU) and the worker outflow
rate into unemployment (WOFU). The difference between these measures gives the net
rate of change in unemployment, i.e. UNETt = WIFUt - WOFUt.
The final definitions of job and worker flows consist of the worker flow rate (WF),
which is the sum of the hiring (WIF) and separation rates (WOF), and of the churning
rate (CF):
(3) CFt = WFt - JRt.
8. 7
The churning rate completes the picture of labour adjustment in regional labour markets
by combining establishment-level worker and job flows together. The churning rate is
also called “excess worker turnover rate” since it compares worker flows with job
flows. By this means, the churning rate measures the structural change of regional
labour markets within plants.
Job and worker flows needed in empirical analyses are constructed from the employer-
employee data that covers more than 80 percent of total employment in the non-farming
business sector of the percent of total employment in the non-farming business sector of
the Finnish.1
Annual job and worker flows are aggregated to 85 regions corresponding
to the NUTS 4 level of the EU. The public sector has to be excluded from the analyses
owing to practical problems in measuring annual gross job and worker flows within
public sector establishments. Agriculture is also excluded, since the employer-level data
is combined with the employer-level data by using Employment Statistics, which does
not include farmers.
Even with these limitations the data covers a substantially larger part of the economy
than most of the previous studies on job and worker flows that have concentrated
mainly in manufacturing industries (e.g. Davis and Haltiwanger, 1999). What is more,
the data covers almost the entire population of establishments and employees in all
regions, so the analyses of regional job and worker flows become possible. This is not
always the case, especially in the U.S. (see Davis et al. 1996, 222–223; Shimer 2001,
999–1000).
Figures 1–2 report regional job flows for selected years.2
There are several observations
to be made. First, regions differ substantially in their ability to create jobs. The largest
differences in gross job creation rates are found to be 20–30 points. Second, the
variation in job destruction rates is less pronounced, the difference being some 15–25
1
The linked employer-employee data set is formed by Statistics Finland by combining various
administrative registers of individuals together with business registers. The resulting data set is rich in
information over both establishments and individuals. The industries are the following: mining (C),
manufacturing (D), energy etc. (E), construction (F), trade (G), hotels and restaurants (H), transportation
etc. (I), finance (J), and real estate, business services etc. (K). This means that agriculture, forestry and
fishing (A; B), public administration (L), education (M), health and social work (N), other social and
personal services (O), international organisations (Q), and industry unknown (X) are excluded from the
evaluation of the regional gross job and worker flows. The labour force status of individuals is measured
during the last week of December.
2
For expository purposes all measures are multiplied by 100 in all figures.
9. 8
points. Third, the recovery from the depression happened in all regions both by an
increase in the rate of job creation and by a decline in the rate of job destruction.
Figure 1. The gross job creation rates (JC) in Finnish regions in 1991 and 1994.
Figure 2. The gross job destruction rates (JD) in Finnish regions in 1988 and 1991.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1991
1994
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1991
1994
10. 9
The most interesting observation reveals the strong connection between the average job
creation and the job destruction rates (Fig. 3), and the equally strong correlation
between the worker inflow and outflow rates (Fig. 4).3
This means that regions with a
high ability to create jobs (hirings) also tend to experience sizeable job losses
(separations). The findings are similar to the ones reported in Greenway et al. (2000),
who analysed gross job flows in different U.K. industries. It should be emphasized that
the positive correlation cannot be totally contributed to the intensive entry and exit of
firms/ establishment in the service sector, i.e. to the industry structure of regions.
Ilmakunnas and Topi (1999) report that entry and exit count only for some three per
cent of overall change in employment, and Finnish regions are not completely
specialized.
Figure 3. The scatterplot of the average job creation rates (JC) and the average
gross job destruction rates (JD) across Finnish regions.
3
The high rates of job creation and job destruction are observed especially in Northern Finland, and low
rates in Eastern Finland. One potential explanation for this is provided by active labour market policy that
is extensively targeted to Northern Finland. It should be noted, however, that the reported job flows are
calculated by comparing the situation within an establishment between the end of year t and the end of
year t-1, and that the duration of a typical subsidised job period is six months. Accordingly, these spells
are not, at least totally, included in the measures of gross job flows.
5
10
15
20
25
5 10 15 20 25
JD
JC
11. 10
Figure 4. The scatterplot of the average worker inflow rates (WIF) and the average
worker outflow rate (WOF) across Finnish regions.
3. Empirical specifications
The time period of empirical analysis spans the years 1988–1997. These years include a
rapid increase in unemployment in the early 1990s (from 4 per cent to almost 20 per
cent) and the gradual decrease in unemployment from the mid 1990s onward. (For the
analysis of the Finnish recession, see Honkapohja and Koskela, 1999.) The changes
were not evenly distributed across regions, so data offer a unique opportunity to
investigate the factors influencing the differences in job and worker turnover rates
among regions.
Regional job and worker flows are explained by various factors that control for
observable differences in regional growth, productivity, labour force, demographics,
migration and industry structure.4
This information is collected from different registers
maintained by Statistics Finland. Time varying changes that are common to all regions
are controlled by the real interest rate and by the terms of trade. The inclusion of year
dummies instead of these variables produces the same results.
16
20
24
28
32
36
16 21 26 31 36
WOF
WIF
12. 11
Gross job and worker flows have been observed to depend on the business cycle, so the
change in regional production per capita is also included among the regressors in this
study. Other terms named as macroeconomic indicators control for observable
differences in the financial situation of municipalities and in regional productivity. The
inclusion of the regional productivity term is motivated by findings according to which
an increase in productivity may have a positive impact on employment in growing
establishments, see Bartelsman and Doms (2000).
Variables of demographics and migration reflect regional differences in education, age
structure and in-migration. The proportion of unskilled individuals in the labour force
(UNSK) is included in the analysis to take account of possible changes in the
composition of labour demand that are put forward in the literature of skill-biased
technological change (e.g. Atkinson, 1999). The other variable controlling for the
impact of demographic factors on labour market flows is the proportion of individuals
over the age of 55 to the population (AGED). A shift in labour demand away from older
workers is expected to show up in the parameter estimates of this variable.
Gross migration flows form an important part of the reallocation of labour force.
Furthermore, the clustering of producers and workers at a particular region creates
positive externalities that boost the growth of the region, see Krugman (1998) among
others. If this is the case, in-migration is positively connected to job creation and the
hiring rate. The effect of in-migration on job destruction and worker outflow is less
evident, a priori. Provided that migrants compete with workers and unemployed persons
living in destination areas, higher in-migration may increase worker outflow rates.
Accordingly, the net effect of in-migration remains an empirical issue.
We next turn to the industry structure. The earlier empirical studies have shown that
there are differences in the evolution of gross job and worker flows across industries
(e.g. Davis and Haltiwanger, 1999). This observation has been connected to regional
differences in Böckerman and Maliranta (2001), who examined gross and net flows in
twenty provinces of Finland. They found out that the 2-digit standard industry
classification helps to explain a part of the observed differences in regional net
employment changes. However, the industry structure was of limited value in
4
For the definition of these variables, see Appendix 1. The summary statistics are reported in Appendix
2.
13. 12
explaining the differences in regional gross job and worker flows. It is interesting to
examine whether this also holds true in a more complex setting.
Since the data cover all NUTS4 regions in Finland, the natural starting point for the
analysis is the fixed effects model of the form:
(4) Yit = βXit + ηi + δt + eit, i = 1, . . ., 85; t = 1,. . ., 10,
where Y stands for the selected measure of job or worker flow and X is a vector of
explanatory variables. The unobserved regional effect, ηi, is taken to be constant over
time and specific to each region i. The individual effects are allowed to correlate with
the explanatory variables. Any time-specific effects that are not included in the model
are accounted for by the regional-invariant time effects, δt. Finally, the remaining
disturbances, eit, are assumed to be independently and identically distributed over i and
t.
According to certain assumptions the model set up in equation (4) can be consistently
and efficiently estimated by means of the within-group estimator (e.g. Hsiao, 1985;
Baltagi, 1995). However, in the current context the within-group estimator has at least
two potential shortcomings. Firstly, it assumes that all explanatory variables are strictly
exogenous, i.e. uncorrelated with the past, present and future realisations of eit. This
assumption is violated, for instance, if an unexpected shock to job creation or worker
flows in some region affects the future in-migration to that region. Secondly, the within-
group estimator generates inconsistent estimates in dynamic specifications if the
number of time periods is fixed (see Nickell, 1981).
To overcome these difficulties, we also analyse the data by means of the following
dynamic model:
(5) ∑∑ =
−
=
− ++++=
P
k
ittiktip
P
k
ktipit XYY
0
,
1
, εδηβα .
The model set up in equation (5) can be consistently estimated by employing the
Arellano-Bond (1991) GMM method for the first differenced equation. Although
differencing eliminates the individual effects, it induces a negative correlation between
the lagged dependent variable, ∆Yit-1, and the disturbance term ∆εit. The Arellano-Bond
14. 13
method overcomes this problem by employing linear orthogonality conditions E(Yi,t-s
∆εit) = 0 for t = 3, … , T and 1ts2 −≤≤ and p = 1, as instruments for the lagged
dependent variable. In addition, all leads and lags of strictly exogenous explanatory
variables can be employed as instruments for all equations in first differences.
If the assumption that the explanatory variables are strictly exogenous with respect to εit
does not hold, some of the explanatory variables are correlated with the disturbance
term as E(Xit εis) ≠ 0 if ts ≤ . In this case, the valid instrument set for period t consists
of lagged values of the dependent variable Yi,t-s, 2s ≥ and of the the lagged values of
endogenous variables Xi,t-s 2≥s . Accordingly, the set of valid instruments becomes
larger as t increases. Monte Carlo experiments show that the use of the full set of
moment conditions in the later cross-sections may result in over-fitting biases in the
estimates (see Arellano and Honore, 2000). For this reason, it is advisable to remove the
least informative instruments from the instrument set.
Dependent variables at time t are based on the changes in the number of jobs/workers
within establishments between the last weeks of periods t-1 and t. These are related to a
set of strongly exogenous variables and to a set of endogenously determined variables.
Strongly exogenous variables are allowed to influence job and worker flows from
periods t-1 and t-2. In the case of endogenous variables, the effects are allowed to arise
from the current period, t, and from the period t-1.
There are three endogenous variables, viz. the rate of in-migration, the share of highly
educated individuals among in-migrants, and the change in regional production per
capita (DGDP). The underlying hypothesis of this specification is that individuals move
for work-related reasons, in which case an unexpected drop in, say, job creation is,
already reflected in in-migration during the period t. At the same time, this drop is
allowed to affect regional production. Finally, regional productivity is measured from
the period t-2 to avoid the possible correlation with the DGDP variable. It should be
noted, however, that adding the productivity term lagged once produces similar results
to those reported below.
15. 14
4. The results
The results differ sharply between the unreported conventional fixed effects models and
the dynamic GMM models reported in tables 1 and 2.5
This is mainly due to the lack of
dynamics in the static fixed effects specification. If the same lag structure is employed
in fixed effects estimations as in GMM estimations, the results become similar between
different methods in qualitative terms. Naturally, the parameter estimates differ, owing
to the misspecification of the FE model when lagged endogenous variables are included
in the estimation (see Nickell, 1981). Since the preliminary results imply that the
conventional, static fixed effects model can produce seriously biased results, at least in
the current context, we focus on the results of GMM models in what follows.
Three cross-sections are lost in constructing lags and taking first differences in dynamic
specifications. The GMM results correspond to specifications with the minimum
number of instruments that managed to pass the implemented tests for the second-order
autocorrelation, AR(2), and for the validity of the instrument set, SARGAN. More
extensive instrument sets produce largely similar results to those reported in Tables 1
and 2. The only difference is that some variables reported as insignificant turn out to be
statistically significant. This indicates the presence of an over-fitting bias in large
instrument sets discussed in Arellano and Honore (2000). By and large, the parameter
estimates are also robust to different specifications of migration flows and regional
DGDP. However, if these variables are modelled as exogenous, all models fail to pass
the SARGAN test for the validity of the instrument set.
The cyclical properties of job and worker flows have gained a lot of attention in the
analysis of linked employer-employee data. In the current setting, this issue can be
explored through the parameter estimates of the DGDP variable. The results show that
an increase in regional GDP expands job creation and the hiring rate while decreasing
job destruction and worker outflow. This finding is in line with previous Finnish studies
in which gross flows are measured in different phases of a business cycle, see
Ilmakunnas and Maliranta (2000).
5
The results of the unreported fixed effects models are available from the authors on request.
16. 15
In addition to the cyclical nature of gross job and worker flows, three further
observations are worth making from the parameter estimates of DGDP. First, the long-
run elasticity with respect to worker inflow from unemployment (WIFU) is lower than
the one with respect to total worker inflow (WIF). This implies that establishments tend
to hire proportionally more employees from other establishments (and from the pool of
students) than from the pool of unemployed persons during a surge of economic
activity. Second, the long-run elasticity with respect to worker outflows follows the
same pattern, a reduction in total worker outflow being greater than in worker outflow
into unemployment. These observations are also shown in net employment and net
unemployment equations, economic growth having a larger impact in the former one.
Finally, the excess job reallocation rate is procyclical, i.e. the magnitude of
simultaneous gross job creation and destruction declines during the times of economic
slowdown. This finding is in line with previous Finnish studies and contrasts the U.S.
evidence reported in Davis and Haltiwanger (1999).
Economic growth provides only a partial explanation for regional differences in job and
worker flows. According to the results, regional productivity, which also reflects the
profitability of firms situated in a region, helps to explain a large part of differences in
regional job and worker flows. The effect of productivity is found to be more
pronounced in the case of job flows than worker flows. The long-run difference between
the lowest and the highest value of productivity between the regions and over time is
estimated to be as large as 0.70 in job creation and 1.22 in the net rate of employment
change. These figures are large but not totally out of line. The job creation rate may
vary between 0 and 2, whereas the range of the net rate of employment change varies
between –2 to 2. However, since the actual difference between the highest and the
lowest value of the net rate of employment change is some 0.7 points, the magnitude of
estimates has to be considered with some caution.6
The estimates may pick up some
unobservable factors that are not included in estimations.
The results show that in-migration (MIG1) boosts job creation and the hiring rate, the
finding being consistent with the predictions of new economic geography, see e.g.
Fujita et al. (1999). These positive gross effects result in an improvement in the net rate
6
We have also experimented with the models that did not contain the productivity term. The unreported
results show that the results remain largely consistent with the ones reported in Tables 1 and 2. Even
though the dropping of the productivity term enhances some of the parameter estimates, the qualitative
results remain the same.
17. 16
of employment change (NET) and in a reduction in the net rate of unemployment
change (UNET). Favourable net effects are found to become even larger if in-migrants
are highly educated. Having said that, the favourable effects of in-migration may
materialise at the cost of workers living in a destination region as indicated by the
positive and statistically significant parameter estimate of MIG1 in the worker outflow
equation. There is also some evidence that it takes time before migrants establish
themselves in the labour markets of destination areas. This is highlighted in the
churning rate equation (CF) in which a large inflow of migrants is found to yield a high
rate of excess worker reallocation.
It is somewhat surprising to notice that demographic factors have only a modest role in
determining regional job and worker flows. Even though, the results imply that fewer
jobs are created, and more jobs are destroyed, in regions with unskilled labour (UNSK)
or aged population (AGED), there are no statistically significant effects of demographic
factors on net employment. The parameter estimates of UNSK imply that this variable
might enter as in first differences in the net employment equation, since the parameter
estimates from different lags are opposite in sign and almost equal in absolute
magnitude. The experiments with first differences produced, however, the same results
as above the parameter estimates of UNSK remaining insignificant.
Having said that, there is some evidence that regions with a high proportion of persons
aged 55 or over tend to have a smaller hiring rate (WIF) and larger worker outflows into
unemployment (WOFU) than other regions, other things being equal. Naturally, the
high separation rate into unemployment also results in a poor employment record. In
addition, an increase in the share of old persons to the population reduces the magnitude
of gross job and worker reallocation (JR). This finding is likely to reflect the high
turnover rates of younger people.
The parameter estimates of variables controlling for observable differences in the
industry structure are reported in the lower parts of Tables 1 and 2. The difficulties
faced by agricultural regions (omitted category) are evident in the results. Various
industry variables enter net employment and unemployment equations positively and
statistically significantly. Interestingly, these favourable net effects arise mainly from
the better ability of regions to create jobs/to hire new workers. The rates of job
18. 17
destruction/worker outflow remain largely the same between regions with different
industry structures, with other things being equal.
The finding that the industry structure is a more significant factor in explaining the
regional variation in job creation than in job destruction is consistent with Eberts and
Montgomery (1995), who discovered that job creation is primarily associated with
regional variation and job destruction with cyclical variation. These observations have a
direct relevance for regional policy. If the target is to increase the number of jobs in a
region, public measures should be aimed at improving the preconditions for the birth of
new firms rather than aiding contracting firms.
5. Conclusions
During the past ten years the analyses of linked employer-employee data sets have
contributed to our knowledge on the adjustment of labour markets. These analyses are
typically based on the examination of aggregated measures of job and worker flows in
different phases of a business cycle. In some studies the issue of interest has focused on
regional differences in the adjustment of the labour market to changes in the overall
economic situation.
This study aims to broaden the picture of regional differences in job and worker flows
by combining the measures of job and worker flows together with data on various
factors that describe the labour market and the economy of a region. It is shown that
labour market dynamics differ markedly between regions of a single country despite
similar labour market institutions and labour legislation. As in previous analyses of
linked employer-employee data, job and worker flows are shown to behave cyclically.
In addition, the results indicate that observable differences in regional productivity,
labour force, demographics, in-migration and industry structure help to explain the
prevailing disparities in regional labour markets.
The results reveal that the estimated impact on a net change can occur in many ways.
For instance, the net rate of employment change is higher in booming regions where
labour productivity is high, owing to greater job creation and lower job destruction. Net
19. 18
changes are also favourable in regions with a large manufacturing sector or an
expanding electronics industry, but for other reasons: the share of manufacturing or
electronics is found to improve job creation and has no significant effect on job
destruction. This implies that the mere examination of the factors affecting net
employment/unemployment masks some interesting dynamics happening at the
establishment-level in regions.
When it comes to the regional disparities, the following can be said about the factors
influencing regional job and worker flows. More jobs are created in growing regions
where manufacturing, electronics and service sectors are large. These regions gain more
in terms of job creation and hiring from extensive in-migration that is directed to growth
centres. This happens, however, with the cost. Migrants also tend to increase worker
outflow that may be caused by the displacement of workers living in a destination
region.
In contrast to growing regions, contracting regions with a large share of agriculture,
small in-migration and old population face difficulties. The main reason for the poor
record of net employment in these areas is the modest job creation and, accordingly, a
low rate of hiring new employees. The situation is further worsened by the finding that
the older the population the more extensive is the worker outflow into unemployment.
Due to the absence of background characteristics that were found to boost job creation,
the recovery of contracting regions remained weak, even in the era of rapid economic
growth. Unfortunately, there seems to be no shortcut from the trap of high
unemployment.
What advice can we then give to contracting regions with high unemployment? Given
the persistence in regional unemployment differences, it is perhaps not surprising that
we cannot give much. Growth, productivity and in-migration are related to the prevalent
success of a region. The structure of in-migration is also unfavourable in contracting
regions and results in even larger differences in the demographics and in the quality of
the labour force among areas. Having said that, the results do give one policy
suggestion that is easy to implement. If the target of policy-makers is to increase the
number of jobs in contracting regions, public measures should be aimed at improving
the preconditions for the birth of new firms rather than aiding contracting firms.
20. 19
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22. 21
Table 1. The GMM results for job flows.
Dependent JC JD NET JR EJR
Dependentt-1 -0.176**
-0.091 -0.326**
0.087 -0.040
Macroeconomic indicators
DGDP+
t 0.005**
-0.006**
0.010**
0.001 0.003**
t-1 0.007**
-0.005**
0.013**
0.003*
0.003
PROD t-2 0.666**
-0.441**
1.306**
0.288*
0.335
DEBT t-1 0.002 0.000 -0.004 0.002 0.005
t-2 0.000 0.005 -0.001 0.004 -0.004
REAL t 0.003**
-0.001 0.003 0.005*
-0.007**
TERM t -0.003**
0.005**
-0.006**
0.000 0.004**
Labour force and migration flows
MIG1 +
t 3.642**
-1.875 6.495**
-0.981 9.475**
t-1 0.804 0.827 1.788 0.242 -3.898*
MIG2 +
t 0.360 -0.102 0.581*
-0.192 0.930
0.186 -0.047 0.181 -0.029 0.161
AGED t-1
-0.538 0.442 -1.042 0.292 -1.337
t-2 -1.669**
-0.278 -0.595 -2.415**
-1.923
UNSK t-1 1.751**
-1.271 1.360 1.047 1.153
t-2 -0.506 1.486*
-1.235 0.994 -1.052
Industry-structure variables
MANU t-1 0.063 0.081 -0.199 0.256 -0.056
t-2 0.420**
-0.227 0.619**
0.172 0.159
ELEC t-1 0.343*
-0.380 0.634**
0.054 0.300
t-2 -0.222 0.383 -0.581 0.205 0.776
SERV t-1
0.293 0.427 0.284 0.602 0.013
t-2 0.573**
-0.055 0.603 0.489 0.756**
PUBL t-1
0.579*
0.034 0.442 0.695*
0.138
t-2 0.264 -0.404 1.028**
-0.202 -0.190
HIGH t-1 -0.441**
0.186 -0.395 -0.204 -0.591*
t-2 -0.014 0.487**
-0.464 0.449 -0.952
HISE t-1 -0.258 0.103 -0.570 0.045 0.781
t-2 0.062 1.116*
-1.254*
1.726*
-0.898
Test statistics
WALD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
SARGAN 0.13 0.32 0.29 0.20 0.17
AR(2) 0.92 0.99 0.67 0.40 0.55
Instruments
Lag length 2 1 2 2 1
Notes: The results correspond to the 1-step estimates excluding the SARGAN test for overidentifying restrictions and
the AR(2) test for the second order autocorrelation of the residuals that correspond to the 2-step estimates. The
superscript ‘+’ indicates that the variable is instrumented. ** (*) indicates that the parameter estimate is statistically
significant at the 5 (10) per cent significance level. The WALD test is a test for the joint significance of the
explanatory variables. All test statistics are reported as p-values. Instruments indicate the number of lags of the
dependent variable and the predetermined variables employed in the instrument matrix.
24. 23
Appendix 1. The description of variables.
Variable Definition/measurement
a. The measures of gross job flows
JC Gross job creation rate in region i
JD Gross job destruction rate in region i
NET JC-JD (=WIF-WOF) in region i
JR Gross job reallocation rate (=JC+JD) in region i
EJR Excess job reallocation rate in region i
b. The measures of gross worker flows
WIF Worker inflow rate in region i
WIFU Worker inflow rate from unemployment in region i
WOF Worker outflow rate in region i
WOFU Worker outflow rate into unemployment in region i
UNET WIFU-WOFU in region i
WF Worker flow rate (=WIF+WOF) in region i
CF Churning rate (=WF-JR) in region i
c. The macroeconomic indicators
DGDP Per cent change in (GDP in region i / population in region i)
PROD A log in (value added in region i / employment in region i)
DEBT (long-term municipal debt held in region i / population in region i)
*10-3
REAL Real average lending rate by the Finnish banks (deflated by
production price index) (Source: Bank of Finland; Statistics
TERM Terms of trade (export price index divided by import price index)
(Source: Statistics Finland)
d. The measures of labour force and migration flows
MIG1 Gross in-migration (total) to region i/ population in region i
MIG2 Gross in-migration of persons with higher university degrees to
region i / gross in-migration (total) to region i
AGED The number of individuals aged 55+ in region i / population in
region i
UNSK The number of individuals with basic education only in labour force
in region i / labour force in region i
e. The measures of industry-structure
AGRI Value added by agriculture in region i / GDP in region i (reference)
MANU Value added by manufacturing in region i / GDP in region i
META Value added by metal industries in region i / GDP in region i
ELEC Value added by electronics in region i / GDP in region i
SERV Value added by private services in region i / GDP in region i
PUBL Value added by public sector in region i / GDP in region i
HIGH Value added by high-tech manufacturing in region i / GDP
in region i
HISE Value added by high-tech services in region i / GDP in region i
25. 24
Appendix 2. Descriptive statistics (from 1988 to 1997).
Variable Mean STD MIN MAX
JC 0.145 0.056 0.051 0.466
JD 0.177 0.060 0.059 0.445
NET -0.032 0.086 -0.374 0.330
JR 0.322 0.078 0.135 0.853
EJR 0.250 0.077 0.102 0.844
WIF 0.246 0.073 0.120 0.577
WIFU 0.044 0.031 0.000 0.181
WOF 0.278 0.066 0.139 0.497
WOFU 0.062 0.035 0.007 0.321
UNET -0.018 0.039 -0.275 0.135
WF 0.524 0.109 0.277 0.984
CF 0.202 0.061 0.072 0.516
DGDP* 0.445 6.259 -22.314 20.114
PROD 12.244 0.192 11.779 12.946
DEBT 5.125 1.521 1.411 11.179
REAL 7.532 2.722 4.182 12.470
TERM 97.30 3.331 91.70 101.50
MIG1 0.027 0.008 0.010 0.055
MIG2 0.151 0.033 0.075 0.267
AGED 0.266 0.038 0.174 0.375
UNSK 0.354 0.049 0.213 0.509
AGRI 0.152 0.093 0.003 0.420
MANU 0.320 0.119 0.074 0.638
META 0.056 0.063 0.000 0.544
ELEC 0.031 0.034 0.000 0.400
SERV 0.323 0.072 0.177 0.631
PUBL 0.205 0.056 0.089 0.401
HIGH** 0.008 0.029 0.000 0.344
HISE** 0.016 0.011 0.000 0.063
Notes: * = Data available for the years 1989–1997. ** = Data available for the years 1988–1996.