Social work with individuals is a key part of generalist social work practice. Social casework aims to help individuals solve problems through a relationship that taps personal resources. Various methods have been used in casework over time, including psychosocial, functional, problem-solving, behavioral, and task-centered approaches. Current trends favor a selective eclectic approach that is empirically grounded and solution-focused.

1. Social Work PracticeSocial Work Practice
With IndividualsWith Individuals
Chapter 5Chapter 5

2. Work With the IndividualWork With the Individual
A Generalist ApproachA Generalist Approach
 Social work with individuals is one of the mainSocial work with individuals is one of the main
parts of a generalist approach to social workparts of a generalist approach to social work
practice.practice.
 Main focus is to help individuals helpMain focus is to help individuals help
themselves.themselves.
 Traditional methods are frequently combined inTraditional methods are frequently combined in
practice where the workers may work basicallypractice where the workers may work basically
with individuals and families and set goals thatwith individuals and families and set goals that
may also include a group or community effort.may also include a group or community effort.

3. Social Casework DefinedSocial Casework Defined
 Social casework is a method of helping people solveSocial casework is a method of helping people solve
problems. It is individualized, scientific, and artistic.problems. It is individualized, scientific, and artistic.
 It helps individuals with personal as well as external andIt helps individuals with personal as well as external and
environmental matters.environmental matters.
 It is a method of helping through a relationship thatIt is a method of helping through a relationship that
taps personal and other resources for coping withtaps personal and other resources for coping with
problems.problems.
 Interviewing and assessment are major tools ofInterviewing and assessment are major tools of
casework.casework.
 It is biopsychosocial.It is biopsychosocial.

4. History of Social CaseworkHistory of Social Casework
 Stereotyping, making broad generalizationsStereotyping, making broad generalizations
about individuals and situations, is the antithesisabout individuals and situations, is the antithesis
of social casework.of social casework.
 The “workhouse test” and “less eligibility”The “workhouse test” and “less eligibility”
clauses of the infamous English Poor Laws areclauses of the infamous English Poor Laws are
based on naïve and unfounded generalbased on naïve and unfounded general
assumptions, namely that all poor are poorassumptions, namely that all poor are poor
because of ignorance, willful refusal to work,because of ignorance, willful refusal to work,
shiftlessness, and depravity.shiftlessness, and depravity.

5. History of Social CaseworkHistory of Social Casework
 The Association for Improving the Conditions of theThe Association for Improving the Conditions of the
Poor approached the problem of poverty individuallyPoor approached the problem of poverty individually
(1843).(1843).
 The Charity Organization Society gave additionalThe Charity Organization Society gave additional
impetus to individualization and casework (1877).impetus to individualization and casework (1877).
 Preoccupation with social conditions external to thePreoccupation with social conditions external to the
individual was characteristic of casework during theindividual was characteristic of casework during the
early part of the twentieth century.early part of the twentieth century.
 The thinking was that if the environment could not beThe thinking was that if the environment could not be
changed, the individual should be removed from thechanged, the individual should be removed from the
environment, even if it meant separating families.environment, even if it meant separating families.

6. Trends In CaseworkTrends In Casework
 By 1910, the introduction of psychoanalyticBy 1910, the introduction of psychoanalytic
theory and depth psychology became the focustheory and depth psychology became the focus
of casework and individual therapy came into itsof casework and individual therapy came into its
own.own.
 Emotions, attitudes, repressed conflicts, and theEmotions, attitudes, repressed conflicts, and the
struggle within the unconscious became anstruggle within the unconscious became an
integral part of social casework understandingintegral part of social casework understanding
and method.and method.

7. Trends In CaseworkTrends In Casework
 The social and economic needs of the GreatThe social and economic needs of the Great
Depression refocused sociological and realityDepression refocused sociological and reality
considerations for social work and compelledconsiderations for social work and compelled
action on the part of the federal government.action on the part of the federal government.
 The depression resulted in a healthy turnaroundThe depression resulted in a healthy turnaround
from emphasis upon psychological causation tofrom emphasis upon psychological causation to
the renewed study of economics, budgets, andthe renewed study of economics, budgets, and
environmental factors.environmental factors.

8. Trends in CaseworkTrends in Casework
 There has also been renewed interest in theThere has also been renewed interest in the
family, family dynamics, and the interaction offamily, family dynamics, and the interaction of
family members.family members.
 The problem-solving method proposed byThe problem-solving method proposed by
Helen Perlman is most widely used in socialHelen Perlman is most widely used in social
work today.work today.
 Today’s practitioner must be trained in a varietyToday’s practitioner must be trained in a variety
of disciplines in order to effectively view theof disciplines in order to effectively view the
client and decide how to intervene effectively.client and decide how to intervene effectively.

9. The Practice FrameworkThe Practice Framework
 Purpose:Purpose:
 To prevent or ameliorate those conditions whichTo prevent or ameliorate those conditions which
contribute to the breakdown of a healthycontribute to the breakdown of a healthy
relationship between the individual and their family,relationship between the individual and their family,
other associates, or the environment.other associates, or the environment.
 Help people to identify and resolve problems in theirHelp people to identify and resolve problems in their
relationships or to minimize the negative effects.relationships or to minimize the negative effects.
 To strengthen the maximum potential in individuals,To strengthen the maximum potential in individuals,
groups, and communities.groups, and communities.

10. The Practice FrameworkThe Practice Framework
 Social Work Values:Social Work Values:
 Assumes the inherent worth and importance of theAssumes the inherent worth and importance of the
individual and the interdependence between theindividual and the interdependence between the
individual and society.individual and society.
 Emphasis is placed on the importance of respect forEmphasis is placed on the importance of respect for
the dignity of the individual and on their ability tothe dignity of the individual and on their ability to
make important decisions.make important decisions.
 Self-determination is a basic right of the individual.Self-determination is a basic right of the individual.

11. Social Work ValuesSocial Work Values
 Value Assumption on Individual Worth and Capacity:Value Assumption on Individual Worth and Capacity:
 A “worth” value places the individual in a position ofA “worth” value places the individual in a position of
eminence. They are above objects and institutions, wortheminence. They are above objects and institutions, worth
caring for because they are an individual.caring for because they are an individual.
 Other values include respect, dignity, and opportunities toOther values include respect, dignity, and opportunities to
express individuality.express individuality.
 The value of “worth” suggests that the individual has theThe value of “worth” suggests that the individual has the
ability to guide their actions and the potential forability to guide their actions and the potential for
determining goals and their achievement.determining goals and their achievement.

12. Social Work ValuesSocial Work Values
 Uniqueness Value:Uniqueness Value:
 Belief in the individual’s uniqueness and individualityBelief in the individual’s uniqueness and individuality
suggest a casework approach of acceptance and thesuggest a casework approach of acceptance and the
view of differences as assets.view of differences as assets.
 Strength in role relationships is viewed as comingStrength in role relationships is viewed as coming
from differences.from differences.

13. Social Work ValuesSocial Work Values
 The Value Postulate of Self-DeterminationThe Value Postulate of Self-Determination
 Self-determination means that the client will decideSelf-determination means that the client will decide
whether or not to engage in the casework process.whether or not to engage in the casework process.
 Self-determination is affirmed, explicated andSelf-determination is affirmed, explicated and
implemented at the beginning, in the middle and atimplemented at the beginning, in the middle and at
the end of the process.the end of the process.
 Impositions that remove free choice and self-Impositions that remove free choice and self-
determination may damage the relationship anddetermination may damage the relationship and
weaken the client’s problem-solving resolve andweaken the client’s problem-solving resolve and
capacity.capacity.

14. SanctionsSanctions
 Work with individuals and families is under theWork with individuals and families is under the
auspices of various governmental and privateauspices of various governmental and private
agencies that receive their sanction from theagencies that receive their sanction from the
people.people.
 Governmental agencies are intended to expressGovernmental agencies are intended to express
the will of the people.the will of the people.

15. KnowledgeKnowledge
 The theory underpinning for casework is derivedThe theory underpinning for casework is derived
basically from the profession of social work andbasically from the profession of social work and
from casework practice.from casework practice.
 Research contributes to the knowledge base andResearch contributes to the knowledge base and
appears to be growing in sophistication andappears to be growing in sophistication and
importance.importance.
 The profession continues to recognize theThe profession continues to recognize the
contributions from the behavioral, social , andcontributions from the behavioral, social , and
natural sciences.natural sciences.

16. KnowledgeKnowledge
 Pavlovian and Skinnerian psychology is a wellPavlovian and Skinnerian psychology is a well
integrated theory and readily applied tointegrated theory and readily applied to
casework practice.casework practice.
 Behavior modification does not use a theory ofBehavior modification does not use a theory of
personality.personality.
 It proceeds from assumptions about operantIt proceeds from assumptions about operant
behavior and practice focused on observablebehavior and practice focused on observable
behavior that can be researched and explicated.behavior that can be researched and explicated.

17. KnowledgeKnowledge
 Social casework practice applies role theory.Social casework practice applies role theory.
 Learning theory, adult socialization, small group,Learning theory, adult socialization, small group,
cognition theory, general systems theory and thecognition theory, general systems theory and the
ecological perspective, and discoveries in biology andecological perspective, and discoveries in biology and
endocrinology are also adapted in casework.endocrinology are also adapted in casework.
 Although social work “borrows” from psychology,Although social work “borrows” from psychology,
sociology, and from the biological sciences, thesociology, and from the biological sciences, the
profession itself orders, arranges, adapts and determinesprofession itself orders, arranges, adapts and determines
the emphasis it will make of these contributions.the emphasis it will make of these contributions.

18. KnowledgeKnowledge
 Knowledge of the various services of theKnowledge of the various services of the
community is basic to the practice of socialcommunity is basic to the practice of social
casework.casework.
 The function and purpose of agencies andThe function and purpose of agencies and
referral procedures, and increasingly thereferral procedures, and increasingly the
legislative process, all provide essentiallegislative process, all provide essential
underpinning for the casework process.underpinning for the casework process.

19. Methods of Social CaseworkMethods of Social Casework
 The trend in the new millennium appears to beThe trend in the new millennium appears to be
selective eclecticism:selective eclecticism:
 A greater utilization of elements from a variety ofA greater utilization of elements from a variety of
theories and blending of models.theories and blending of models.
 Selective interventions that are empirically grounded.Selective interventions that are empirically grounded.
 A solution orientation with less focus on the innerA solution orientation with less focus on the inner
problems.problems.
 Direct practice embracing more than casework.Direct practice embracing more than casework.
 A greater utilization of interventive approaches thatA greater utilization of interventive approaches that
can be measured and validated.can be measured and validated.

20. Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework
 Psychosocial Model:Psychosocial Model:
 One of the first models employed developed byOne of the first models employed developed by
Gordon Hamilton and her associates from theGordon Hamilton and her associates from the
Columbia School of Social Work.Columbia School of Social Work.
 Cause and effect relationships are identified betweenCause and effect relationships are identified between
the individual and environment.the individual and environment.
 Ego psychology and the behavioral sciences provideEgo psychology and the behavioral sciences provide
important underpinning for practiceimportant underpinning for practice
 Model has a Freudian theory base.Model has a Freudian theory base.

21. Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework
 Functional Model:Functional Model:
 Developed at the Pennsylvania School of SocialDeveloped at the Pennsylvania School of Social
Work in the l930’s.Work in the l930’s.
 Emphasis was on the relationship, the dynamic useEmphasis was on the relationship, the dynamic use
of time, and the “use of the agency” function.of time, and the “use of the agency” function.
 The psychology of Otto Rank providedThe psychology of Otto Rank provided
underpinning for functional approach.underpinning for functional approach.
 Diagnostic categories have tended to be avoided asDiagnostic categories have tended to be avoided as
having limited usefulness.having limited usefulness.

22. Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework
 The Problem-Solving Method:The Problem-Solving Method:
 Identified with the work of Helen Perlman at theIdentified with the work of Helen Perlman at the
Chicago school in l957.Chicago school in l957.
 The purposes of the process are to free the client forThe purposes of the process are to free the client for
investment in tasks related to the solution of theinvestment in tasks related to the solution of the
problem, involve the client’s ego in work designatedproblem, involve the client’s ego in work designated
to deal with the problem, and to mobilize inner andto deal with the problem, and to mobilize inner and
outer forces in the service of satisfactory roleouter forces in the service of satisfactory role
performance.performance.

23. Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework
 The Behavioral Model:The Behavioral Model:
 Began to be incorporated in the l960’sBegan to be incorporated in the l960’s
 Practice applying to this model lends itself toPractice applying to this model lends itself to
research since behavior to be modified is observable.research since behavior to be modified is observable.
 Symptoms are the same as other responses in thatSymptoms are the same as other responses in that
the behavior is mainly respondent or operant.the behavior is mainly respondent or operant.
 Problematic behavior is learned through the processProblematic behavior is learned through the process
of conditioning.of conditioning.

24. Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework
 Task-Centered Casework:Task-Centered Casework:
 Developed at the University of Chicago in the l970’s.Developed at the University of Chicago in the l970’s.
 Designed to solve specific psychosocial problems ofDesigned to solve specific psychosocial problems of
individuals or families in a short-term, time-limitedindividuals or families in a short-term, time-limited
form of practice.form of practice.
 Caseworker and client reach an explicit agreementCaseworker and client reach an explicit agreement
on the particular problems to be worked on and alsoon the particular problems to be worked on and also
the probable duration of treatment.the probable duration of treatment.

25. Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework
 Generalist Practice Model:Generalist Practice Model:
 Based on a problem-solving model from a systemsBased on a problem-solving model from a systems
or person-in-environment perspective.or person-in-environment perspective.
 This model is applied with the unique qualities,This model is applied with the unique qualities,
values, and ethics espoused by social work.values, and ethics espoused by social work.

26. Problems in Social CaseworkProblems in Social Casework
 Social casework addresses itself to the solutionSocial casework addresses itself to the solution
of problems that block or minimize theof problems that block or minimize the
effectiveness of the individual in various roles.effectiveness of the individual in various roles.
 Social workers are frequently confronted withSocial workers are frequently confronted with
situations in which the casework objective maysituations in which the casework objective may
be that of helping a client use a service.be that of helping a client use a service.

27. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 StudyStudy
 In the study phase, the client is engaged in presenting theIn the study phase, the client is engaged in presenting the
problem.problem.
 The key is engagement.The key is engagement.
 Client makes the important decision of whether to enterClient makes the important decision of whether to enter
treatment.treatment.
 Emphasis on the interaction is on the here-and-now and onEmphasis on the interaction is on the here-and-now and on
the problem not as might be perceived by the worker, but asthe problem not as might be perceived by the worker, but as
experienced at the moment by the client.experienced at the moment by the client.
 Data gathering and history taking concentrate on relevance.Data gathering and history taking concentrate on relevance.

28. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Study:Study:
 Contacts during the initial phase may be among theContacts during the initial phase may be among the
most dynamic of the entire process.most dynamic of the entire process.
 Client is likely to feel most helpless and vulnerableClient is likely to feel most helpless and vulnerable
and most available to the helping process.and most available to the helping process.
 Sympathetic listening, demonstration of acceptance,Sympathetic listening, demonstration of acceptance,
reassurance, demonstration of confidence in ability,reassurance, demonstration of confidence in ability,
and judicious stroking are powerful tools of theand judicious stroking are powerful tools of the
social worker and can be highly therapeutic.social worker and can be highly therapeutic.

29. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Assessment:Assessment:
 Provides a differential approach to treatment basedProvides a differential approach to treatment based
on individual differences and needs.on individual differences and needs.
 An individual’s strengths need to be identified andAn individual’s strengths need to be identified and
utilized as part of the change process.utilized as part of the change process.
 Assessment is fluid and dynamic.Assessment is fluid and dynamic.
 Assessment begins with a statement of the problemAssessment begins with a statement of the problem
by the client.by the client.
 Results in an understanding of the problem.Results in an understanding of the problem.

30. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Assessment:Assessment:
 It includes initial impressions that are confirmed,It includes initial impressions that are confirmed,
modified, or rejected in the light of additionalmodified, or rejected in the light of additional
information.information.
 It includes judgment about the strength andIt includes judgment about the strength and
limitations of the individual in coping with thelimitations of the individual in coping with the
situation.situation.
 Treatment planning and treatment itself are guidedTreatment planning and treatment itself are guided
by assessment.by assessment.

31. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Assessment:Assessment:
 There is mutual agreement of the worker and theThere is mutual agreement of the worker and the
client in assessment.client in assessment.
 Goals must be congruent with the client’s needs andGoals must be congruent with the client’s needs and
the availability of services. These goals arethe availability of services. These goals are
respected, supported and reinforced.respected, supported and reinforced.

32. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Intervention:Intervention:
 Intervention or treatment begins with the firstIntervention or treatment begins with the first
contact.contact.
 The study process is treatment when it helps theThe study process is treatment when it helps the
client to clarify the problem and to make changesclient to clarify the problem and to make changes
from this understanding.from this understanding.
 The relationship is the mainspring of social workThe relationship is the mainspring of social work
intervention.intervention.
 Warmth, caring, and congruence have been identified asWarmth, caring, and congruence have been identified as
essential qualities.essential qualities.

33. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Intervention:Intervention:
 Skills include interviewing, recording, letter writing,Skills include interviewing, recording, letter writing,
referrals to other agencies and services, and helpingreferrals to other agencies and services, and helping
the client to use personal and other resources.the client to use personal and other resources.
 Efforts support and strengthen the client’s egoEfforts support and strengthen the client’s ego
through emotional catharsis, reassurance,through emotional catharsis, reassurance,
clarification of the problem, and sympatheticclarification of the problem, and sympathetic
listening.listening.

34. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Intervention (basic principles):Intervention (basic principles):
 Right to determine own course of action within theRight to determine own course of action within the
limits of their capacity to make sound choices.limits of their capacity to make sound choices.
 Acceptance of client as is, implying acceptance inAcceptance of client as is, implying acceptance in
their capacity to change.their capacity to change.
 Relate to strengths rather than pathology.Relate to strengths rather than pathology.
 Seeks to understand the person and to help plan forSeeks to understand the person and to help plan for
constructive change.constructive change.

35. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Intervention (basic principles):Intervention (basic principles):
 Knowledge about the client’s family and its situationKnowledge about the client’s family and its situation
is used responsibly.is used responsibly.
 Professional responsibility for the welfare of theProfessional responsibility for the welfare of the
total familytotal family
 Responsible not only to the client but to oneself, theResponsible not only to the client but to oneself, the
agency, the community, and the profession.agency, the community, and the profession.
 Innovations of professional activities must beInnovations of professional activities must be
consistent with casework goals.consistent with casework goals.

36. Casework ProcessCasework Process
 Termination:Termination:
 The ending or limiting of a process that wasThe ending or limiting of a process that was
commenced when the agency agreed to enter intocommenced when the agency agreed to enter into
the interventive process aimed at delivering a servicethe interventive process aimed at delivering a service
to a client with a problem.to a client with a problem.
 A time when the client can look back withA time when the client can look back with
satisfaction on what has been accomplished.satisfaction on what has been accomplished.
 Signals that the worker has confidence in the client’sSignals that the worker has confidence in the client’s
ability to learn to cope with situations and grow.ability to learn to cope with situations and grow.

37. The Multi-Systems ApproachThe Multi-Systems Approach
 One of the newer approaches to social work.One of the newer approaches to social work.
 Affirms the interrelationships of the individualAffirms the interrelationships of the individual
to an interlocking network of systems eachto an interlocking network of systems each
influencing the other.influencing the other.
 Takes into consideration the importance of theTakes into consideration the importance of the
systems impacting and being impacted by eachsystems impacting and being impacted by each
other.other.