The acids react with an alkali like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to form the corresponding sodium or potassium salts. Fats and oils are first hydrolyzed to form glycerol and fatty acids. When potassium hydroxide is used instead of sodium hydroxide, potassium palmitate soap is formed. The process involves hydrolyzing fats or oils to form fatty acids and glycerol, and then reacting the fatty acids with an alkali like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to form soap.

1. The acids react with an alkali to form the
corresponding sodium or potassium
salts.The fats or oils are
hydrolysed first to form
glycerol and fattty acids.
When concentrated potassium
hydroxide solution is used
instead of concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution. a potassium
soap, potassium palmitate is
formed
Soap preparation process
Flow Map
FOCUS reference book

2. Soap or detergent
is added to water.
Hydrophobic part
dissolves in grease.
The droplets are
suspended in water
forming an emulsion.
This has lower
the surface
tension of water and
increases the wetting
ability of water.
Scrubbing helps to
pull the grease free
and break the grease
into small droplets.
Foam produces
to float the
emulsion.
Hydrophilic part
the anion dissolves
in water.
These droplets do not
coagulate and redeposit
on the surface of the
cloth. It is because the
repulsion between
negative charges
on the surface.
Rinsing helps to
remove these
droplets.
The cleansing action of soap and detergent
Flow Map
FOCUS reference book

3. Hydrophilic
group is the
sulphate
group
Effective in
hard water
Cause
pollution
Does
not form
scum
DETERGENT
Hydrophilic
group is the
carboxylate
group
Does not
effective
in hard
water
Do not cause
pollution
Form scum
SOAP
Reduce
surface
tension of
water
Clean
effectively
in soft water
Cleansing
agent
The effectiveness of cleansing action of soap and detergent
Double Bubble Map
FOCUS reference book

4. Types of food additives
preservatives antioxidant stabiliser flavouring agent thickener dye
Example:
salt, sugar,
vinegar, sodium
nitrite, benzoic
acid, sulphur
dioxide.
Function:
slow down the
growth of
microorganisms
Example:
butylated
hydroxyanisole
(BHA),ascorbic
acid,alpha
tocopherol,
sodium citrate
Function:
to prevent the
oxidation of food
Example:
lecithin, mono-
glycerides and
di-glycerides
Function:
to prevent
emulsion from
seperating out.
Example:
sugar, salt,
vinegar,
monosodium
glutamate(MSG),
aspartame and
synthetic
essences.
Function:
to add and
enhance flavour
Example:
modified starch,
pectin, acacia
gum, gelatine,
xanthun gum
Function:
to thicken food
Example:
food colouring
Function:
to add and
restore colour
Type of food additives
tree map
FOCUS reference book

5. Types of modern medicines
analgesics antibiotics psychotherapeutic
Examples:
•aspirin
•paracetamol
•codeine
Functions:
a)Aspirin
relief pain such as
arthritic pain and dental
pain.
b)Paracetamol
relief mid to moderate
pain such as
headaches,muscle and
joint pain,backaches and
period pain.
c)Codeine
used in headache tablets
and cough medicines
Examples:
•penicillin
•streptomycin
Functions:
a)Penicillin
cure bacterial diseases
such as tuberculosis(TB)
and pneumonia.
b)Streptomycin
treat
tuberculosis,whooping
cough and some forms of
pneumonia.
Examples:
•stimulant
•antidepressant
•antipsychotic
Functions:
a)Stimulant
reduce fatigue and
elevate mood.
b)Antidepressant
reduce tension and
anxiety.
c)Antipsychotic
treat psychiatric illness
such as schizopherania.
Type of modern medicines
Tree Map
FOCUS reference book

6. Types of modern medicines
analgesics antibiotics psychotherapeutic
Examples:
•aspirin
•paracetamol
•codeine
Functions:
a)Aspirin
relief pain such as
arthritic pain and dental
pain.
b)Paracetamol
relief mid to moderate
pain such as
headaches,muscle and
joint pain,backaches and
period pain.
c)Codeine
used in headache tablets
and cough medicines
Examples:
•penicillin
•streptomycin
Functions:
a)Penicillin
cure bacterial diseases
such as tuberculosis(TB)
and pneumonia.
b)Streptomycin
treat
tuberculosis,whooping
cough and some forms of
pneumonia.
Examples:
•stimulant
•antidepressant
•antipsychotic
Functions:
a)Stimulant
reduce fatigue and
elevate mood.
b)Antidepressant
reduce tension and
anxiety.
c)Antipsychotic
treat psychiatric illness
such as schizopherania.
Type of modern medicines
Tree Map
FOCUS reference book