This document analyzes the morpho-syntactic features of SMS text messages among GSM users in Nigeria. It finds that texters employ various language-shortening techniques like abbreviations, acronyms, deletions and word order changes to maximize the limited character space. Specifically, it discovers movements of constituents between syntactic slots, omissions of subjects/objects/determiners/infinitives, violations of word order, contractions and lack of punctuation. Morphologically, texters combine letters and numbers flexibly in abbreviations with no fixed rules. The study concludes that texters adapt the formal rules of English to suit the constraints of texting for convenience, while various researchers have also examined related linguistic aspects of SMS use in
The Impact of Technology (BBM & WhatsApp Application) on English Language Use...DrAshraf Salem
Â
This document discusses a study on the impact of technology like Blackberry Messenger (BBM) and WhatsApp on English language use in Kuwait. The study interviewed 211 participants between ages 11-18. It found that using abbreviations and shortcuts in text messaging is negatively impacting students' English writing skills, with errors in spelling, grammar and vocabulary. Common texting abbreviations like "ty" for "thank you" and representing numbers for Arabic letters were identified. The document concludes that while technology facilitates communication, the use of text messaging language can impair users' English language proficiency.
Code-Mixing as a Marker of Gender Identity in SMS language in Pakistaniosrjce
Â
This research deals with the gender based code-mixing in mobile phone SMS texting in Pakistani
society. It is generally observable fact that code-mixing is used by both males and females while sending
messages through their mobile phones. This research has explored the happening of code mixing i.e. mixing of
the two varieties or two different languages, which can mark the gender differences in using text messages. In
this research paper quantitative method is used to collect and analyze the data. One thousand non-forwarded
conversational SMS were collected through random sampling of 25 males and 25 females with an equal
quantity of sample from both counter parts. The findings of the study have shown that there are gender based
differences in SMS language used in Pakistan on the basis of Code-Mixing in term of frequency, nature and
topic & purpose of conversation. The findings are generalized for all males and females citizens of Pakistan.
Development of Bi-Directional English To Yoruba Translator for Real-Time Mobi...CSCJournals
Â
- The document describes the development of a bi-directional English to Yoruba translator for real-time mobile chatting.
- It uses a hybrid machine translation approach combining rule-based and corpus-based methods. Parallel corpora and computational rules were developed and stored in databases. Dictionaries containing words in both languages and their parts of speech were also created.
- The system was implemented using PHP for server-side scripting, JSON for data interchange, and an Android app for the user interface. Testing showed 95% accuracy compared to Google Translate.
This paper examined gender influence in the use of Mobile Phone Short Message Service (SMS) on note-taking and comprehension of materials presented through an audio system. Two research questions and hypotheses guided the study. The design of the study was quasi-experimental non-equivalent pretest and posttest. A sample of 400 subjects was drawn from the research population of 800 using stratified simple random sampling procedure. Two instruments were used for data collection. One of the instruments was the Audio- Taped Lecture (ATL) and the second was the Test for Assessing Comprehension (TAC). These instruments designed by the researcher were subjected to validate. Reliability coefficients of 0.88 and 0.81 were obtained for ATL and TAC respectively. Data for the study were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results of the study included that SMS style of writing improved studentsâ note-taking competence as well as comprehension of the notes for both the male and female students and that there was no significant difference in performance based on gender. Recommendations included that students be encouraged to use SMS writing styles for note-taking during lectures and that the use of SMS for note-taking could be tailored towards correcting gender differences in achievement.
This document provides a discourse analysis of SMS language as a novel genre. It discusses how SMS language has revolutionized everyday communication through abbreviations and other features. The analysis examines SMS language through frameworks like Grice's cooperative principle and maxims, code-switching, psychoanalysis, and critical discourse analysis. It argues that SMS language represents a new hybrid genre that blends speech and writing to meet the constraints of text messaging while serving social functions.
The document provides an overview of a study that aims to identify the effects of text messaging on the spelling skills of college students. It begins with an introduction on the prevalence of text messaging and smartphones. It then states the problem, objectives, and hypotheses of the study. The significance of the study and its scope and limitations are discussed. Key terms are defined. Finally, the chapter reviews related literature on previous local and foreign studies that have examined the relationship between text messaging and spelling skills.
This paper examined gender influence in the use of Mobile Phone Short Message Service (SMS) on note-taking and comprehension of materials presented through an audio system. Two research questions and hypotheses guided the study. The design of the study was quasi-experimental non-equivalent pretest and posttest. A sample of 400 subjects was drawn from the research population of 800 using stratified simple random sampling procedure. Two instruments were used for data collection. One of the instruments was the Audio- Taped Lecture (ATL) and the second was the Test for Assessing Comprehension (TAC). These instruments designed by the researcher were subjected to validate. Reliability coefficients of 0.88 and 0.81 were obtained for ATL and TAC respectively. Data for the study were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results of the study included that SMS style of writing improved studentsâ note-taking competence as well as comprehension of the notes for both the male and female students and that there was no significant difference in performance based on gender. Recommendations included that students be encouraged to use SMS writing styles for note-taking during lectures and that the use of SMS for note-taking could be tailored towards correcting gender differences in achievement.
The Impact of Technology (BBM & WhatsApp Application) on English Language Use...DrAshraf Salem
Â
This document discusses a study on the impact of technology like Blackberry Messenger (BBM) and WhatsApp on English language use in Kuwait. The study interviewed 211 participants between ages 11-18. It found that using abbreviations and shortcuts in text messaging is negatively impacting students' English writing skills, with errors in spelling, grammar and vocabulary. Common texting abbreviations like "ty" for "thank you" and representing numbers for Arabic letters were identified. The document concludes that while technology facilitates communication, the use of text messaging language can impair users' English language proficiency.
Code-Mixing as a Marker of Gender Identity in SMS language in Pakistaniosrjce
Â
This research deals with the gender based code-mixing in mobile phone SMS texting in Pakistani
society. It is generally observable fact that code-mixing is used by both males and females while sending
messages through their mobile phones. This research has explored the happening of code mixing i.e. mixing of
the two varieties or two different languages, which can mark the gender differences in using text messages. In
this research paper quantitative method is used to collect and analyze the data. One thousand non-forwarded
conversational SMS were collected through random sampling of 25 males and 25 females with an equal
quantity of sample from both counter parts. The findings of the study have shown that there are gender based
differences in SMS language used in Pakistan on the basis of Code-Mixing in term of frequency, nature and
topic & purpose of conversation. The findings are generalized for all males and females citizens of Pakistan.
Development of Bi-Directional English To Yoruba Translator for Real-Time Mobi...CSCJournals
Â
- The document describes the development of a bi-directional English to Yoruba translator for real-time mobile chatting.
- It uses a hybrid machine translation approach combining rule-based and corpus-based methods. Parallel corpora and computational rules were developed and stored in databases. Dictionaries containing words in both languages and their parts of speech were also created.
- The system was implemented using PHP for server-side scripting, JSON for data interchange, and an Android app for the user interface. Testing showed 95% accuracy compared to Google Translate.
This paper examined gender influence in the use of Mobile Phone Short Message Service (SMS) on note-taking and comprehension of materials presented through an audio system. Two research questions and hypotheses guided the study. The design of the study was quasi-experimental non-equivalent pretest and posttest. A sample of 400 subjects was drawn from the research population of 800 using stratified simple random sampling procedure. Two instruments were used for data collection. One of the instruments was the Audio- Taped Lecture (ATL) and the second was the Test for Assessing Comprehension (TAC). These instruments designed by the researcher were subjected to validate. Reliability coefficients of 0.88 and 0.81 were obtained for ATL and TAC respectively. Data for the study were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results of the study included that SMS style of writing improved studentsâ note-taking competence as well as comprehension of the notes for both the male and female students and that there was no significant difference in performance based on gender. Recommendations included that students be encouraged to use SMS writing styles for note-taking during lectures and that the use of SMS for note-taking could be tailored towards correcting gender differences in achievement.
This document provides a discourse analysis of SMS language as a novel genre. It discusses how SMS language has revolutionized everyday communication through abbreviations and other features. The analysis examines SMS language through frameworks like Grice's cooperative principle and maxims, code-switching, psychoanalysis, and critical discourse analysis. It argues that SMS language represents a new hybrid genre that blends speech and writing to meet the constraints of text messaging while serving social functions.
The document provides an overview of a study that aims to identify the effects of text messaging on the spelling skills of college students. It begins with an introduction on the prevalence of text messaging and smartphones. It then states the problem, objectives, and hypotheses of the study. The significance of the study and its scope and limitations are discussed. Key terms are defined. Finally, the chapter reviews related literature on previous local and foreign studies that have examined the relationship between text messaging and spelling skills.
This paper examined gender influence in the use of Mobile Phone Short Message Service (SMS) on note-taking and comprehension of materials presented through an audio system. Two research questions and hypotheses guided the study. The design of the study was quasi-experimental non-equivalent pretest and posttest. A sample of 400 subjects was drawn from the research population of 800 using stratified simple random sampling procedure. Two instruments were used for data collection. One of the instruments was the Audio- Taped Lecture (ATL) and the second was the Test for Assessing Comprehension (TAC). These instruments designed by the researcher were subjected to validate. Reliability coefficients of 0.88 and 0.81 were obtained for ATL and TAC respectively. Data for the study were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results of the study included that SMS style of writing improved studentsâ note-taking competence as well as comprehension of the notes for both the male and female students and that there was no significant difference in performance based on gender. Recommendations included that students be encouraged to use SMS writing styles for note-taking during lectures and that the use of SMS for note-taking could be tailored towards correcting gender differences in achievement.
This study sought to determine the potential place of Afrikaans and IsiXhosa as
indigenous languages to promote communication education in South African
Universities. This study examined the approaches and curriculum development of the
use of Afrikaans and IsiXhosa to teach journalism trainees in Rhodes and North-West
Universities. For the purpose of this study, uses and gratification theory was employed
to examine how communication and engineering instructors have adopted Afrikaans
and IsiXhosa to teach and train students in the field of engineering and journalism. The
method adopted for this study was a mixed method approach combining qualitative
content analysis, observation and interviews. Furthermore, a review of previous studies
on the adoption of Afrikaans and IsiXhosa for communication and engineering
education was examined. The result showed that many of communication and
engineering trainers believed that the use of Afrikaans for communication and
engineering education aids socio-cultural development among white South Africans.
From the findings, it was observed that the idea of integrating Afrikaans and IsiXhosa
to teach journalism was premised on promoting local identities. Interestingly, the result
This document provides an overview of mediation skills and activities in language teaching. It discusses mediation as one of the four language teaching activities along with reception, production, and interaction. Mediation involves reformulating information from one language to another or from one form to another, such as translating, interpreting, summarizing, or paraphrasing. The document outlines the differences between oral and written mediation and strategies for mediation activities. It also discusses translation and summarizing as two specific mediation activities, providing details on how to incorporate them into language teaching.
Real conversations with artificial intelligenceShafaqKamal
Â
This study analyzed linguistic differences between 100 human-to-human instant message conversations and 100 human-to-chatbot (Cleverbot) conversations. The researchers found that humans sent fewer words per message to chatbots than to other humans, averaging 4.29 words to chatbots versus 7.95 words to humans. However, humans sent more messages overall to chatbots than humans, contrary to expectations. The results suggest that humans adapt their language based on their conversational partner, whether human or computer.
Computer conferencingâdoes it motivate EFL students? by Barbara Skinner and ...yoanamendez92
Â
The document discusses a study that explored the effects of computer conferencing (CC) on the motivation of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. The study found that CC had noticeable positive effects on student motivation. Students reported that CC provided opportunities for real communication and a sense of community. It also improved their personal confidence and encouraged them to overcome writing apprehension. The study suggests these motivations contribute to supporting newer classifications of motivation in second language learning beyond traditional intrinsic/extrinsic and instrumental/integrative distinctions.
A New Approach: Automatically Identify Proper Noun from Bengali Sentence for ...Syeful Islam
Â
More than hundreds of millions of people of almost all levels of education and attitudes from different country communicate with
each other for different using various languages. Machine translation is highly demanding due to increasing the usage of web
based Communication. One of the major problem of Bengali translation is identified a naming word from a sentence, which is
relatively simple in English language, because such entities start with a capital letter. In Bangla we do not have concept of small
or capital letters and there is huge no. of different naming entity available in Bangla. Thus we find difficulties in understanding
whether a word is a proper noun or not. Here we have introduce a new approach to identify proper noun from a Bengali sentence
for UNL without storing huge no. of naming entity in word dictionary. The goal is to make possible Bangla sentence conversion
to UNL and vice versa with minimal storing word in dictionary.
Digital discourse markers in an ESL learning setting: The case of socialisati...James Cook University
Â
Shakarami, A., Hajhashemi, K., & Caltabiano, N. (2016). International Journal of Instruction, 9(2), 167-182. doi: 10.12973/iji.2016.9212a
Analysis of the linguistic discourse plays an important role in the social, cultural, ethnographic, and comparative studies of languages. Discourse markers as indispensable parts of this analysis are reportedly more common in informal speech than in written language. They could be used at different levels, i.e. as âlinking wordsâ, âlinking phrasesâ, or âsentence connectorsâ to bind together pieces of a text like âglueâ. The objective of the study is to ascertain the discourse markers employed in synchronous online interactions and networking through constant comparison of discourse markers used in the discussion forums (DF) with the discourse markers already reported in the literature. The study maintains discourse markers (DMs) used in the formal written discourse in order to identify any probable pragmatic, or discoursal level differences in the DMs used in the two modes of writing (formal writing and typing in online communication). The findings indicate that the written language that students use in their electronic posts is to a great extent similar to that of the process view of writing. Specifically, the written language used in a digital socialisation forum is at times, monitored, reviewed, revised, and corrected by the students themselves and their peers.
Language remains an integral part of manâs co-existence, particularly the natural language. This is because it is the most effective medium of communication among humans. Hence, no sphere of human endeavour can be sustained without language as it is the medium through which information, ideas and opinions are expressed.
The document discusses vocabulary instruction for students taking Intensive English Courses at a university. It notes that students struggle with vocabulary which affects their reading comprehension, paraphrasing, and summarizing abilities. The document then reviews literature on the importance of vocabulary for reading comprehension, the kinds of reading needed for vocabulary growth, and effective instructional methods for vocabulary development. Research shows direct instruction of necessary words, multiple exposures, contextual learning, and active engagement are most effective. Both incidental and intentional learning are important.
This document provides information about a research paper analyzing feminine language features in WhatsApp conversations. The study examines a WhatsApp conversation corpus between female speakers discussing empowered women in Malaysia. The objectives are to identify feminine language features, analyze differences between speakers, and determine the impact of WhatsApp. The significance is that it contributes new insights to limited research on gender and language in text messaging. The methodology describes the WhatsApp conversation corpus containing 1744 words between 7 participants, with 5 females discussing a topic about women's rights in Malaysia.
This study examined the relationship between 88 British children's knowledge of text message abbreviations ("textisms") and their school literacy skills. The children were assessed on their use of textisms, word reading, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and other measures. Those who used more textisms performed better on literacy measures like word reading, even after controlling for individual differences. The positive relationship between textism knowledge and literacy suggests that exposure to text, including abbreviated forms, may help children's literacy development in terms of increased print exposure and phonological awareness.
A multilingual approach for promoting worldwide open access to law dr dinafre...Britney Brown
Â
This document discusses challenges and approaches for cross-language legal information retrieval systems. It notes that globalization has increased the need for access to legal information across borders and languages, but language barriers still hinder universal access to law. Developing effective cross-language legal search requires addressing linguistic issues like differences in how legal concepts are conceptualized across languages, as well as challenges of legal translation given that legal concepts and realities do not always correspond directly across different legal systems.
Bottoms Up - The Cocktail Party ProblemPatricia Hill
Â
This document summarizes research on the "cocktail party problem" from a communication perspective. It discusses two phenomena: 1) humans can selectively attend to one conversation in a noisy environment like a cocktail party, tuning out other stimuli, and 2) certain words in the ignored conversation, like one's name, can capture attention. The document reviews literature on practical applications of this problem in fields like engineering and design. It also discusses previous research that approached the problem from acoustic and psychological perspectives. The present study aims to understand what factors of the unintended ignored message influence attention, specifically looking at how message relevance to goals affects listening. It uses surveys and interviews to collect data on how instrumental and self-presentation goals relate to attention.
This study is an assessment of teachersand pupilsâperceptions use of digital pictures in teaching
reading fluency skills to primary three pupils in Sokoto metropolis, Sokoto state (Nigeria). The study employed
Mixed-design research method was employed where questionnaires and tests were administered only to both
teachers and pupils of experimental group. Two research questions were asked and answered using descriptive
statistics in form of frequency and mean. Questionnaires were used for data collection â one each for the
teacher and the pupils. The study found that both the teachers and the pupils were of the view that digital
pictures are recommendable tools for reading fluency instruction in the study area. Basedon these findings, the
study concluded that digital pictures are effective tools in teaching reading fluency skills to primary three pupils
in the study area. The study, therefore, recommends that, primary school teachers should be encouraged to use
digital pictures in their reading instructions.
1. The document discusses models of reading in secondary English classrooms and how information and communication technologies (ICT) can enhance reading literature.
2. It examines how ICT can enhance reading classic texts through multimedia effects, enable group work, and challenge ideas about meaning. Students' thinking skills and mind mapping activities are two areas that can benefit from ICT.
3. Electronic texts make new demands on reading through minimal text and maximal graphics. ICT can help teach students to filter information and arrange words into researched work. ICT allows finding texts online and reorganizing them.
4. In conclusion, ICT can extend students' concept of reading beyond words to include graphics, audio, and video,
BUILDING ONTOLOGIES TO UNDERSTAND SPOKEN TUNISIAN DIALECT IJCSEA Journal
Â
This paper presents a method to understand spoken Tunisian dialect based on lexical semantic. This method takes into account the specificity of the Tunisian dialect which has no linguistic processing tools. This method is ontology-based which allows exploiting the ontological concepts for semantic annotation and ontological relations for speech interpretation. This combination increases the rate of comprehension and limits the dependence on linguistic resources. This paper also details the process of building the ontology used for annotation and interpretation of Tunisian dialect in the context of speech understanding in dialogue systems for restricted domain.
1) This document provides annotations for 10 sources on the topic of multiliteracies and visual literacy. It discusses how literacy has evolved beyond just reading and writing text to include visual and digital modes.
2) An overview section synthesizes the sources, explaining that literacy is culturally determined and influenced by technology. It introduces the concept of "multiliteracies" and how teachers must incorporate visual and digital literacies to engage today's students.
3) A self-reflection discusses the author's experience using PowerPoint and YouTube to complete the assignment. They learned the importance of lifelong learning and embracing new technologies, even as a "digital immigrant."
Simulation models and corporate financial planning of banks in bayelsa state,...Alexander Decker
Â
This document discusses simulation models and their application in corporate financial planning for banks in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. It begins by defining simulation models and the different types, such as agent-based models and system dynamic models. It then discusses how simulation models can be used for corporate planning in banks. The study examines the relationship between simulation models and factors like shareholder satisfaction, customer service, and return on capital employed. The document provides historical context on the evolution of banking in Nigeria. It aims to determine if there is a significant relationship between simulation models and corporate planning in the Nigerian banking industry.
Solid waste management in a leprosarium in southwestern nigeriaAlexander Decker
Â
This document discusses solid waste management practices at a leprosarium in southwestern Nigeria. It finds that the leprosarium generates a heterogeneous mixture of general municipal waste and some biomedical waste from its clinic and living areas. While biomedical waste makes up only about 1% of the total waste generated, disposal is currently done through open dumping and burning, causing health hazards. The document recommends composting as a more economical and appropriate disposal method given that most of the waste is biodegradable.
Social protection and the demand for private insurance in ghanaAlexander Decker
Â
This document summarizes a research study on the relationship between social protection and demand for private insurance in Ghana. The study examined life insurance products offered by private insurers in Ghana and customers' level of awareness and satisfaction. It found that customers had some knowledge of products but awareness could be improved. Customers were satisfied with some insurer services but less so during their working lives. Insurers considered factors like age, risk level, medical history, and income when developing products. Customers saw benefits of insurance for death and retirement but not as much during their working lives. The document provides background on social protection, types of life insurance, and the insurance industry in Ghana.
This study sought to determine the potential place of Afrikaans and IsiXhosa as
indigenous languages to promote communication education in South African
Universities. This study examined the approaches and curriculum development of the
use of Afrikaans and IsiXhosa to teach journalism trainees in Rhodes and North-West
Universities. For the purpose of this study, uses and gratification theory was employed
to examine how communication and engineering instructors have adopted Afrikaans
and IsiXhosa to teach and train students in the field of engineering and journalism. The
method adopted for this study was a mixed method approach combining qualitative
content analysis, observation and interviews. Furthermore, a review of previous studies
on the adoption of Afrikaans and IsiXhosa for communication and engineering
education was examined. The result showed that many of communication and
engineering trainers believed that the use of Afrikaans for communication and
engineering education aids socio-cultural development among white South Africans.
From the findings, it was observed that the idea of integrating Afrikaans and IsiXhosa
to teach journalism was premised on promoting local identities. Interestingly, the result
This document provides an overview of mediation skills and activities in language teaching. It discusses mediation as one of the four language teaching activities along with reception, production, and interaction. Mediation involves reformulating information from one language to another or from one form to another, such as translating, interpreting, summarizing, or paraphrasing. The document outlines the differences between oral and written mediation and strategies for mediation activities. It also discusses translation and summarizing as two specific mediation activities, providing details on how to incorporate them into language teaching.
Real conversations with artificial intelligenceShafaqKamal
Â
This study analyzed linguistic differences between 100 human-to-human instant message conversations and 100 human-to-chatbot (Cleverbot) conversations. The researchers found that humans sent fewer words per message to chatbots than to other humans, averaging 4.29 words to chatbots versus 7.95 words to humans. However, humans sent more messages overall to chatbots than humans, contrary to expectations. The results suggest that humans adapt their language based on their conversational partner, whether human or computer.
Computer conferencingâdoes it motivate EFL students? by Barbara Skinner and ...yoanamendez92
Â
The document discusses a study that explored the effects of computer conferencing (CC) on the motivation of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. The study found that CC had noticeable positive effects on student motivation. Students reported that CC provided opportunities for real communication and a sense of community. It also improved their personal confidence and encouraged them to overcome writing apprehension. The study suggests these motivations contribute to supporting newer classifications of motivation in second language learning beyond traditional intrinsic/extrinsic and instrumental/integrative distinctions.
A New Approach: Automatically Identify Proper Noun from Bengali Sentence for ...Syeful Islam
Â
More than hundreds of millions of people of almost all levels of education and attitudes from different country communicate with
each other for different using various languages. Machine translation is highly demanding due to increasing the usage of web
based Communication. One of the major problem of Bengali translation is identified a naming word from a sentence, which is
relatively simple in English language, because such entities start with a capital letter. In Bangla we do not have concept of small
or capital letters and there is huge no. of different naming entity available in Bangla. Thus we find difficulties in understanding
whether a word is a proper noun or not. Here we have introduce a new approach to identify proper noun from a Bengali sentence
for UNL without storing huge no. of naming entity in word dictionary. The goal is to make possible Bangla sentence conversion
to UNL and vice versa with minimal storing word in dictionary.
Digital discourse markers in an ESL learning setting: The case of socialisati...James Cook University
Â
Shakarami, A., Hajhashemi, K., & Caltabiano, N. (2016). International Journal of Instruction, 9(2), 167-182. doi: 10.12973/iji.2016.9212a
Analysis of the linguistic discourse plays an important role in the social, cultural, ethnographic, and comparative studies of languages. Discourse markers as indispensable parts of this analysis are reportedly more common in informal speech than in written language. They could be used at different levels, i.e. as âlinking wordsâ, âlinking phrasesâ, or âsentence connectorsâ to bind together pieces of a text like âglueâ. The objective of the study is to ascertain the discourse markers employed in synchronous online interactions and networking through constant comparison of discourse markers used in the discussion forums (DF) with the discourse markers already reported in the literature. The study maintains discourse markers (DMs) used in the formal written discourse in order to identify any probable pragmatic, or discoursal level differences in the DMs used in the two modes of writing (formal writing and typing in online communication). The findings indicate that the written language that students use in their electronic posts is to a great extent similar to that of the process view of writing. Specifically, the written language used in a digital socialisation forum is at times, monitored, reviewed, revised, and corrected by the students themselves and their peers.
Language remains an integral part of manâs co-existence, particularly the natural language. This is because it is the most effective medium of communication among humans. Hence, no sphere of human endeavour can be sustained without language as it is the medium through which information, ideas and opinions are expressed.
The document discusses vocabulary instruction for students taking Intensive English Courses at a university. It notes that students struggle with vocabulary which affects their reading comprehension, paraphrasing, and summarizing abilities. The document then reviews literature on the importance of vocabulary for reading comprehension, the kinds of reading needed for vocabulary growth, and effective instructional methods for vocabulary development. Research shows direct instruction of necessary words, multiple exposures, contextual learning, and active engagement are most effective. Both incidental and intentional learning are important.
This document provides information about a research paper analyzing feminine language features in WhatsApp conversations. The study examines a WhatsApp conversation corpus between female speakers discussing empowered women in Malaysia. The objectives are to identify feminine language features, analyze differences between speakers, and determine the impact of WhatsApp. The significance is that it contributes new insights to limited research on gender and language in text messaging. The methodology describes the WhatsApp conversation corpus containing 1744 words between 7 participants, with 5 females discussing a topic about women's rights in Malaysia.
This study examined the relationship between 88 British children's knowledge of text message abbreviations ("textisms") and their school literacy skills. The children were assessed on their use of textisms, word reading, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and other measures. Those who used more textisms performed better on literacy measures like word reading, even after controlling for individual differences. The positive relationship between textism knowledge and literacy suggests that exposure to text, including abbreviated forms, may help children's literacy development in terms of increased print exposure and phonological awareness.
A multilingual approach for promoting worldwide open access to law dr dinafre...Britney Brown
Â
This document discusses challenges and approaches for cross-language legal information retrieval systems. It notes that globalization has increased the need for access to legal information across borders and languages, but language barriers still hinder universal access to law. Developing effective cross-language legal search requires addressing linguistic issues like differences in how legal concepts are conceptualized across languages, as well as challenges of legal translation given that legal concepts and realities do not always correspond directly across different legal systems.
Bottoms Up - The Cocktail Party ProblemPatricia Hill
Â
This document summarizes research on the "cocktail party problem" from a communication perspective. It discusses two phenomena: 1) humans can selectively attend to one conversation in a noisy environment like a cocktail party, tuning out other stimuli, and 2) certain words in the ignored conversation, like one's name, can capture attention. The document reviews literature on practical applications of this problem in fields like engineering and design. It also discusses previous research that approached the problem from acoustic and psychological perspectives. The present study aims to understand what factors of the unintended ignored message influence attention, specifically looking at how message relevance to goals affects listening. It uses surveys and interviews to collect data on how instrumental and self-presentation goals relate to attention.
This study is an assessment of teachersand pupilsâperceptions use of digital pictures in teaching
reading fluency skills to primary three pupils in Sokoto metropolis, Sokoto state (Nigeria). The study employed
Mixed-design research method was employed where questionnaires and tests were administered only to both
teachers and pupils of experimental group. Two research questions were asked and answered using descriptive
statistics in form of frequency and mean. Questionnaires were used for data collection â one each for the
teacher and the pupils. The study found that both the teachers and the pupils were of the view that digital
pictures are recommendable tools for reading fluency instruction in the study area. Basedon these findings, the
study concluded that digital pictures are effective tools in teaching reading fluency skills to primary three pupils
in the study area. The study, therefore, recommends that, primary school teachers should be encouraged to use
digital pictures in their reading instructions.
1. The document discusses models of reading in secondary English classrooms and how information and communication technologies (ICT) can enhance reading literature.
2. It examines how ICT can enhance reading classic texts through multimedia effects, enable group work, and challenge ideas about meaning. Students' thinking skills and mind mapping activities are two areas that can benefit from ICT.
3. Electronic texts make new demands on reading through minimal text and maximal graphics. ICT can help teach students to filter information and arrange words into researched work. ICT allows finding texts online and reorganizing them.
4. In conclusion, ICT can extend students' concept of reading beyond words to include graphics, audio, and video,
BUILDING ONTOLOGIES TO UNDERSTAND SPOKEN TUNISIAN DIALECT IJCSEA Journal
Â
This paper presents a method to understand spoken Tunisian dialect based on lexical semantic. This method takes into account the specificity of the Tunisian dialect which has no linguistic processing tools. This method is ontology-based which allows exploiting the ontological concepts for semantic annotation and ontological relations for speech interpretation. This combination increases the rate of comprehension and limits the dependence on linguistic resources. This paper also details the process of building the ontology used for annotation and interpretation of Tunisian dialect in the context of speech understanding in dialogue systems for restricted domain.
1) This document provides annotations for 10 sources on the topic of multiliteracies and visual literacy. It discusses how literacy has evolved beyond just reading and writing text to include visual and digital modes.
2) An overview section synthesizes the sources, explaining that literacy is culturally determined and influenced by technology. It introduces the concept of "multiliteracies" and how teachers must incorporate visual and digital literacies to engage today's students.
3) A self-reflection discusses the author's experience using PowerPoint and YouTube to complete the assignment. They learned the importance of lifelong learning and embracing new technologies, even as a "digital immigrant."
Simulation models and corporate financial planning of banks in bayelsa state,...Alexander Decker
Â
This document discusses simulation models and their application in corporate financial planning for banks in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. It begins by defining simulation models and the different types, such as agent-based models and system dynamic models. It then discusses how simulation models can be used for corporate planning in banks. The study examines the relationship between simulation models and factors like shareholder satisfaction, customer service, and return on capital employed. The document provides historical context on the evolution of banking in Nigeria. It aims to determine if there is a significant relationship between simulation models and corporate planning in the Nigerian banking industry.
Solid waste management in a leprosarium in southwestern nigeriaAlexander Decker
Â
This document discusses solid waste management practices at a leprosarium in southwestern Nigeria. It finds that the leprosarium generates a heterogeneous mixture of general municipal waste and some biomedical waste from its clinic and living areas. While biomedical waste makes up only about 1% of the total waste generated, disposal is currently done through open dumping and burning, causing health hazards. The document recommends composting as a more economical and appropriate disposal method given that most of the waste is biodegradable.
Social protection and the demand for private insurance in ghanaAlexander Decker
Â
This document summarizes a research study on the relationship between social protection and demand for private insurance in Ghana. The study examined life insurance products offered by private insurers in Ghana and customers' level of awareness and satisfaction. It found that customers had some knowledge of products but awareness could be improved. Customers were satisfied with some insurer services but less so during their working lives. Insurers considered factors like age, risk level, medical history, and income when developing products. Customers saw benefits of insurance for death and retirement but not as much during their working lives. The document provides background on social protection, types of life insurance, and the insurance industry in Ghana.
Social exclusion and the plight of aging in the informal sector in tanzania a...Alexander Decker
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This document summarizes a study on social exclusion and the plight of aging among older people working in Tanzania's informal sector. The study was conducted in Arusha region and examined how economic factors, health issues, lack of social support, and limited social participation contribute to social exclusion. Interviews and focus groups with 30 respondents, including older people, community members, and stakeholders, identified these four aspects as primary risks for social exclusion. The findings showed that older people facing economic hardship after retiring from informal work resort to difficult physical labor. Social exclusion was found to negatively impact their welfare and living standards. The document calls for government and community support programs to address older peoples' needs and reduce their vulnerability.
Certificate - Algorithms: Design and Analysis, Part 1Feng Guo
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Feng Guo has completed an online course on algorithms provided by Stanford University through Coursera. The course covered topics like asymptotic analysis, sorting and searching algorithms, graph search, shortest paths, and data structures like heaps, search trees and hash tables. The course was an undergraduate class on designing and analyzing algorithms taught by Tim Roughgarden, an Associate Professor of Computer Science at Stanford University.
Social sciences perspectives on entrepreneurshipAlexander Decker
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This document discusses social science perspectives on entrepreneurship from various scholars. It provides an overview of Joseph Schumpeter's economic perspective, viewing the entrepreneur as an innovator and agent of change. It also discusses David McClelland's psychological perspective, identifying achievement motivation as an important factor for entrepreneurship and economic growth. Finally, it mentions Max Weber's perspective that cultural values play a role in determining whether economic potential becomes an actuality through entrepreneurship.
Sophiaâs correspondence with president obama a durkheimian analysis of contem...Alexander Decker
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The document discusses a letter exchange between 10-year-old Sophia Bailey Klugh and President Barack Obama regarding gay marriage rights, and analyzes contemporary American society through the lens of Emile Durkheim's sociological theories. It suggests that Sophia's letter reflects an "anomic" situation in American culture and structure, while Obama's response demonstrates Durkheim's concepts of the state and democracy. The analysis focuses on Durkheim's ideas of social solidarity, mechanical versus organic solidarity, and the relationship between culture and social structure.
The document provides an overview of SMS language as a novel genre of communication. It discusses how SMS language emerged in the late 20th century and has since revolutionized language through abbreviations and other conventions driven by the need for brevity in text messages. The document also examines some key features of SMS language, such as abbreviations and emoticons. It reviews previous research on SMS language and discusses approaches that will be used to analyze sample text messages, including Gricean cooperative principles and politeness theory.
The document discusses a study that examined the effects of mobile-assisted vocabulary exercises on students' vocabulary acquisition. 80 students participated and were split into an experimental and control group. The experimental group completed vocabulary exercises via SMS on mobile phones, while the control group used paper-based exercises. Pre- and post-vocabulary tests found that the experimental group outperformed the control group, indicating mobile exercises helped improve vocabulary ability. A questionnaire also found students had positive attitudes toward mobile-assisted exercises overall. The results suggest using mobile phones as a learning tool can contribute to student success and increase motivation.
This document summarizes an article that examines the interdependence between the English language and information and communication technology (ICT), and explores how proficiency in both can boost wealth creation in Nigeria. It notes that English is widely used in ICT as most programs and websites are in English. It also discusses how ICT and English skills can enable jobs in areas like publishing, telecommunications, and various online services. However, it acknowledges that a lack of reliable electricity in Nigeria poses a major challenge to effective use of ICT. The document recommends integrating ICT education into all levels of school, subsidizing ICT equipment, improving power infrastructure, and exploring alternative energy sources to help realize the potential of ICT to contribute to Nigeria's economy
A 1MENG 1020Date Oct 10, 2014Comparison between Texting.docxevonnehoggarth79783
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Date: Oct 10, 2014
Comparison between Texting and Academic Writing Language Features
Texting refers to the process of composing and sending short electronic messages through mobile phones and portable or fixed devices over a phone network. Texting has advanced over the years and attained additional features such as videos, images, and sound content known as MMS messages. Texting is used differently depending on the region that the sender and recipients are located. Regions such as North America, Australia, United Kingdom, and New Zealand simply refer the service as text, while in Asia, Middle East, and Africa, it is referred as SMS. Texting can be identified as a form of computer-mediated communication, although it is not computer based, but it is technologically mediated and based on texts; therefore, it shares many of the characteristics of other forms of computer-mediated communication such as email, instant messaging, and social network sites such as Twitter.
Automated systems can also apply text messages through participation in contests and ordering products and services. Service providers and advertisers use texting through direct text messaging, and send text messages to the users of mobile phones about dates of payment and promotions. Texting does not require the users to be online because it does not the Internet to transmit the messages. Twitter and email involve synchronous communication because the users are present online at the same time, and rapid response might be expected. Although immediate response is not obligatory the messages can be sent and responded quickly and enhance continuous flow the conversation.
Texting has gained massive popularity in the communication system over the years in many parts of the world. This form of communication, however, has technical restrictions such as limited space that has led to the development of non-standard language such as short forms (Bonelli 28). Texting allows the users to apply lexical and syntactic short forms that help to save the character space. SMS communication is an asynchronous text-based technologically mediated conversation, which follows the use of simple sentences structure for communication. The restriction in texting that limits the user to only 160 characters per message provides it with a unique feature. Texting, therefore, does not pursue the standard rules of English grammar as it is in academic writing. Additionally, texting mostly involves private conversations, which give the users the freedom to defy the standard rules of the English language.
Texting has been identified to be harmful for the formal English in the academic writings because of its influence on the use of literacy and Standard English. Many educators and linguists argue that text communication can be a permissible language especially due its grammatical breadth. It also involves semantics and syntax that enhances understanding of different language ideas in the text mess.
INTEGRATION OF PHONOTACTIC FEATURES FOR LANGUAGE IDENTIFICATION ON CODE-SWITC...kevig
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In this paper, phoneme sequences are used as language information to perform code-switched language
identification (LID). With the one-pass recognition system, the spoken sounds are converted into
phonetically arranged sequences of sounds. The acoustic models are robust enough to handle multiple
languages when emulating multiple hidden Markov models (HMMs). To determine the phoneme similarity
among our target languages, we reported two methods of phoneme mapping. Statistical phoneme-based
bigram language models (LM) are integrated into speech decoding to eliminate possible phone
mismatches. The supervised support vector machine (SVM) is used to learn to recognize the phonetic
information of mixed-language speech based on recognized phone sequences. As the back-end decision is
taken by an SVM, the likelihood scores of segments with monolingual phone occurrence are used to
classify language identity. The speech corpus was tested on Sepedi and English languages that are often
mixed. Our system is evaluated by measuring both the ASR performance and the LID performance
separately. The systems have obtained a promising ASR accuracy with data-driven phone merging
approach modelled using 16 Gaussian mixtures per state. In code-switched speech and monolingual
speech segments respectively, the proposed systems achieved an acceptable ASR and LID accuracy.
INTEGRATION OF PHONOTACTIC FEATURES FOR LANGUAGE IDENTIFICATION ON CODE-SWITC...kevig
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In this paper, phoneme sequences are used as language information to perform code-switched language identification (LID). With the one-pass recognition system, the spoken sounds are converted into phonetically arranged sequences of sounds. The acoustic models are robust enough to handle multiple languages when emulating multiple hidden Markov models (HMMs). To determine the phoneme similarity among our target languages, we reported two methods of phoneme mapping. Statistical phoneme-based bigram language models (LM) are integrated into speech decoding to eliminate possible phone mismatches. The supervised support vector machine (SVM) is used to learn to recognize the phonetic information of mixed-language speech based on recognized phone sequences. As the back-end decision is taken by an SVM, the likelihood scores of segments with monolingual phone occurrence are used to classify language identity. The speech corpus was tested on Sepedi and English languages that are often mixed. Our system is evaluated by measuring both the ASR performance and the LID performance separately. The systems have obtained a promising ASR accuracy with data-driven phone merging approach modelled using 16 Gaussian mixtures per state. In code-switched speech and monolingual speech segments respectively, the proposed systems achieved an acceptable ASR and LID accuracy.
This document discusses communication models and theories. It begins by describing Shannon and Weaver's original model of communication which included a sender, channel, and receiver. It then discusses other models such as the transmission model where information is sent from an encoder to a decoder. The document also discusses semiotic rules of communication, including syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules. It describes several theories of communication including Barnlund's transactional model and the constitutive model. The document discusses sources of communication noise and defines communication as an academic discipline that studies both verbal and nonverbal messages.
An Exploratory Comparative Analysis Of The Use Of Metaphors In Writing On The...Rick Vogel
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This article analyzes the use of metaphors in writing about the Internet and mobile phones. It first summarizes previous work identifying common metaphors used in discussions of the Internet, such as conceptualizing it as a physical space. The article then conducts a preliminary survey of metaphors used in literature about mobile phones. By comparing metaphor use across these mediums, the article aims to provide insight into how each technology is understood and framed in debates about present and future use.
BIDIRECTIONAL MACHINE TRANSLATION BETWEEN TURKISH AND TURKISH SIGN LANGUAGE: ...ijnlc
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Communication is one of the first necessities for human beings to live and survive. There are many
different ways to communicate for centuries, yet there are mainly three ways for today's world: spoken,
written and sign languages. According to research on the language usage of deaf people, they commonly
prefer sign language over other ways. Most of the times they need helpers and/or interpreters on daily life
and they are accompanied by human helpers. We intend to make a bidirectional dynamic machine
translation system by using an example-based approach, and apply between Turkish and Turkish Sign
Language (TSL) glosses for the first time in literature with the belief of one day this novel work on Turkish
would help these people to live independently. Using BLEU and TER metrics for evaluation, we tested our
system considering many conditions, and got competitive results especially compared to previous work in
this field.
STRUCTURED AND QUANTITATIVE PROPERTIES OF ARABIC SMS-BASED CLASSIFIED ADS SUB...ijnlc
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In this paper we will present our work in studying the sublanguage of Arabic SMS-based classified ads.
This study is presented from the developer's point of view. We will use the corpus collected from an
operational system, CATS. We also compare the SMS-based and the Web-based messages. We also discuss
some quantitative properties of the studied text.
A study on_global_communication_in_english_languageAlexander Decker
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This document summarizes communication as an academic discipline. It discusses early models of communication and defines it as the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver. It also describes potential barriers to effective communication, called "noise," including environmental, physiological, semantic, and cultural factors. Finally, it concludes that communication is complex, occurring at many levels and in many forms between humans and some machines. The field of communication integrates perspectives from multiple disciplines to develop an expanding understanding of how communication works.
A Survey Of Current Datasets For Code-Switching ResearchJim Webb
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This document provides a survey of existing datasets for code-switching research. It begins by defining code-switching and discussing its increased prevalence in social media interactions. It then proposes quality metrics for evaluating code-switching datasets, including number of words, vocabulary size, number of sentences, and average sentence length. The document reviews available datasets categorized by common NLP tasks like language identification, named entity recognition, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. Several datasets for language pairs like English-Hindi, Spanish-English, and Mandarin-English are discussed. In conclusion, the survey finds that while interest in code-switching research is growing, availability of suitable annotated datasets remains limited.
Dictionary Entries for Bangla Consonant Ended Roots in Universal Networking L...Waqas Tariq
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The Universal Networking Language (UNL) deals with the communication across nations of different languages and involves with many different related discipline such as linguistics, epistemology, computer science etc. It helps to overcome the language barrier among people of different nations to solve problems emerging from current globalization trends and geopolitical interdependence. We are working to include Bangla language in the UNL system so that Bangla language can be converted to UNL expressions. As a part of this process currently we are working on Bangla Consonant Ended Verb Roots and trying to develop lexical or dictionary entries for the Consonant Ended Verb Roots. In this paper, we have presented our work by describing Bangla verb, Verb root, Verbal Inflections and then finally showed the dictionary entries for the consonant ended roots.
While a hearing-impaired individual depends on sign language and gestures, non-hearing-impaired person uses verbal language. Thus, there is need for means of arbitration to forestall situation when a non-hearing-impaired individual who does not understand the sign language wants to communicate with a hearing-impaired person. This paper is concerned with the development of a PC-based sign language translator to facilitate effective communication between hearing-impaired and non-hearing-impaired persons. Database of hand gestures in American sign language (ASL) is created using Python scripts. TensorFlow (TF) is used in the creation of a pipeline configuration model for machine learning of annotated images of gestures in the database with the real time gestures. The implementation is done in Python software environment and it runs on a PC equipped with a web camera to capture real time gestures for comparison and interpretations. The developed sign language translator is able to translate ASL/gestures to written texts along with corresponding audio renderings at an average duration of about one second. In addition, the translator is able to match real time gestures with the equivalent gesture images stored in the database even at 44% similarity.
This document discusses a study on modeling intercultural awareness in intercultural communication through English as a lingua franca. It explores the complex relationship between language and culture in this context. The study proposes the concept of intercultural awareness as a model for the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for successful intercultural communication when English is used as a shared language between speakers of different first languages and cultural backgrounds. Data from the study in Thailand illustrate how elements of intercultural awareness can help understand intercultural interactions through English.
The document discusses the history and development of text messaging, including how it was first invented in the late 1980s, gained widespread popularity in the 2000s, and how it has provided significant benefits to the deaf community by allowing easier communication compared to previous technologies. Text messaging has enabled the deaf community to more easily communicate both with hearing people and other deaf individuals using mobile devices.
NEW TRENDS IN LESS-RESOURCED LANGUAGE PROCESSING: CASE OF AMAZIGH LANGUAGEkevig
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The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has dramatically changed lifestyles in much of the world. It forced
people to profoundly review their relationships and interactions with digital technologies. Nevertheless,
people prefer using these technologies in their favorite languages.
New Trends in Less-Resourced Language Processing: Case of Amazigh Languagekevig
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The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has dramatically changed lifestyles in much of the world. It forced people to profoundly review their relationships and interactions with digital technologies. Nevertheless, people prefer using these technologies in their favorite languages. Unfortunately, most languages are considered even as low or less-resourced, and they do not have the potential to keep up with the new needs. Therefore, this study explores how this kind of languages, mainly the Amazigh, will behave in the wholly digital environment, and what to expect for new trends. Contrary to last decades, the research gap of low and less-resourced languages is continually reducing. Nonetheless, the literature review exploration unveils the need for innovative research to review their informatization roadmap, while rethinking, in a valuable way, peopleâs behaviors in this increasingly changing environment. Through this work, we will try first to introduce the technology access challenges, and explain how natural language processing contributes to their overcoming. Then, we will give an overview of existing studies and research related to under and less-resourced languagesâ informatization, with an emphasis on the Amazigh language. After, based on these studies and the agile revolution, a new roadmap will be presented.
American Standard Sign Language Representation Using Speech Recognitionpaperpublications3
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Abstract: For many deaf people, sign language is the principle means of communication. This increases the isolation of hearing impaired people. This paper presents a system prototype that is able to automatically recognize speech which helps to communicate more effectively with the hearing or speech impaired people. This system recognizes speech signal . Recognized spoken words are represented using American standard sign language via a robotic arm and also on the computer using visual basic .In this project a software package is provided to convert the speech signal, (which does not have any meaning for the deaf and the dumb) into the sign language. The main purpose of this project is to bridge the communication and expression gap between the normal people who cannot understand the sign language, and the deaf and dumb who cannot understand the normal speech.
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Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
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This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
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This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
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This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
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This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
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This document discusses a transformational-generative approach to understanding Al-Istifham, which refers to interrogative sentences in Arabic. It begins with an introduction to the origin and development of Arabic grammar. The paper then explains the theoretical framework of transformational-generative grammar that is used. Basic linguistic concepts and terms related to Arabic grammar are defined. The document analyzes how interrogative sentences in Arabic can be derived and transformed via tools from transformational-generative grammar, categorizing Al-Istifham into linguistic and literary questions.
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
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This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
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This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
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This document summarizes a study examining efficiency in managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was examined through the lenses of Kaizen theory (continuous improvement) and efficiency theory. A survey of 303 marketing executives from Nigerian banks found that management plays a key role in identifying and implementing efficiency improvements. The document recommends adopting a "3H grand strategy" to improve the heads, hearts, and hands of management and marketing executives by enhancing their knowledge, attitudes, and tools.
This document discusses evaluating the link budget for effective 900MHz GSM communication. It describes the basic parameters needed for a high-level link budget calculation, including transmitter power, antenna gains, path loss, and propagation models. Common propagation models for 900MHz that are described include Okumura model for urban areas and Hata model for urban, suburban, and open areas. Rain attenuation is also incorporated using the updated ITU model to improve communication during rainfall.
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
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This document discusses contraceptive use in Punjab, Pakistan. It begins by providing background on the benefits of family planning and contraceptive use for maternal and child health. It then analyzes contraceptive commodity data from Punjab, finding that use is still low despite efforts to improve access. The document concludes by emphasizing the need for strategies to bridge gaps and meet the unmet need for effective and affordable contraceptive methods and supplies in Punjab in order to improve health outcomes.
A synthesis of taylorâs and fayolâs management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
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A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
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This document summarizes four algorithms for sequential pattern mining: GSP, ISM, FreeSpan, and PrefixSpan. GSP is an Apriori-based algorithm that incorporates time constraints. ISM extends SPADE to incrementally update patterns after database changes. FreeSpan uses frequent items to recursively project databases and grow subsequences. PrefixSpan also uses projection but claims to not require candidate generation. It recursively projects databases based on short prefix patterns. The document concludes by stating the goal was to find an efficient scheme for extracting sequential patterns from transactional datasets.
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
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This document summarizes several techniques for live virtual machine migration in cloud computing. It discusses works that have proposed affinity-aware migration models to improve resource utilization, energy efficient migration approaches using storage migration and live VM migration, and a dynamic consolidation technique using migration control to avoid unnecessary migrations. The document also summarizes works that have designed methods to minimize migration downtime and network traffic, proposed a resource reservation framework for efficient migration of multiple VMs, and addressed real-time issues in live migration. Finally, it provides a table summarizing the techniques, tools used, and potential future work or gaps identified for each discussed work.
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
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This document discusses data mining of big data using Hadoop and MongoDB. It provides an overview of Hadoop and MongoDB and their uses in big data analysis. Specifically, it proposes using Hadoop for distributed processing and MongoDB for data storage and input. The document reviews several related works that discuss big data analysis using these tools, as well as their capabilities for scalable data storage and mining. It aims to improve computational time and fault tolerance for big data analysis by mining data stored in Hadoop using MongoDB and MapReduce.
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This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses private equity investments in Kenya. It provides background on private equity and discusses trends in various regions. The objectives of the study discussed are to establish the extent of private equity adoption in Kenya, identify common forms of private equity utilized, and determine typical exit strategies. Private equity can involve venture capital, leveraged buyouts, or mezzanine financing. Exits allow recycling of capital into new opportunities. The document provides context on private equity globally and in developing markets like Africa to frame the goals of the study.
This document discusses a study that analyzes the financial health of the Indian logistics industry from 2005-2012 using Altman's Z-score model. The study finds that the average Z-score for selected logistics firms was in the healthy to very healthy range during the study period. The average Z-score increased from 2006 to 2010 when the Indian economy was hit by the global recession, indicating the overall performance of the Indian logistics industry was good. The document reviews previous literature on measuring financial performance and distress using ratios and Z-scores, and outlines the objectives and methodology used in the current study.
A study to evaluate the attitude of faculty members of public universities of...Alexander Decker
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Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
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Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
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How to Interpret Trends in the Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart.pdfChart Kalyan
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A Mix Chart displays historical data of numbers in a graphical or tabular form. The Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart specifically shows the results of a sequence of numbers over different periods.
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
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This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
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Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind fĂźr viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heiĂes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und LizenzgebĂźhren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer mĂśglich. Das verstehen wir und wir mĂśchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lÜsen kÜnnen, die dazu fßhren kÜnnen, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nÜtig, und wie Sie ßberflßssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen kÜnnen, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnÜtigen Ausgaben fßhren kÜnnen, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins fßr geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren LÜsungen. Und natßrlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Ăberblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
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Sms texting among gsm users in nigeria a morpho-syntactic analysis
1. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences
ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2863 (Online)
Vol.3, No.15, 2013
www.iiste.org
SMS Texting among GSM Users in Nigeria: A morpho-Syntactic
Analysis
Ifeoma M. Nweze
Department of Languages/ Linguistics/ Literary Studies/Visual Arts, Federal University, Ndufu-Alike Ikwo,
Nigeria.
Email: ifynweze@rocketmail.com
Abstract
The gradual shift from the offline to online communication such as text messaging has given way to innovative
language-short forms whose morph-syntactic aspects have permeated the linguistic characters of the texters. For
about a decade now, there exist a growing body of research on mobile phone text messaging by linguists but
only very few have been done in the area of morpho-syntax. The work therefore, examines the aspects of
morphology and syntax found in SMS text messages. It adopts a combination of Chomsky (1957)
Transformational and Silverstein (1976) Meta pragmatic theories. Through the move-a rule and the pragmatic
method of analysis, the study discovers that there are morpho-syntactic variations among texters which are
problematic to formal English. It also reveals that movement of constituents from one slot to the other is a
common feature in text messages though some of such movements violates move-a rules. Other syntactic
differences are reflected in form of subject/agent, object, determiner, to-infinitive deletions/omissions. Wordorder violations, contractions, abbreviations, acronyms, compounding, blends and lack of punctuation also
characterize morpho-syntactic elements in SMS texts. Morphologically, there is no hard and fast rule with
regards to the usersâ choice of letters in abbreviation. Texters use a combination of letters and numbers in their
text messages and in some cases they use only numerals. The texters obviously down-play the orthographic and
syntactic rules of the formal English language for their convenience.
Keywords: SMS texts, Nigeria, mobile phone, morpho-syntactic analysis.
1.0 Introduction
Language has been an integral part of communication and human beings being compulsive communicators
continue to find new ways of communication in an attempt to bridge the distance between individuals. Internet
technology has greatly influenced human life especially in the area of communication. Following the wave of the
technology, Wiki (2008) notes that there is an overwhelming access to different forms of media with an increase
in interconnectedness of peoples and races around the entire world. According to Adejub (2010:2), âthe entire
world comprising six continents and many countries of about 6,881,800,000 (as the estimated population United
States Census Bureau) has been reduced to a global village through the dynamism of communication with the aid
of information technology (ICT).â ICT is a term used to refer to a range of technologies for gathering, storing,
retrieving, processing, analyzing and transmitting information. The SMS (short message service) which serves as
the latest way of quick communication since the invention of SMS texts came alongside with the global
technology Lexemes are used to facilitate the effectiveness of this device. The effectiveness of this medium of
communication depends on the appropriate combination of the words it carries, and in the combination of these
words lie what is known as the message. This communication technique is currently in use in all areas of lifeoffices, schools, markets, homes, advertisements, churches, etc. The component service (the phone) is unique for
its smallness and mobility. Due to the smallness, there is a limited space which leaves subscribers no choice
other than pursue simple sentence structures and other language short-forms to enable them exhaust their
message. Crystal (2008) contributing to the small character space of the mobile phone contends that subscribers
have created new linguistic forms to enable them maximize the available space and at the same time, make sure
they say all that is to be said to the understanding of the receiver. Supporting this view, Rafi (2010) observes that
through the new written conventions, texters have developed a written form of sounds that replaces the ability to
hear spoken utterances. The study therefore, seeks to examine the morpho-syntactic analysis of the innovative
language-form (Text messaging).
1.1 Methodology
The sources of data for our analysis comprise the text messages sent and received by the students of the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Our choice of area of study is guided by the fact that University of Nigeria,
Nsukka is a federal university where the students comprise peoples from different tribes of the nation. Data was
collected from fifty University students comprising both male and female. A total of seventy-five messages
(consisting of educational, seasonal, love, religious and other messages that express well wishes) were collected
from the participants whose messages were taken in confidence. This guarantees the researcherâs permission to
analyze the messages. The samples of the data are found in the Appendix.
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2. SMS Text Messaging: An Overview
The Short Message Service (SMS) is the part of a phone, web or mobile communication system used globally for
the exchange of short text messages between discussants. SMS according to Oladoye (2011:16) was first used in
December 1992 by a 22-year old named Neil Papworth. He says that the concept of SMS was developed by
Friedhelm Hillebrand, Bernard Ghillebaert and Oculy Silaban in 1984, in the Franco-German GSM cooperation.
Since the invention, the mobile telephone has been the latest way to communicate quickly. Text messaging is a
general term that is used to refer to the short written messages usually sent through phone and other portable
devices over a network. Ongâonda (2011:1) observes that the terms âtext messagingâ or just âtextingâ refers to the
brief typed messages sent using the Short Message Service (SMS) of mobile/cell phones, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), smart phones or web browsers. Uhunmwangho (2009:27) defined a text message as âany
linguistic event, usually a written form of speech that is imbued with meaningâ. Doring (2002:7) notes that
âSMS communication allows for a reasonable use of syntactic and lexical short forms, which save character
space, or touches of the handset keys, as compared with using the full forms of wordsâ. In the words of Rafi
(2010:3) it pursues simple sentence structures for communication. They also make use of written sound of words
and in other cases bring code mixing into it. Rafi further observes that SMS syntactic and lexical choices by the
texters are not so different from a child language; for instance a child expresses his feelings through simple
present progressive tense e.g. mom eating for âMom is eatingâ and Eating for âI am eatingâ
The equipment in its uniqueness affords most texters a much economized means of communication (Habluetzel
2007), (Thurlow 2003) and (Thurlow and Poff 2011). The Short message Service gives the subscriber the
advantage of choosing a specific number of words that would communicate comprehensively, but briefly, with
minimum cost- Chiluwa (2007:96). Due to the inconveniences caused by the limitation in the time and space that
comes along with the Short Message Service, texters are forced to find new ways for sending text messages.
Letters and numbers are also often combined (or used alone) for compression and convenience. Discussing on
the brevity of the electronic discourse, (Crystal 2001), (Hard af Sagerstad 2002) and (Thurlow 2003) note that
the technical restrictions of text messaging have led to the development of language short forms in SMS
communication.
The sender of a text message is known as a texter. SMS text service itself has different colloquialisms depending
on the region in that it may simply be referred to as a text in North America, India, Australia, Nigeria etc. Our
area of study geographically is therefore, morpho-syntactic analysis of SMS text messaging in Nigeria.
2.1 Nigeria and the SMS Texts
The global technology for Mobile communication notes Alabi (2010a) was introduced in Nigeria in the year
2001 and following the inception, he observes that SMS text messaging has become a major medium of passing
across information from one person to another irrespective of the distance between the âsenderâ and âreceiverâ.
MTN, which happened to be the first GSM Company in Nigeria, commenced its commercial services in August
2001. In the words of Bodomo (2010:110) mobile phone in Nigeria was introduced in 2001 with the evolution of
Global System for Mobile Communication which two people or more exchange messages by coding and
decoding texts received and sent from their cell phonesâ. Oladoye writes that the commencement brought the
Short Message Service (SMS) to limelight in the Nigerian communication system; ever since then, text
messaging has taken different turns. SMS text messaging as used by modern handsets is a part of the Global
System for Mobile communication (GSM), as a means of sending messages of more than 160 characters to and
from GSM mobile handsets. In Nigeria, most SMS messages are mobile - to - mobile text messages, although the
standard supports other types of broadcast messaging as well. Linguists and scholars of related fields have
conducted researches on the general use of SMS text messaging since it became a part of the Global System of
communication in Nigeria. Such scholars include: Chiluwa (2007), Egbe (2009), Uhunmwangho (2009), Alabi
(2010ab), Adejub (2010) Oladoye (2011), etc. Chiluwa focused on the effects of the limited interface allowed by
the SMS to the users and the Nigerianess of SMS messages in English. Egbe spoke elaborately on the varying
possibilities offered by text messages and acknowledges that many users sending greetings at Christmas, Easter,
Sallah, anniversaries, wedding ceremonies or events are no longer by the use of cards but through text messages
by the mobile handset. Even invitations to events, meetings and high powered gatherings are sent through the
mobile discourse. Oladoye (2011:46) discussing on the importance of the SMS as a means of communication in
Nigeria comments as follows:
SMS text messaging has become a vital part of our communication system in Nigeria. It serves as a cheaper
alternative for many Nigerians today, in which they pay less, as against the higher costs on oral phone calls. It
has found a place for itself and it has come to stay. Various new devices are now developed to promote its usage
e.g. Blackberries and I-phones. In Nigeria today, people receive invitations to employment interviews, warnings,
announcements, etc via text messages. SMS text messaging is moving fast on a wide range in the Nigerian
communication system and even in the whole of Africa
From the foregoing, there seem to exist a growing body of research on mobile phone texts messaging by
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linguists but only very few have been done on the area of morpho-syntax. Nevertheless, we shall review them as
they constitute our base.
2.2 Empirical studies
Nwankwo (2011) examines the syntactic errors among GSM users and discovers such dominant features as
omissions of punctuation marks, incorrect phrasal combinations, spellings and the use of abbreviations. She
warns that the users of this innovative language should be conscious of these deviations not to transfer the habit
in writing to the formal English. Iloelunachi (2011) studies the relationship between the syntax of the SMS
language style and the language of media. Comparing their syntactic structures, his result reveals that SMS
language format are structured differently from that of formal writing. He therefore, strongly suggests that
learners should be taught on how best to apply the forms with due recognition for formal and informal contexts
while writing. Oladoye (2011) investigates the syntactic and lexico-semantic analyses of selected SMS text
messages among the university of Ilorin students. The result shows that among the word classes, the most
frequently occurring element is the noun with 39.22%. It discovers that all the text messages had noun elements
in them. The most prominent word sequence was the clause which had 20.5%. Ogbonna (2012) made a
sociolinguistic study of the local colouration in mobile phone text messaging in Nigeria. Adopting Hymesâ (1962)
Ethnography of Speaking, she discovers that young Nigerian text composers blend their knowledge of Nigeria
social, linguistic, cultural, political and economic settings with their knowledge of conventions of organization of
SMS messaging within Nigerian context to create different types of messages that are meaningful. The study
reveals that for most Nigerian youths, the major purpose of texts is social bonding and in expressions that are
Nigeria specific. However, the present study examines the morpho-syntactic aspects of text messages as
contained in the messages sent or received by the students of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
2.3 Morpho-Syntax
2.3.1 Morphology and morphological processes
Morphology studies the internal structure of words. It is the way the speech sounds are stringed together to form
words. Morphological processes are those processes employed in linguistics to form new words in a language.
Sanmi (2010) identified eight ways by which words are formed. They include: affixation, compounding
reduplication, acronym, blends, conversion, back-formation, clipping etc. We shall only discuss the
morphological processes of Compounding, Blending and Acronyms
2.3.2 Compounding is neither inflection nor derivation; it is a combination of two or more independent words.
The product of the words formed stands as a free morpheme. According to Lyons (1868), Zwicky (1985) and
Sanmi (2010:59), the compound formed is a morphological complex unit in linguistics; it is unquestionable
among linguists. It can be formed by adding a noun to another noun as in star lights, noun to a verb as in
kickback etc.
2.3.3 Blending
It is a process in morphology where new words are formed by combining the initial and the final segments of
two or more already existing words in a language. Adams (1973) says that blends words made of parts of
morphemes usually formed by joining the parts of two diffâ words together. Sanmi (2010:65) observes there are
two types of blends; the first cannot be analysed into constituents but contains elements which may remind us of
other words similar to them. For instance smog tells us of smoke and fog. Quirk (1986) contends that the second
type of blend consists of words seen as contracted forms of compounds, that is, words in which one element is
fragmentary when compared to its corresponding uncompounded form. Example, Breakfast + Launch â brunch,
carpet + cafetaria â capetaria
2.3.4 Acronyms
They are new words formed from joining the first letters of two sets of words. Oladoye (2011:36) writes that
âwhen the initial letters are pronounced with the name of the letters of the alphabet, they are called
âalphabetismsâ but when they are pronounced like individual words, they are called acronymsâ. Examples
include: WHO, NEPA, YES (Youth Empowerment Scheme), AIDS etc. The morphological style is languagespecific, that is, the word formation rule differs across languages. However, in this study we are specifically
concerned with the formation rule in English language
2.4. Syntax
It is the related area of linguistics which studies the patterns that governs the way in which words are combined
to form phrases, sentences or clauses (word-order topologies). It can be seen as constructive rules according to
which words are combined into sentences using the rules of the grammar of that language. The study anchors on
Chomskyâs (1965) syntactic component of grammar. He argues for the innate ability of every normal child in
acquiring a grammar of a language that can generate infinite number of grammatical structures using syntactic
rules and at the same time detects the ungrammaticality in constructions. We shall also apply Chomskyâs (1957)
rules of transformation which was advanced by Baker (19780), Radford (1981) etc. Ndimele (2003:160) holds
that a transformation is a grammatical operation which enables two levels of structural representation (Deep and
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surface structure) to be placed in correspondence. The rule responsible for such operations in syntax is known as
move-alpha. The transformational operations we shall discuss here are movement and deletion.
2.5. Meta Pragmatic Theory: An overview
Metapragmatic theory was propounded by silvestein (1976) and his associates. Leech (1983) says that the theory
involves metapragmatic reasoning and reasonability. He observes that the reasonability of the metapragmatic
denotes âuser reasonabilityâ. By âuser reasonabilityâ, he means that it is the users that deem the rules of text
composition reasonable. This contention implies that it is the sender and the receiver of text messages that deem
the content of the text reasonable for the understanding of the intended messages. The key principles of Meta
pragmatic theory include the principles of economy and efficiency. Though this theory seems to belong to the
area of sociolinguistics, but the reason for using it in the analysis of the selected text messages is its ability in
capturing the reasonability and the economy of the texters.
Having made a review of both theoretical and empirical data, we shall examine the morpho-syntactic aspects
of the data on the text messages collected just as the way the words, phrases, sentences and clauses are formed
by the texters in this work. The analysis is based on the standard norms of the structure of a sentence (English
language). It will be discussed under the following headings: movement transformation, Deletion, Word-order
violation, omissions, contractions, abbreviations, acronyms, etc.
3. Morpho-syntactic Analysis
3.1 Movement
From the data, we observe that some messages received or sent by texters in SMS messages (M) show evidence
of moved constituents from their syntactic positions to a landing site. See Mgs 12, 23, 64 and 65. In M64 âYour
accountâ which is the NP of the sentence moved from its original slot as the pr-verbal NP to a landing site of
post-verbal NP of the verb âdebitedâ. This type of transformation is barred because a constituent is not allowed to
move across more than one bounding node. In M.12, the embedded clause was moved to the subject slot and the
complementiser âforâ functions as the subject. The structure should be âJohn is tough for one to beatâ. In M23,
the subject âweâ has been inverted leading to syntactic variation. The variation created by move-a may be a
device by the writer to achieve focus or even a stylistic device.
3.2. Deletion/Omission
Deletion is a syntactic operation that removes constituent in a construction and therefore cause it not to appear in
the surface structure. Many sentences in SMS texts involve discourse ellipsis, that is, contextually determined
omission where the subjects/agents and objects are intentionally deleted or omitted because they are either
implicit in the verb or are known by the interlocutors in the discourse. The elements seen as omissions are
deleted at the surface structure for purposes of economy and userâs reasonability in understanding the rules of
text composition. The data reflected the following types of deletion: subjects/agents, objects, etc. In âMs.1, 3, 5,
9, 20, 2I, 22, 24-30â there are deletions of the subjects in the text messages of the discussants. From the data, the
subjects deleted are mostly pronouns such as we, he, she especially the personal pronoun âIâ. M2 shows evidence
of deletion of the agent to the action of the verb âtransferâ. Texters sometimes omit the object of a sentence
which constitutes an obligatory part of a sentence. For instance, in âM36 the object of âforgeâ is omitted. The
verb âforgeâ needs an object to complete the sense of the verb yet its object has been deleted. It is natural in
many discourse situations that the discussants under a particular context limit some information to underlying
structure yet they understand themselves. The omission shows that there is a shared context or background
between the interlocutors about the object in question. This also bears out Ongâondaâs (2011:4) postulation that
the stylistic feature of syntactic omissions in SMS discourse relies on the fact that communications with close
friends, partners and family members allows one to organize messages pragmatically as a common background
exists. Articles and determiners are also omitted in texts of SMS users. In Ms2, 32 and 33â the determiner âtheâ
are omitted while the article âaâ is omitted in âM34â.
3.3 Contractions
Contraction is a term used for words or group of words whose orthographic letters are not fully represented; they
are shortened for want of time or space. SMS communication makes use of contractions. The words are
contracted by cutting the middle of a word or by attaching the first letter of the first word to the second word and
removing the rest of the letters of the first word. In âM.31, 37, 40, 42, 50â respectively âthe phrase what is upâ is
contracted as follows: âwassupâ, birthday as âbdayâ, somebody as âsbodyâ, breakfast as âbfastâ fdom as freedom,
gmourning for good mourning. The contracted forms which are derived from two or three sets of self standing
words do not lose their property of a fully independent word. However, if the practice continues overtime, the
fear is that the novice language created by texters may cause some words to lose their property of a fully
independent word and acquire the properties of a morphological affix.
3.4 Violations in Word-ordering
Some sentences found in SMS texts when placed in line with the English word-order, rebel against the standard
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format of subject-verb-object (SVO). Consider Mgs â5 and 9â, in â5â the syntactic ordering of the constituents is
âVOVâ (verb object verb). In â9â the ordering is âVSVOâ However, Ongâonda (2011) notes that in an attempt to
say all that is needed to be said to achieve effective communication, users tend to rebel against word-ordering; in
such cases, âto infinitiveâ the auxiliary, verbs, prepositions or adverbs may therefore come first. Rafi (2010),
comments that inversion of normal English word order seems to be motivated by lack of paralinguistic cues. It is
important to note that the structural representation of syntactic variant is based on the assumption that variants
have an identical underlying structure. Messages (M) â4, 12 and 23â show that subjects of the sentences are
implied. In M4, âto infinitive is topicalised for the sake of emphasis; it then occupies the subject slot though it is
a pseudo-subject. The surface structure reads âit is human to errâ.
3.5. Compounding, Acronyms and Blends
The words merigoround carryova and emotionpach in Ms 24, 36 and 38 are compound words used in the data.
The texters overlooked the use of hyphen that connects the word sets as in meri-go-round etc. Acronyms are
commonly used as found in the data. Example, C.W.O, UK, UNN, NFCS, NEPA, AIDS, FUNAI in Ms
26,28,37,43, 57 and 72 respectively. Blends are also used in the messages, motel in M56 and telecast in â74â are
instances used by texters.
3.6. Abreviations
The use of abbreviations in words and phrases is one of the most features that characterizes the messages of the
texters. In M.35, 39, 41, 43-49 respectively, the following words: âsumtin stands for somethingâ, âwnt for wantâ,
âcos for becauseâ, âfyn for fineâ, âhw for howâ, âliten for lightenâ,âd for theâ, âwz for wasâ, âapy for happyâ, broda
for brotherâ, plz for pleaseâ. From the data, there is no hard and fast rule morphologically with regards to the
usersâ choice of letters in abbreviation. This gave rise to morphological variation in lexical forms such that while
some texters use phonectic forms as in M.53- âgudâ which ignores the orthographic form of the vowel âoâ and
adopts the graphemic usage âuâ in its place. Thurtlow (2007) discussing abbreviations in text discourse notes that
texters also take the advantage of different phonetic spellings in order to create different types of verbal effects in
their messages such that SMS language reflects abbreviations, capitalization and punctuation. Others who
adopt the written framework while abbreviating still vary in their choices of orthographic combination. For
instance, âcosâ in M.41â is written âcuzâ in M51â, âplz in â50â is written âplseâ in â57â etc. Some writers use a
combination of letters and numbers in their text messages. Example: â2morow and b4âas used in M.56. Some
others use only numbers for compression. For instance, the numeral â8â is used for âeight and ateâ in M. 52 and
54, 2 for âto, two and tooâ in Ms. â58, 59 and 60â respectively. We observe that most often the letters âionâ in the
end of words or phrases is abbreviated to be ânâ. There are also two or three words shortened and merged to
become one as in âwassupâ and âgmourningâ above; they can be termed abbreviated phrases. An abbreviated
construction is the one that has two or three words compressed by omission of letters and merging of the words
involved. Few text messages use abbreviated phrases. Abbreviated phrases seem to be prompted by the challenge
of small screen and the limited character space-Doring (2002). Moreover abbreviations are easily understood by
SMS users as Leechâs (1983) metagragmatic userâs reasonability deems such combinations reasonable to both
the sender and the receiver.
4. Summary and conclusion
The paper examined the text messages of the students of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka taking focus on
the morpho-syntactic aspects that underlie the linguistic characters of the writers. From the data, our findings are
as follows:
Syntactically, SMS texts employ transformation rules such as the move-a and deletion rules in some
constructions. It is noted too, that some of such movements violates move-a rules. There are many deviations by
the online interactive media on the formal English format in such areas as word-ordering, lexical and phrasal
contractions and omissions.
Morphologically, there is no hard and fast rule with regards to the usersâ choice of letters in abbreviation.
Texters use a combination of letters and numbers in their text messages and in some cases they use only
numerals. The data shows that morphological processes of word formation such as compounding, acronyms and
blends are common features that are found in messages of the interlocutors. The analysis also reveals that the
SMS text is seriously controlled by socio-linguistic variables as shared background knowledge, the
metapragmatic principles of economy, userâs reasonability and efficiency.
In conclusion, the stylistic device in SMS texts captured in word modifications, phrasal and clausal
manipulations and excessive liberty afforded to the subscribers have given rise to novice language which affects
the morpho-syntactic aspects of the Standard English format.
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Appendix
M1. Saw ur cal.Whats gwan?
M2 Transferred 2 dept of soil science 4 gud
M3. Sure wil be there 2 conzol u. Get on wit ur laif
M4. To err is human; just overlook dat animalistik behaviour in me
M5. Love the card, tanks
M9. Tanks, I love the card
M12. For one to beat John is tough
M20. Left for Aba yestade
M21. Will cloz 20th Aug.
M22. Hope u enjoyed the meal
M23. For this purpose we are born.
M24. Called but no picking join the merigoround @ d freedom square
M25. Pd in.30k jus now .tex me d make of d laptop. is it fairly used or new
M26. Invited u 2 an interview wit d diosecan C.W.O @ 3pm on September 8.
M27. Avail bal.10,077
M28. Won 1m naira UK NOKIA award. Payment No:NK-015. 4 claim send ur name, num & country 2 US via
e-mail: nokiawins1@live.co.uk
M29 Hi,gud monin, sori if sounded rude 2dy. Didnât mean any harm. sori bt pls i dnt tlk 2 guys on d road even
if u must tlk 2 me on d way, u do dat politely.sori
M30. feeling so happy, so kul, so high. Do u know why? cuz i m so lucky, do u know how? cuz God loves
me.Do u know how? cuz he gave me a gift. Do u know what? its YOU my love.
M31. wassup? I de house
M32 Ngozi âll wed 15th Dec. Hope uâll bring wedin gown.
M33. Beyond Ur fears and visions lay unfallable hand of the unfallable lord. Itâs a nw hope,liv wit it & enjoy nw
month!
M34. There is new prinspl of Ph.D defens in UNN now, extnal examinersâ CV & articles on screening,
HORRIBLE, DISGUSTING! âve ur examiner gotn approval?
M35. Dili had an accident,she wnt 2 buy sumtin n a bottle mistakenly fel on her leg n cut her vein.We jst cmin
4rm medical center.
M36. I didnât forge as planned, the man kum disapoint Na carryova be dat
M37. G/evening sir & hw r u doin. Diz is 2 officialy invite u 2 my bday party wit Rotract club of UNN @
physics 3rd yr class carver building by 2 pm
plz kindly dress formal
M38 Its beta nt 2 dan 2 fall in luv wit 1 who doesnât luv u in return. U âve nt bn callin.. emotionpach is d most
chronic pach 1 can tink of. U said u luv me bt ur actns nor words doesnât show it, nt even in tex, flashn or cals. I
said it @ d initial tym, tnk God 4 my kind of person.Ur wish is granted anyway.Wish u d best in life.
M39. Wnt 2 com Bac 2dey.I wil come 2morrow. Ope (hope) u r ok.
M40. D guy name apia for notice bod, they say he take exam 4 sbody. O boy don go bi dat oo
M41 Cos i was hurrying i forgot to giv u d meseg.
M42. I no eat 4 nite com de tek bfast 4 eleven oâ clock. Dis assignment de show me
M43
D NFCS final yr forum hold her semina dis sat 18/2/12.Time :10:30 am venue :seat of wisdom
hall ,speaker Nath Francis. Hp fyn
M44.
Dear hw is ur health,hope ur gettn beta plz reply. luv u dear
M45. Luv is d dream of nature giving 2 liten manâs burden, lv meks simple d imposible tins of lyf. It shyns n
neva fades Hapi val.
M46. You know wat? I read d txt wit ma frnd.
M47.
Fyno and u, hw wz ur day? ope kul
M48.
Imagin a wrld witout pipple & pipple witout love,luv is sometin dat al cherish, few understood. Let us
define it wit our lives. apy val.
M49.
Broda rejoice with me d battle is ova, my Supervisor has won DVC.
M50.
Plz am in d church ok
M51
If i were a tear in ur eye i wood roll down onto ur lips.But if u were a tear in my eye i wood never cry as
i wood be afraid 2 lose u!
M52. D outbreak of ur breaktru in dis new yr shall be faster dan speed of 8ty
rocket stars .God shall grant
u all ur effort wit gud sucsess.
90
8. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences
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Vol.3, No.15, 2013
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M53. Do u relate wt people well? Gud,u re invited 2 a shearing forum of d final forum on Etiquette in human
relationships dis Thursday immediately after d evin mass. NFCS Finalist...the lord is our strength.
M54
Am just wakin from sleep.I 8 heavli last nite I missed d church just bcos no one kia 2 wake me.
M55 Imilike undergraduate asso meetin holds as folos: date:11/2/12(sun) time:3pm venue:soc.sc quardranghte
agenda :rendering account and first year induct.
Plse be there.
M56 Itâs ova b/w us. Caught her wit anoda boy at d motel along Benin express
M57 May u live long laik corruption in Nigeria, may ur generocity spread laik poverty and AIDS in naija, may
ur enemies fall laik naira value, may ur blessing increase laik fuel price in naija, may ur happiness rise laik
unemployment, may u nt fail laik NEPA in Nigeria nd may God fight ur enemies more powerful than Boko
Haram in Nigeria. Api new month!
M58
Cheers.Big Tony. I dnt evn knw hw to tel u ths bt i have 2.D truth is dt av nt ben paid.De promise to pay
me on Wednesday unfailnly. I knw its goin 2b like abmb.plz bea wt me
M59 No airtym to reply ystrday,the credit exprd 2 days ago. D nxt cash i get âll com ur way.i had a serious
crash wit d car bt i wonât repair it until weâr got dat laptop.
M60
Wishing you the best in ur exams. bles you as u join our felo/ship. Be on fire 4 christ & ur blessn is
assured. Me 2 is already in flames 4 dis purpose
M61
Life ends wen you stop drimin, hop ends wen you stop believing and luv ends wen you stop caring.
So drim hope and love...Makes Life Beautiful
M62
God has givn u d opportunity to rule & reign ova lifeâs circmstances.âve a nice de!
M63
Ist time i saw u i was scared 2 touch u.1st time i touched u i was scared 2 kiss u.1st time i kiss u i was
scared to luv u.but now dat i luv u im scared 2 lose u!
M64
NGN8,000 has been debited with your account on 30-Aug- 2013 by cash W/D self. Bal
NGN20,000.32CR
M65 NGN600.00 credit was transferred frm my SIM 2 ur phone. enjoy
M67 conventn hold at Nathan Ejiogu Buildin by 10am prompt. NFCS secretariat
M68 Need a gud job!, text AVNSUB073 to 33070 start receiving job vacancies alert daily.
M69 Tanx 4 giving, uâl av more in return
M70 Av dominion ova laif struggles. Uâr an ovacomer
M71 Strike is total no teachin, gona go swimin
M72 Movment frm d VCâs lodge 2 Lagos sat Aug 24th 4 wedin of Emma Nzeako-Pol Science Dept. FUNAI
M73 Just 2 let u know he survived tank God
M74 breakin news check telecast by 7pm 2day
M75 Call me when u hv free period b/4 noon Iâl be there b/w 8 &12am.
91
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