The document summarizes Peter H. Smith's argument that US foreign policy towards Latin America was influenced by the goal of spreading democracy. It provided supporting details from Smith's book over several pages. Key points included that spreading democracy was used in the 19th century to justify imperialism and intervention in Latin America. The concept of manifest destiny emerged in the 1840s and was used to justify westward expansion as fulfilling America's divine mission to spread democracy and republican values across the continent. However, US leaders also recognized the challenges of spreading democracy in Latin America due to factors like Spain's influence, Catholicism, climate and race.

2. During the 19th century, spreading democracy justified imperialism and dignified conquests.

3. The argument meant that Europe’s monarchical and un-republican rule should stay out of the Western Hemisphere.

4. During the 20th century, it was used to justify intervention of affairs of Latin America.

5. Overall, spreading democracy was to justify imperialism both territorial and commercial.

7. Redefine the substance of conflict

8. Seize control of the agenda

9. Capture the terms of debate

10. Shape the outcome of the struggle itself.

11. A ‘cognitive map’ of reality makes ideology more simple which provides an explanation and suggests a plan of action.

12. The US relations with Latin America, aimed at main three audiences

13. Domestic society

14. National leaders thought US policy could assist in mobilization of resources

15. Citizens preferred to believe that US efforts were to serve noble purpose than material self-interest

16. Provide leaders with weapons for weakening, silencing domestic opposition

17. Rival powers, especially in Europe

18. Emphasize importance and warned outside rivals to not interfere

19. Ideology underlined national purpose and will and presented others with intellectual challenge

20. Unless rival had ideological rationalization of their own, they would be discouraged from acting

21. Throughout history, imperialists justified actions over higher mission

22. Subjugated societies

23. Spreading ideology was to make local people accept new power arrangements

24. Colonized interprets situation not as social/national defeat but step towards higher truth

25. Emphasis on leadership groups that acted as go-betweens

26. Those would benefit largely

27. Voluntary help within subordinate societies was crucial to imperial power and control

28. Without help, the imperialist must rely on use of force

30. Thomas Paine in Common Sense in 1776, “We have it in our power to begin the world all over again”

31. To British and Europe, this was not a modest claim

32. America’s ideology was different from that of Europe: New and Old World

33. Paine gave reasoning to the philosophy/credo

34. Immigrants from Europe

35. “this New World has been the asylum for the persecuted and the lovers of civil and religious liberty from every part of Europe”

36. Geography

37. Placing across Europe – Atlantic Ocean

38. “even the distance at which the Almighty has placed England and America is a strong and natural proof that the author of one over the other was never the design of heaven”

39. Combined historical with religious interpretation

40. The way the country was discovered

41. Central element in mythology: providential benediction

42. God gave the American society its virtues and purposes.

43. This meant national greatest was not a matter of choice but an obligation.

44. Similar to the Spanish crusades in 16th century, they were just performing God’s will in 18th century

45. They had to act how they did to avoid disrespect and treason

46. Sense of heavenly mission led to emphasis on national uniqueness, belief in exceptionalism of US

47. Different in democracy

48. Different from other nations as City on a Hill

49. This conviction encouraged contradictory impulses.

50. Isolationist idea: It gave the idea that the United States was superior.

51. A land whose political ideals wouldn’t flourish elsewhere.

52. Activist idea: Uniqueness defined the obligation to spread the gospel of democracy.

54. President James K Polk’s contested Britain’s claim to Oregon territory and prepared for war in Mexico during 1840s

55. Newspaper editor, John L O’Sullivan, New York Morning News invoked will

56. “….right of our manifest destiny to overspread and possess the whole continent… for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us”

57. From that, the idea of manifest destiny emerged

58. Became a concept which crystallized a sense of national purpose: explanation and rationalization for expansion

60. The issue was not acquisition of land, natural resources but fulfillment of a divine plan.

61. Uncertainty about precise boundaries of expansion

62. Some wanted to expand to Canada, Mexico

63. Daniel S. Dickinson of NY to Senate: there are more territory and races for them to civilize

64. Manifest destiny encompassed significant subthemes

65. America’s youth in contrast to Old World of Europe

66. Fresh, eager, innocent US was coming into its own power

67. Challenged European theme of international law

68. Codes to regulate interactions between nations

69. Sustain the post-Westphalian balance of power

70. US wouldn’t be constrained by classical rules of law

71. Applied only to Europe, not US

72. Another subtheme stressed quality of states’ rights

74. Manifest destiny was ambigious

75. Inevitability versus agency, passivity versus activism

76. To what extent fate or require actions of leaders/citizens?

77. Issue had more debates over the need for military action

78. Didn’t have to fight

79. John C Calhoun: “Time is acting for us; and, if we shall have the wisdom to trust its operation, it will assert and maintain our right with resistless force, without costing a cent of money, or a drop of blood”

80. If it was manifest, why not await arrival

81. Fight

82. Destiny was something to be seized, not passively awaited

83. Hostility mounted with Mexico, national purpose broadened in scope

85. The greater the military action, the more expansive the definition of national purpose.

86. At the beginning of the Mexican War, manifest destiny was to areas of Texas to California, incorporated into US.

87. As US troops entered Mexico City, intention of liberation and democratization emerged

88. US leaders recognized spreading democracy would not be easy.

89. Looking in 19th century perspective, Latin America looked like a challenge.

90. One line of reasoning: focus on route on Latin America’s history – forces that shape the political culture

91. Prominent among this was character of Spain, influence of Catholicism, effects of climate, question of race

92. Thomas Jefferson quote; skeptical view of Latin America’s capacity from democracy

93. Take at least a generation to uproot legacies of monarchism and Catholicism

94. Jefferson harsh on impact of Catholic Church, 1813 “…priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government. This marks the lowest grace of ignorance, of which their civil as well as religious leaders will always avail themselves for their own purposes”

96. Henry Clay of Kentucky (more optimistic): promoted granting of diplomatic recognition to newly independent countries of the region

97. International arena, new governments throughout region “would be animated by American feeling, guided by American policy”

98. Provide bulwark against European influence

99. Domestic political processes

100. Cooperation would lead to democratization in Spanish America, demonstration effect

102. Acquisition was act of liberation for “misgoverned and oppressed”

103. One incorporated in US they would free to a “higher scale of humanity”

104. Others saw problems with pearl of Antilles

105. One congressman, different religion, different language, “our people have regarded them as aliens and outlaws from the pale of humanity and civilization”

106. Late 1890s, imminence of Spanish-American War prompted criticism of Spain’s historical record

107. Cruelty to native populations

108. Condemnation was a double edge

109. Rationalization for war against Spain

110. Legacy of perfidious rule would severely impede installation of democracy

111. US leaders had dilemma, worse qualities of the opponent, greater the need for military intervention, less chance for democratic rule.

112. Climate was another obstacle – some argued tropics were unfit for democracy

113. Favorable to laziness, licentiousness and irresponsibility

114. Debates over Puerto Rice, Representative James Slayden of Texas – pseudoscientific principles “Tropics seems to heat blood while enervating the people who inhabit them”

115. Race was a big concern and obstacle

117. Not only racial prejudice but hierarchical notion that reflected God’s manifest will

118. Anglo-Saxons were hardiest and strongest of all whites

119. Asians fell in the middle of scheme with Spaniards and other southern Europeans

120. Bottom was blacks and Indians

121. Widely regarded as hopelessly beyond redemption

122. Mixed-bloods had undecided positions

123. Some thought mixture of races was means of uplifting character and quality over generations

124. Others thought it was degradation and perdition

125. The war with Mexico raised the problem of racial assimilation

126. James Buchanan denounced “the imbecile and indolent Mexican race”

127. However long, European and Spanish influence was insignificant

129. John C Calhoun saw nothing but trouble in the capture of Mexico

130. “we have never dreamt of incorporating into our Union any but the Caucasian race – the free white race… I protest against such a union as that! Ours, sir, is the Government of white race”

131. Only the free white race was capable of democratic government

132. Others were willing to compromise by taking as much land as possible with few people

133. Purpose of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was acquisition of territory not incorporation of citizens

134. Long run, US would await alteration of ethnic composition of Mexican society

135. With this, country would fall into control of the US

136. Racial rearrangement would be key to imperial expansion

137. The issue came up again with the annexation of the Philippines

138. Racism argument was used to the US advantage

139. Filipinos were a “decadent race” according to Senator Albert Beveridge but it defined the nature of the imperialist challenge

140. Empires around the world were engaged in uplifting inferior races

142. Eventual citizenship ran directly into the problem of race

143. Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado... would rather make the Philippine Islands a colony rather their inhabitants citizens of the US…

144. For Cuba, with its large black population was an even bigger problem as Southerners were quick to express opinions

145. Benjamin F Tillman opposed Spanish-American War and warned North that burden may be bigger than expected

146. Other Senators agreed

147. Orville H Platt… people of Cuba because of race and characteristic “cannot be easily assimilated by us…”

148. John W Foster “negro problem in our Southern states pressing upon us for solution… do we desire to aggravate the situation by adding a million more of the despised race to our voting population?”

149. Cuba was granted independence (partly a response to concerns) in 1902

151. Prejudicial disdain to colored people was justification for forceful acquisition of influence and territory

152. Nonwhite population unsuited to develop, it was an obligation

153. Presence of nonwhite peoples in newly dominated lands, unwelcomed possibility of incorporating them into society

154. Altering racial composition and lowering quality

155. Racism promoted as well as restricted imperialist expansion

156. Largely due to ideological contradictions that US leaders turned away from annexation of territory

157. Toward construction of colonies at end of century.

158. Offered permanent source of influence

159. Toward period military intervention

160. Provided regular source of influence

161. However, invasions and protectorates would prove cost-effective

162. Between 1898 and 1934, US launched more than 30 military interventions on Latin America

163. Dispatch of armed troops from one country to another

164. Varied motivations for these actions

165. Protection of US economic interests (especially private loans to local governments)

166. Assertion of geopolitical hegemony

167. Assuring European powers not to meddle in western hemisphere

168. WWI, protection of Panama Canal

169. Perpetual rationalization was that the judicious application of military force by the US would lead to promotion of democracy throughout the region.

170. This policy focused exclusively on greater Caribbean Basin + Mexico and Central America

171. Some were short, others led to military occupations of several years

173. Woodrow Wilson (eventually defined purpose of WWI as making world safe for democracy)

174. Viewed democracy as a universal possibility

175. Wilson rejected prejudicial theories about historical, religious and geographical limitations

176. Clear limits in Latin American democracy

177. During this time, there were constraints on US democracy; women wanting to vote in 1919, organized labor was struggling, racial segregation meant exclusion of blacks from political life

178. View of popular skepticism; Us had little interest in promoting politics throughout region

179. Instead, maintaining law and order

180. Avoid mass-based social revolution

182. Justified intervention and decision to lift the occupation

183. US supervision of elections were overbearing – sometimes to point of pre-selection of winner

184. But actual election was an essential step in the process

185. US ambassador to British counterparts stated make them vote, if they rebel they can vote again

186. Pattern clear in 1906, T Roosevelt used Platt Amendment to justify dispatch troops to Cuba and install William Howard Taft as provisional governor

187. US undertook annul election of 1905, enact electoral legislation and monitor a vote in 1909

188. TR: “establish peace and order on satisfactory basis, start the new government, and then leave the island”

189. Similar course in Panama, Nicaragua, etc.

190. Efforts to enshrine promotion of democracy as hemispheric principle

191. 1907: Ecuadorean diplomat named Carlos Tobar proposed Tobar Doctrine

192. American nations would refuse recognition to de facto regimes that had entered the office by deposing constitutional governments

193. 1913, Wilson Doctrine

194. Non-recognition of all unconstitutional governments in Latin America

195. US stand was resisted by former Argentine foreign minister, Estanislao Zeballos and others

196. Saw it as a pretext for continuing and arbitrary North American intervention in domestic affairs of the region

198. Mexico, political consequence of military conquest and territorial dismemberment in 1840s

199. Country endure civil war but not because of US interference, internal factors

200. Ill-starred importation of a European emperor

201. Subsequently endure civil war and decades of dictatorship, result of internal factors rather than US influence

202. In Caribbean Islands, under the Platt Amendment

203. Cuba had social protest and in 1930s long-term authoritarian rule

204. Nicaragua and Dominican Republic have similar fates

206. Goals of US policy: geopolitical and economic motivations

207. Primary purpose for US influence in Caribbean and reduce/eliminate European presence

208. Protect business investment (banking interests)

209. Failure to achieve democracy derived from methods employed by US

210. Little effort to construct, strengthen or bolster economic practices

211. Oversaw elections from time to time

212. Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, Haiti

213. Washington supervised creation of local constabularies that would become agents of dictatorial repression

214. US failed to promote democracy

215. Could be argued, US military interventions intended to slow down the prospects for political democracy

216. Rarity of effort in area stemmed from ambivalence

217. Woodrow Wilson espoused universal applicability of democracy

218. Policymakers in Washington and US citizens

219. Severe reservations about political suitability, capability and desirability of Latin Americans

220. Americans believed: as result of history, religion, race Latin Americans were incapable of democracy

221. Rather than waste time, made more sense to concentrate on law and order

222. Goal of stability came to replace ideal of democracy

224. From manifest destiny to Wilson’s democratic crusade: imperialism was justified by the gospel of democracy

225. Hebert Hoover: articulate the fundamental contradiction underlying these efforts

226. Goodwill tour of South American in 1928, then-popular president promised US would be respectful of national sensibilities and promote democracy by example, not force

228. American – democracy, hierarchy of races, bringing of civilization, White Man’s Burden, Manifest Destiny, social Darwinism

229. Latin America – Monroe Doctrine

230. Europeans – importance for Europe to not interfere with western hemisphere

231. The US relations with Latin America, aimed at main three audiences

232. Domestic society

233. National leaders thought US policy could assist in mobilization of resources

234. Citizens preferred to believe that US efforts were to serve noble purpose than material self-interest

235. Provide leaders with weapons for weakening, silencing domestic opposition

236. Rival powers, especially in Europe

237. Emphasize importance and warned outside rivals to not interfere

238. Ideology underlined national purpose and will and presented others with intellectual challenge

239. Unless rival had ideological rationalization of their own, they would be discouraged from acting

240. Throughout history, imperialists justified actions over higher mission

241. Subjugated societies

242. Spreading ideology was to make local people accept new power arrangements

243. Colonized interprets situation not as social/national defeat but step towards higher truth

244. Emphasis on leadership groups that acted as go-betweens

245. Those would benefit largely

246. Voluntary help within subordinate societies was crucial to imperial power and control

247. Without help, the imperialist must rely on use of force

248. Costly, inefficient and counterproductive

249. What were the arguments used to promote manifest destiny? How did these initially lead to involvement in the Mexican War?

250. White Man’s Burden

251. Territorial expansion in 19th century needed a justification for the US national purpose.

252. President James K Polk’s contested Britain’s claim to Oregon territory and prepared for war in Mexico during 1840s

253. Newspaper editor, John L O’Sullivan, New York Morning News invoked will

254. “….right of our manifest destiny to overspread and possess the whole continent… for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us”

255. From that, the idea of manifest destiny emerged

256. Became a concept which crystallized a sense of national purpose: explanation and rationalization for expansion

257. Heaven-sent fate

258. What were seen as major problems for the spread of democracy in Latin America?Pseudoscience; hot tropic not fit for democracy

259. Culture of being slaves from Europe, hesitant of new powers

260. History, character and race

261. Page 13

262. Racist formulations provided arguments for opposition to war

263. John C Calhoun saw nothing but trouble in the capture of Mexico

264. “we have never dreamt of incorporating into our Union any but the Caucasian race – the free white race… I protest against such a union as that! Ours, sir, is the Government of white race”

265. Only the free white race was capable of democratic government

266. How did the US view of Latin America both promote and restrict US expansion into the area?

267. Justification for forceful takeover

268. Incorporate of other races to American citizens, many up against idea: hierarchy of races

269. Others were willing to compromise by taking as much land as possible with few people

270. Purpose of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was acquisition of territory not incorporation of citizens

271. Long run, US would await alteration of ethnic composition of Mexican society

272. With this, country would fall into control of the US

273. Racial rearrangement would be key to imperial expansion

274. The issue came up again with the annexation of the Philippines

275. Racism argument was used to the US advantage

276. Filipinos were a “decadent race” according to Senator Albert Beveridge but it defined the nature of the imperialist challenge

277. Empires around the world were engaged in uplifting inferior races

278. Roosevelt conceded the US was just like any other imperial power

279. What were the main motivations for US military intervention in Latin America at the turn of the century up to the 1930s? What pattern did these interventions follow?

280. Varied motivations for these actions

281. Protection of US economic interests (especially private loans to local governments)

282. Assertion of geopolitical hegemony (ex. Monroe Doctrine)

283. Assuring European powers not to meddle in western hemisphere

284. WWI, protection of Panama Canal

285. Military control in country, then install government of choice, supervise elections and leave

286. Most intervention had consistent patterns

287. Political key was to hold elections

288. Justified intervention and decision to lift the occupation

289. US supervision of elections were overbearing – sometimes to point of pre-selection of winner

290. But actual election was an essential step in the process

291. US ambassador to British counterparts stated make them vote, if they rebel they can vote again

292. Did US intervention in Latin America lead to the development of democracy? Why or why not?

293. US didn’t strengthen, bolsterDemocracy wasn’t fully developed or sustained

294. 1830s to 1930s, not a single US intervention led to installation of democracy in Latin America

295. Why were the US efforts to bring democracy to Latin America weak? What became the main goal of the US policy because of this?

296. US didn’t strengthen, bolster