Ikääntyneiden työntekijöiden irtisanomissuoja on Ruotsissa poikkeuksellisen vahva, sillä yritykseen viimeksi tulleet työntekijät täytyy irtisanoa ensimmäiseksi. Suomessa ikääntyneiden työsuhdeturvaa koskevat määräykset ovat oleellisesti löyhempiä. Tutkimuksessa Ruotsin ja Suomen irtisanomissuojaa koskevan eron vaikutuksia tarkastellaan muodostamalla ylikansallinen työntekijä- ja työnantaja-aineisto. Se perustuu Suomen ja Ruotsin työnantajajärjestöjen kokoamien palkkarekisteriaineistojen yhdistämiseen vuosina 2000–2011. Ruotsissa ja Suomessa toimivia saman emoyrityksen yksiköitä käsitellään yhtenä yrityksenä. Tulokset osoittavat, että Suomessa ikääntyneet työntekijät irtisanotaan taloudellisten vaikeuksien myötä herkemmin kuin Ruotsissa. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan myös irtisanomisjärjestystä koskevien lausekkeiden vaikutuksia työntekijöiden palkkoihin. Pisimpään yrityksessä työskennelleet saavat suuremman palkkapreemion Ruotsissa. Mahdollinen selitys tälle ilmiölle on irtisanomisjärjestystä koskevien säännösten aikaansaama parempi työsuhdeturva ja tästä seuraava neuvotteluvoiman kasvu.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työmarkkinoiden polarisoitumista Suomessa. Aiemmat tutkimukset tarkastelevat kehitystä koko talouden, toimialojen tai alueiden tasolla. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työpaikkojen rakennemuutosta yritystasolla. Tulokset osoittavat, että rutiiniluonteiset työtehtävät ovat vähentyneet merkittävästi suomalaisissa yrityksissä. Palkkajakauman keskivaiheilla olevien rutiiniluonteisten työtehtävien väheneminen kytkeytyy informaatio- ja kommunikaatioteknologian käyttöönottoon yrityksissä.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä yrityksissä että yritysrakenteiden muutoksen välityksellä. Aineistona käytetään Suomen yritys-työntekijäaineistoja, jotka ulottuvat pitkälle aikavälille ja kattavat suuren osan yrityksistä. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Keskitason tuotantotehtäviä ja toimistotehtäviä sisältävien ammattien osuus on pienentynyt. Samaan aikaan matalan osaamistason palveluammattien ja korkean osaamistason erityisasiantuntija-ammattien osuus on puolestaan ollut kasvussa. Kehityskulut ovat tapahtuneet osin jatkavien yritysten sisällä, mutta osin myös yritysten välillä tapahtuneiden rakennemuutosten kautta. Osa polarisaatiosta johtuu siitä, että kasvavien yritysten ammattirakenteet poikkeavat pienentyvien yritysten ammattirakenteista sekä siitä, että uusien yritysten ammattirakenteet poikkeavat poistuvien yritysten rakenteista. Palveluammattien osuutta on kasvattanut se, että uusissa yrityksissä palveluammattien osuus on ollut suuri ja poistuvissa yrityksissä pieni. Toisaalta palveluammattien osuus on kasvanut myös jatkavissa yrityksissä. Erilaisia keskitason rutiinitehtäviä on kadonnut sekä yritysten sisällä että yritysten vaihtuvuuden kautta. Sen sijaan korkean osaamistason ammattien osuuden kasvu selittyy ennen kaikkea yrityksien sisällä tapahtuneiden muutosten kautta. Jatkavissa yrityksissä tapahtunut ammattirakenteiden muutos on kytkeytynyt sekä tavaroiden ja palveluiden ulkomaankauppaan että tehtävien ulkoistamiseen maasta. Paljon T&K:hon panostavat ja ICT:tä käyttävät yritykset vähentävät tuotantotyöntekijöitä.
This study analyses a baseline dataset collected for an evaluation of a co-operation project that assists trade unions in Zambia to boost their activities. The data were collected from 51 establishments to study attitudes towards unions, working conditions and the views of employers and trade union representatives on each other. The results show that employees have, by and large, positive views on unions but turning to unions when there are problems is not particularly common. Wages are often considered to be too low and assumed to be lower than those of similar individuals elsewhere or even in the same establishment. Regression analysis shows that having positive views on unions per se has a positive association with satisfaction and negative correlation with resign intentions. Union membership, however, seems to be correlated with employees being more discontent with their wages in some instances, though the direction of causality is unclear. Union membership seems to be associated with higher awareness of malpractices.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan henkilön taustaominaisuuksien vaikutuksia päätyä julkisen sektorin työntekijäksi. Tarkastelu tehdään suomalaisella kaksosaineistolla, jonka avulla voidaan ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien muuten havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus. Tutkimuksessa käytetty aineisto kattaa vuodet 1990–2009. Tutkimusaineiston paneeliominaisuutta hyödynnetään tarkastelemalla henkilön siirtymiä yksityisen sektorin palveluksesta julkisen sektorin palvelukseen. Tulosten mukaan korkeampi koulutus ja ammatilliset preferenssit ovat yhteydessä henkilöiden päätymiseen julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Perheen perustaminen on myös positiivisesti yhteydessä henkilön todennäköisyyteen siirtyä yksityiseltä sektorilta julkiselle sektorille. Perheen perustamisen myötä riskin karttaminen kasvaa ja hakeutuminen vakaampiin ja vähemmän riskialttiisiin työsuhteisiin lisääntyy. Ekstrovertit henkilöt päätyvät myös muita todennäköisemmin julkisen sektorin työpaikkoihin. Myös palkka vaikuttaa siirtymiin. Korkeammilla palkkaluokilla työskentelevät jäävät todennäköisemmin yksityisen sektorin palvelukseen, koska julkisella sektorilla maksetaan näillä palkkaluokilla pienempää palkkaa.
This paper investigates the extent and determinants of employer demand for part-time work in the three Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland and Sweden) by making a distinction between establishments’ two main reasons for introducing part-time work, i.e. establishment needs and wishes of employees. We study the importance of different characteristics (such as e.g. size, industry, sector, share of female workers) of establishment to the probability of employerbased and of employee-based part-time work. We also put under scrutiny whether different motivations for part-time work also have different outcomes for companies and workers, and how these reasons shape the nature of part-time work. In the analyses we use the Establishment Survey on Working Time and Work-Life Balance (ESWT) in 21 EU Member States including Finland, Sweden and Denmark.
This paper explores the effects of outsourcing on employee well-being through the use of the Finnish linked employer-employee data. The direct negative effect of outsourcing is attributable to greater job destruction and worker outflow. In terms of perceived well-being, the winners in international outsourcing are those who are capable of performing interactive tasks (i.e., managers, professionals and experts), especially when offshoring involves closer connections to other developed countries.
In this paper we analyse the impact of reforms that tightened the entitlement rules for UIB in a similar fashion in three Nordic countries Denmark, Finland and Norway in 1997. We identify the effect of the reforms in UIB entitlement conditions by exploiting the quasi-experimental feature of the reforms. Our results show that after the reform, only in Denmark the unemployed job seekers, who were affected by the reform, had a higher overall likelihood to exit to open employment. In Finland, positive reform effects were only found among those subgroups of unemployed job seekers who had relatively high demand in the labour market. In Norway, we found positive employment effects for males but not for females. Moreover, the overall pattern is an increased likelihood of exiting from the labour market.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä sitä, että mihin supistuvissa ja rutiininomaisissa ammateissa olevat työntekijät päätyvät hyödyntämällä kokonaisaineistoa vuosille 1970-2014. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Ammattirakennemuutoksen kehityskulku on pääosin tapahtunut siten, että keskitason tuotanto- ja toimistotyöntekijät ovat nousseet urapolkuja pitkin asiantuntijatöihin. Viimeaikaista palveluammattien osuutta on puolestaan kasvattanut se, että nuoret siirtyvät työmarkkinoille palvelutöihin. Rutiininomaisia ja kognitiivisia taitoja vaativien ammattien työntekijöillä on kuitenkin suurempi todennäköisyys nousta korkeammille palkkaluokille rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekeviin työntekijöihin verrattuna. Rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekevät tippuvat puolestaan suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä matalapalkka-aloille, ja heidän ansiotason kehitys on myös heikompaa.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työmarkkinoiden polarisoitumista Suomessa. Aiemmat tutkimukset tarkastelevat kehitystä koko talouden, toimialojen tai alueiden tasolla. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työpaikkojen rakennemuutosta yritystasolla. Tulokset osoittavat, että rutiiniluonteiset työtehtävät ovat vähentyneet merkittävästi suomalaisissa yrityksissä. Palkkajakauman keskivaiheilla olevien rutiiniluonteisten työtehtävien väheneminen kytkeytyy informaatio- ja kommunikaatioteknologian käyttöönottoon yrityksissä.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä yrityksissä että yritysrakenteiden muutoksen välityksellä. Aineistona käytetään Suomen yritys-työntekijäaineistoja, jotka ulottuvat pitkälle aikavälille ja kattavat suuren osan yrityksistä. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Keskitason tuotantotehtäviä ja toimistotehtäviä sisältävien ammattien osuus on pienentynyt. Samaan aikaan matalan osaamistason palveluammattien ja korkean osaamistason erityisasiantuntija-ammattien osuus on puolestaan ollut kasvussa. Kehityskulut ovat tapahtuneet osin jatkavien yritysten sisällä, mutta osin myös yritysten välillä tapahtuneiden rakennemuutosten kautta. Osa polarisaatiosta johtuu siitä, että kasvavien yritysten ammattirakenteet poikkeavat pienentyvien yritysten ammattirakenteista sekä siitä, että uusien yritysten ammattirakenteet poikkeavat poistuvien yritysten rakenteista. Palveluammattien osuutta on kasvattanut se, että uusissa yrityksissä palveluammattien osuus on ollut suuri ja poistuvissa yrityksissä pieni. Toisaalta palveluammattien osuus on kasvanut myös jatkavissa yrityksissä. Erilaisia keskitason rutiinitehtäviä on kadonnut sekä yritysten sisällä että yritysten vaihtuvuuden kautta. Sen sijaan korkean osaamistason ammattien osuuden kasvu selittyy ennen kaikkea yrityksien sisällä tapahtuneiden muutosten kautta. Jatkavissa yrityksissä tapahtunut ammattirakenteiden muutos on kytkeytynyt sekä tavaroiden ja palveluiden ulkomaankauppaan että tehtävien ulkoistamiseen maasta. Paljon T&K:hon panostavat ja ICT:tä käyttävät yritykset vähentävät tuotantotyöntekijöitä.
This study analyses a baseline dataset collected for an evaluation of a co-operation project that assists trade unions in Zambia to boost their activities. The data were collected from 51 establishments to study attitudes towards unions, working conditions and the views of employers and trade union representatives on each other. The results show that employees have, by and large, positive views on unions but turning to unions when there are problems is not particularly common. Wages are often considered to be too low and assumed to be lower than those of similar individuals elsewhere or even in the same establishment. Regression analysis shows that having positive views on unions per se has a positive association with satisfaction and negative correlation with resign intentions. Union membership, however, seems to be correlated with employees being more discontent with their wages in some instances, though the direction of causality is unclear. Union membership seems to be associated with higher awareness of malpractices.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan henkilön taustaominaisuuksien vaikutuksia päätyä julkisen sektorin työntekijäksi. Tarkastelu tehdään suomalaisella kaksosaineistolla, jonka avulla voidaan ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien muuten havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus. Tutkimuksessa käytetty aineisto kattaa vuodet 1990–2009. Tutkimusaineiston paneeliominaisuutta hyödynnetään tarkastelemalla henkilön siirtymiä yksityisen sektorin palveluksesta julkisen sektorin palvelukseen. Tulosten mukaan korkeampi koulutus ja ammatilliset preferenssit ovat yhteydessä henkilöiden päätymiseen julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Perheen perustaminen on myös positiivisesti yhteydessä henkilön todennäköisyyteen siirtyä yksityiseltä sektorilta julkiselle sektorille. Perheen perustamisen myötä riskin karttaminen kasvaa ja hakeutuminen vakaampiin ja vähemmän riskialttiisiin työsuhteisiin lisääntyy. Ekstrovertit henkilöt päätyvät myös muita todennäköisemmin julkisen sektorin työpaikkoihin. Myös palkka vaikuttaa siirtymiin. Korkeammilla palkkaluokilla työskentelevät jäävät todennäköisemmin yksityisen sektorin palvelukseen, koska julkisella sektorilla maksetaan näillä palkkaluokilla pienempää palkkaa.
This paper investigates the extent and determinants of employer demand for part-time work in the three Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland and Sweden) by making a distinction between establishments’ two main reasons for introducing part-time work, i.e. establishment needs and wishes of employees. We study the importance of different characteristics (such as e.g. size, industry, sector, share of female workers) of establishment to the probability of employerbased and of employee-based part-time work. We also put under scrutiny whether different motivations for part-time work also have different outcomes for companies and workers, and how these reasons shape the nature of part-time work. In the analyses we use the Establishment Survey on Working Time and Work-Life Balance (ESWT) in 21 EU Member States including Finland, Sweden and Denmark.
This paper explores the effects of outsourcing on employee well-being through the use of the Finnish linked employer-employee data. The direct negative effect of outsourcing is attributable to greater job destruction and worker outflow. In terms of perceived well-being, the winners in international outsourcing are those who are capable of performing interactive tasks (i.e., managers, professionals and experts), especially when offshoring involves closer connections to other developed countries.
In this paper we analyse the impact of reforms that tightened the entitlement rules for UIB in a similar fashion in three Nordic countries Denmark, Finland and Norway in 1997. We identify the effect of the reforms in UIB entitlement conditions by exploiting the quasi-experimental feature of the reforms. Our results show that after the reform, only in Denmark the unemployed job seekers, who were affected by the reform, had a higher overall likelihood to exit to open employment. In Finland, positive reform effects were only found among those subgroups of unemployed job seekers who had relatively high demand in the labour market. In Norway, we found positive employment effects for males but not for females. Moreover, the overall pattern is an increased likelihood of exiting from the labour market.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä sitä, että mihin supistuvissa ja rutiininomaisissa ammateissa olevat työntekijät päätyvät hyödyntämällä kokonaisaineistoa vuosille 1970-2014. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Ammattirakennemuutoksen kehityskulku on pääosin tapahtunut siten, että keskitason tuotanto- ja toimistotyöntekijät ovat nousseet urapolkuja pitkin asiantuntijatöihin. Viimeaikaista palveluammattien osuutta on puolestaan kasvattanut se, että nuoret siirtyvät työmarkkinoille palvelutöihin. Rutiininomaisia ja kognitiivisia taitoja vaativien ammattien työntekijöillä on kuitenkin suurempi todennäköisyys nousta korkeammille palkkaluokille rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekeviin työntekijöihin verrattuna. Rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekevät tippuvat puolestaan suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä matalapalkka-aloille, ja heidän ansiotason kehitys on myös heikompaa.
Abstract:
Data from 70 large export-oriented garment manufacturers in Bangladesh show that gender wage gaps are similar to those found in higher-income countries. Women’s wages are 20 percent lower than men’s and are 8 percent lower among narrowly-defined production workers; a gap remains even after controlling for very precisely measured skills. Longer careers of men in the sector explain around half of the wage gap, with the other half due in roughly equal parts to differences in internal and across-factory promotions. Our results are most consistent with broader gender norms, beyond gendered household responsibilities, driving the gap.
We examine the employment effects of international outsourcing by using firm- level data from the Finnish manufacturing sector. A major advantage of our data is that outsourcing is defined based on firms’ actual use of intermediate inputs from foreign trade statistics. The estimates show that intensive outsourcing (more than two times the 2-digit industry median) does not reduce employment nor have an effect on the share of low-skilled workers.
Tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin työmarkkinoiden rakennemuutosta ja sitä, mihin supistuvissa ammateissa olevat työntekijät päätyvät. Tulosten mukaan mm. toimistotyöntekijöillä on suurempi todennäköisyys nousta korkeammille palkkaluokille teollisuuden alan työntekijöihin verrattuna. Perinteisen teollisuuden alojen työntekijät päätyvät puolestaan suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä työttömiksi tai tippuvat matalapalkka-aloille. Muuttaminen vientivetoisiin maakuntiin, kuten Uudellemaalle, näyttäisi lieventävän työmarkkinoiden rakennemuutoksesta aiheutuvia kustannuksia yksilötasolla.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan korkeasti koulutettujen henkilöiden valikoitumista julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Tutkimuksessa käytetään suomalaista kaksosaineistoa, jonka avulla voidaan ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus, kuten kyvykkyys. Tutkimuksessa käytetty aineisto kattaa vuodet 1990–2009. Tulosten mukaan korkeampi koulutus on yhteydessä henkilöiden päätymiseen julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Korkean koulutuksen ja julkisella sektorilla työskentelyn välinen yhteys on kuitenkin vastasyklistä. Tämä tarkoittaa sitä, että vähemmän kyvykkäät henkilöt (koulutuksella mitattuna) saavat työpaikan julkiselta sektorilta todennäköisemmin noususuhdanteen kuin laskusuhdanteen aikana. Lisätarkastelu osoittaa, että korkeasti koulutetut henkilöt valikoituvat julkiselle sektorille pääosin muista kuin palkallisista motiiveista johtuen.
This paper studies the impact of job contract types on perceived job quality using Finnish 2008 Quality of Work Life Surveys from years 1997, 2003 and 2008. In the analysis job contract types are adjusted to take into account the motive for doing temporary and part-time work. Our results from the Finnish QWLS imply that there are clear differences in job quality and work well-being by the type of job contract. Our results also show the importance of distinguishing between types of temporary and part-time work by the contract preference, i.e. whether these nonstandard employment arrangements are exercised involuntarily or not. Almost without exception involuntary temporary and involuntary part-time workers’ experiences of their job quality are weaker with
respect to core job quality indicators studied in this paper such as training possibilities, participation in employer-funded training, career possibilities, possibilities to learn and grow at work, job autonomy, and job insecurity.
The paper examines the effect of innovative work practices on the prevalence of sickness absence and accidents at work. We focus on several different aspects of workplace innovations (self-managed teams, information sharing, employer-provided training and incentive pay) along with the “bundles” of those practices. We use nationally representative individual-level data from the Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey from 2008. Using single equation models, we find that innovative work practices increase short-term sickness absence for blue-collar and lower white-collar employees. In twoequation models that treat innovative workplace practices as endogenous variables we do not find relationship between innovative work practices and sickness absence or accidents at work.
Understanding outsourcing contexts through information asymmetry and capabili...Ian McCarthy
Outsourcing is a strategic activity that has long been central to operations management research and practice. Yet, there are still many outsourcing management challenges that remain. In this article, we explore two of the outsourcing challenges that motivated this special issue and are central to the 10 articles included. To do this, we develop a theoretical model that examines how variations in capability fit and information asymmetry combine to present firms with four different outsourcing contexts. We then explain how each of the articles included in this special issue relate to our theoretical model and explore several avenues for future research.
We examine the prevalence of sickness absenteeism and presenteeism, using survey data covering 725 Finnish union members in 2008. Controlling for worker characteristics, we find that sickness presenteeism is much more sensitive to workingtime arrangements than sickness absenteeism. Permanent full-time work, mismatch between desired and actual working hours, shift or period work and overlong working weeks increase the prevalence of sickness presenteeism. We also find an interesting trade-off between two sickness categories: regular overtime decreases sickness absenteeism, but increases sickness presenteeism. Furthermore, the adoption of three days’ paid sickness absence without a sickness certificate and the easing of efficiency demands decrease sickness presenteeism.
This study investigates the role of adverse working conditions in the determination of individual wages and overall job satisfaction in the Finnish labour market. The potential influence of adverse working conditions on self-reported fairness of pay at the workplace is considered as an alternative, indirect measure of job satisfaction. The results show that working conditions have a very minor role in the determination of individual wages in the Finnish labour market. In contrast, adverse working conditions substantially increase the level of job dissatisfaction and the perception of unfairness of pay at the workplace
Effect of social capital on agribusiness diversification intention in the eme...Nghiên Cứu Định Lượng
This is the first study to explore the comprehensive effect of the facets of social capital on behavioral intention through behavioral goals and determinants of the TPB under the premises of the RBV. The findings will help emerging economies, for example, Vietnam, where most farmers are family business owners or microscaled entrepreneurs in agriculture.
Persistent disruptive bouts of strike action in recent years by teachers, civil servants, firefighters, and rail and London Underground workers amongst others, sometimes called with only a small proportion of union members voting in favour of strike action, has provided the backcloth to the publication on 15 July of a Trade Union Bill by the newly elected majority Conservative government. The Bill promises (amongst a variety of other measures) the most sweeping and radical tightening of the rules on industrial action seen since the Thatcher era of the 1980s with a minimum 50 per cent ballot participation threshold alongside a requirement for unions in ‘important public services’ to obtain a minimum 40 per cent majority of all those eligible to vote. It would have a devastating effect on many unions’ ability to take lawful industrial action.
This Salford Business School Research Paper explores the following research questions:
• To what extent are the Conservatives justified in pointing to a ‘democratic deficit’ in which a majority of indifferent union members have surrendered control over whether to strike to a committed minority?
• How can we explain strike ballot participation rates? Why do some union members not vote?
• To what extent does the secret individual postal balloting process affect the level of participation?
• What other factors might potentially influence whether union members vote or not?
• How are the unions likely to fare in the face of the Conservative government’s two new balloting thresholds?
This research will find the gender pay gap in financial and insurance industries in Australia. It will not only benefit the domain of gender pay gap but it will also help in addressing alternative options that will help sideline this essential business issue.
Essays on economic analysis of competition law: theory and practice (Ph.D. di...Dr Danilo Samà
Essays on economic analysis of competition law: theory and practice
Author:
Dr Danilo Samà (LUISS “Guido Carli” University, Law & Economics LAB)
Abstract:
The Ph.D. dissertation, submitted to LUISS “Guido Carli” University of Rome in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economic Analysis of Competition Law (XXV cicle), is the result of a scientific research in the field of the economic analysis of competition law developed through academic experiences at the Erasmus Rotterdam University in the Netherlands, the Ghent University in Belgium, the University of Hamburg in Germany and the Toulouse School of Economics in France, as well as through professional experiences as competition economist at the Antitrust Department of Pavia & Ansaldo and the Directorate-General for Competition (DG COMP) of the European Commission.
Keywords:
antitrust, competition economics, competition law, competition policy
JEL classification:
B21; C01; K21; L00; L4
Year:
2014
Pages:
1-40
Citation:
Samà, Danilo (2014), Essays on economic analysis of competition law: theory and practice, Law & Economics LAB, LUISS “Guido Carli” University, Rome, Italy, pp. 1-40.
This study focuses on the production welfare services which are purchased by the government. We consider whether the delivery of the service should be public or private. The social impact of the service is determined by the satisfaction of unforeseen individual needs. Assuming that the information about these needs is ex post observed only by the producer of the service favours public production. Auctioning the right-to-produce contract, however, selects the most cost-efficient private supplier. Whether private production is optimal resolves from the trade-off between cost efficiency and a failure in meeting individual needs. We also analyse investments in monitoring.
Tutkimuksessa analysoidaan suomalaisen tulopolitiikan historiaa. Tulopolitiikan aikaa tarkastellaan sellaisena palkkaratkaisujen historiana, jossa keskeisenä kiinnostuksen kohteena on palkkaratkaisujen maltillisuus. Aikaväli 1962–2014 periodisoidaan erottamalla siitä muun muassa maltillisten ja vähemmän maltillisten palkkaratkaisujen ajanjaksoja. Analyysin yksi keskeinen tulos on, että Suomessa alkoi 1990-luvun puolivälissä palkkamaltin ajanjakso, joka jatkui vuoteen 2008 asti. Suomalainen ay-liike mukautui eurooppalaiseen alhaisen inflaation ympäristöön. Keskeisenä välineenä toimivat keskitetyt tulopoliittiset ratkaisut. Ajanjakson ensimmäistä tulopoliittista ratkaisua oli voimakkaasti ajamassa vuoden 1995 alkupuolella toimintansa aloittanut Paavo Lipposen ensimmäinen hallitus. Pääministeri Lipponen halusi Suomen olevan osa tiivistyvää eurooppalaista poliittista ja taloudellista integraatiota, ja niin halusi myös suomalainen ay-liike. Sen tähden funktionaalista tulonjakoa kuvastava palkkojen osuus pysyi 1990-luvun alkuvuosina tapahtuneen laskun jälkeen historiaan verrattuna varsin alhaisella tasolla aina vuoteen 2009 asti. Mukautuminen merkitsi sitä, että suomalainen ay-liike irtaantui perinteisestä devalvaatiosyklin mukaisesta käyttäytymisestä. Käyttäytymisen muutoksessa korostuu palkansaajakeskusjärjestöjen rooli. Pitkälti niiden vaikutuksesta alhaisen inflaation tavoite omaksuttiin laajemminkin ay-liikkeessä. Uutta palkoista sopimisen mallia hahmotettaessa otetaan joko suoraan tai epäsuorasti kantaa tämänkaltaiseen työmarkkinakeskusjärjestöjen huomattavaan vaikutusvaltaan. Talouskriisivuodet sisältävä periodi 2008–2014 ei erottaudu keskimääräistä voimakkaamman palkkainflaation ajanjaksona.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan henkilön taustaominaisuuksien vaikutuksia päätyä julkisen sektorin työntekijäksi. Tarkastelu tehdään suomalaisella kaksosaineistolla, jonka avulla voidaan ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien muuten havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus. Tutkimuksessa käytetty aineisto kattaa vuodet 1990–2009. Tutkimusaineiston paneeliominaisuutta hyödynnetään tarkastelemalla henkilön siirtymiä yksityisen sektorin palveluksesta julkisen sektorin palvelukseen. Tulosten mukaan korkeampi koulutus ja ammatilliset preferenssit ovat yhteydessä henkilöiden päätymiseen julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Perheen perustaminen on myös positiivisesti yhteydessä henkilön todennäköisyyteen siirtyä yksityiseltä sektorilta julkiselle sektorille. Perheen perustamisen myötä riskin karttaminen kasvaa ja hakeutuminen vakaampiin ja vähemmän riskialttiisiin työsuhteisiin lisääntyy. Ekstrovertit henkilöt päätyvät myös muita todennäköisemmin julkisen sektorin työpaikkoihin. Myös palkka vaikuttaa siirtymiin. Korkeammilla palkkaluokilla työskentelevät jäävät todennäköisemmin yksityisen sektorin palvelukseen, koska julkisella sektorilla maksetaan näillä palkkaluokilla pienempää palkkaa.
Abstract:
Data from 70 large export-oriented garment manufacturers in Bangladesh show that gender wage gaps are similar to those found in higher-income countries. Women’s wages are 20 percent lower than men’s and are 8 percent lower among narrowly-defined production workers; a gap remains even after controlling for very precisely measured skills. Longer careers of men in the sector explain around half of the wage gap, with the other half due in roughly equal parts to differences in internal and across-factory promotions. Our results are most consistent with broader gender norms, beyond gendered household responsibilities, driving the gap.
We examine the employment effects of international outsourcing by using firm- level data from the Finnish manufacturing sector. A major advantage of our data is that outsourcing is defined based on firms’ actual use of intermediate inputs from foreign trade statistics. The estimates show that intensive outsourcing (more than two times the 2-digit industry median) does not reduce employment nor have an effect on the share of low-skilled workers.
Tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin työmarkkinoiden rakennemuutosta ja sitä, mihin supistuvissa ammateissa olevat työntekijät päätyvät. Tulosten mukaan mm. toimistotyöntekijöillä on suurempi todennäköisyys nousta korkeammille palkkaluokille teollisuuden alan työntekijöihin verrattuna. Perinteisen teollisuuden alojen työntekijät päätyvät puolestaan suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä työttömiksi tai tippuvat matalapalkka-aloille. Muuttaminen vientivetoisiin maakuntiin, kuten Uudellemaalle, näyttäisi lieventävän työmarkkinoiden rakennemuutoksesta aiheutuvia kustannuksia yksilötasolla.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan korkeasti koulutettujen henkilöiden valikoitumista julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Tutkimuksessa käytetään suomalaista kaksosaineistoa, jonka avulla voidaan ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus, kuten kyvykkyys. Tutkimuksessa käytetty aineisto kattaa vuodet 1990–2009. Tulosten mukaan korkeampi koulutus on yhteydessä henkilöiden päätymiseen julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Korkean koulutuksen ja julkisella sektorilla työskentelyn välinen yhteys on kuitenkin vastasyklistä. Tämä tarkoittaa sitä, että vähemmän kyvykkäät henkilöt (koulutuksella mitattuna) saavat työpaikan julkiselta sektorilta todennäköisemmin noususuhdanteen kuin laskusuhdanteen aikana. Lisätarkastelu osoittaa, että korkeasti koulutetut henkilöt valikoituvat julkiselle sektorille pääosin muista kuin palkallisista motiiveista johtuen.
This paper studies the impact of job contract types on perceived job quality using Finnish 2008 Quality of Work Life Surveys from years 1997, 2003 and 2008. In the analysis job contract types are adjusted to take into account the motive for doing temporary and part-time work. Our results from the Finnish QWLS imply that there are clear differences in job quality and work well-being by the type of job contract. Our results also show the importance of distinguishing between types of temporary and part-time work by the contract preference, i.e. whether these nonstandard employment arrangements are exercised involuntarily or not. Almost without exception involuntary temporary and involuntary part-time workers’ experiences of their job quality are weaker with
respect to core job quality indicators studied in this paper such as training possibilities, participation in employer-funded training, career possibilities, possibilities to learn and grow at work, job autonomy, and job insecurity.
The paper examines the effect of innovative work practices on the prevalence of sickness absence and accidents at work. We focus on several different aspects of workplace innovations (self-managed teams, information sharing, employer-provided training and incentive pay) along with the “bundles” of those practices. We use nationally representative individual-level data from the Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey from 2008. Using single equation models, we find that innovative work practices increase short-term sickness absence for blue-collar and lower white-collar employees. In twoequation models that treat innovative workplace practices as endogenous variables we do not find relationship between innovative work practices and sickness absence or accidents at work.
Understanding outsourcing contexts through information asymmetry and capabili...Ian McCarthy
Outsourcing is a strategic activity that has long been central to operations management research and practice. Yet, there are still many outsourcing management challenges that remain. In this article, we explore two of the outsourcing challenges that motivated this special issue and are central to the 10 articles included. To do this, we develop a theoretical model that examines how variations in capability fit and information asymmetry combine to present firms with four different outsourcing contexts. We then explain how each of the articles included in this special issue relate to our theoretical model and explore several avenues for future research.
We examine the prevalence of sickness absenteeism and presenteeism, using survey data covering 725 Finnish union members in 2008. Controlling for worker characteristics, we find that sickness presenteeism is much more sensitive to workingtime arrangements than sickness absenteeism. Permanent full-time work, mismatch between desired and actual working hours, shift or period work and overlong working weeks increase the prevalence of sickness presenteeism. We also find an interesting trade-off between two sickness categories: regular overtime decreases sickness absenteeism, but increases sickness presenteeism. Furthermore, the adoption of three days’ paid sickness absence without a sickness certificate and the easing of efficiency demands decrease sickness presenteeism.
This study investigates the role of adverse working conditions in the determination of individual wages and overall job satisfaction in the Finnish labour market. The potential influence of adverse working conditions on self-reported fairness of pay at the workplace is considered as an alternative, indirect measure of job satisfaction. The results show that working conditions have a very minor role in the determination of individual wages in the Finnish labour market. In contrast, adverse working conditions substantially increase the level of job dissatisfaction and the perception of unfairness of pay at the workplace
Effect of social capital on agribusiness diversification intention in the eme...Nghiên Cứu Định Lượng
This is the first study to explore the comprehensive effect of the facets of social capital on behavioral intention through behavioral goals and determinants of the TPB under the premises of the RBV. The findings will help emerging economies, for example, Vietnam, where most farmers are family business owners or microscaled entrepreneurs in agriculture.
Persistent disruptive bouts of strike action in recent years by teachers, civil servants, firefighters, and rail and London Underground workers amongst others, sometimes called with only a small proportion of union members voting in favour of strike action, has provided the backcloth to the publication on 15 July of a Trade Union Bill by the newly elected majority Conservative government. The Bill promises (amongst a variety of other measures) the most sweeping and radical tightening of the rules on industrial action seen since the Thatcher era of the 1980s with a minimum 50 per cent ballot participation threshold alongside a requirement for unions in ‘important public services’ to obtain a minimum 40 per cent majority of all those eligible to vote. It would have a devastating effect on many unions’ ability to take lawful industrial action.
This Salford Business School Research Paper explores the following research questions:
• To what extent are the Conservatives justified in pointing to a ‘democratic deficit’ in which a majority of indifferent union members have surrendered control over whether to strike to a committed minority?
• How can we explain strike ballot participation rates? Why do some union members not vote?
• To what extent does the secret individual postal balloting process affect the level of participation?
• What other factors might potentially influence whether union members vote or not?
• How are the unions likely to fare in the face of the Conservative government’s two new balloting thresholds?
This research will find the gender pay gap in financial and insurance industries in Australia. It will not only benefit the domain of gender pay gap but it will also help in addressing alternative options that will help sideline this essential business issue.
Essays on economic analysis of competition law: theory and practice (Ph.D. di...Dr Danilo Samà
Essays on economic analysis of competition law: theory and practice
Author:
Dr Danilo Samà (LUISS “Guido Carli” University, Law & Economics LAB)
Abstract:
The Ph.D. dissertation, submitted to LUISS “Guido Carli” University of Rome in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economic Analysis of Competition Law (XXV cicle), is the result of a scientific research in the field of the economic analysis of competition law developed through academic experiences at the Erasmus Rotterdam University in the Netherlands, the Ghent University in Belgium, the University of Hamburg in Germany and the Toulouse School of Economics in France, as well as through professional experiences as competition economist at the Antitrust Department of Pavia & Ansaldo and the Directorate-General for Competition (DG COMP) of the European Commission.
Keywords:
antitrust, competition economics, competition law, competition policy
JEL classification:
B21; C01; K21; L00; L4
Year:
2014
Pages:
1-40
Citation:
Samà, Danilo (2014), Essays on economic analysis of competition law: theory and practice, Law & Economics LAB, LUISS “Guido Carli” University, Rome, Italy, pp. 1-40.
This study focuses on the production welfare services which are purchased by the government. We consider whether the delivery of the service should be public or private. The social impact of the service is determined by the satisfaction of unforeseen individual needs. Assuming that the information about these needs is ex post observed only by the producer of the service favours public production. Auctioning the right-to-produce contract, however, selects the most cost-efficient private supplier. Whether private production is optimal resolves from the trade-off between cost efficiency and a failure in meeting individual needs. We also analyse investments in monitoring.
Tutkimuksessa analysoidaan suomalaisen tulopolitiikan historiaa. Tulopolitiikan aikaa tarkastellaan sellaisena palkkaratkaisujen historiana, jossa keskeisenä kiinnostuksen kohteena on palkkaratkaisujen maltillisuus. Aikaväli 1962–2014 periodisoidaan erottamalla siitä muun muassa maltillisten ja vähemmän maltillisten palkkaratkaisujen ajanjaksoja. Analyysin yksi keskeinen tulos on, että Suomessa alkoi 1990-luvun puolivälissä palkkamaltin ajanjakso, joka jatkui vuoteen 2008 asti. Suomalainen ay-liike mukautui eurooppalaiseen alhaisen inflaation ympäristöön. Keskeisenä välineenä toimivat keskitetyt tulopoliittiset ratkaisut. Ajanjakson ensimmäistä tulopoliittista ratkaisua oli voimakkaasti ajamassa vuoden 1995 alkupuolella toimintansa aloittanut Paavo Lipposen ensimmäinen hallitus. Pääministeri Lipponen halusi Suomen olevan osa tiivistyvää eurooppalaista poliittista ja taloudellista integraatiota, ja niin halusi myös suomalainen ay-liike. Sen tähden funktionaalista tulonjakoa kuvastava palkkojen osuus pysyi 1990-luvun alkuvuosina tapahtuneen laskun jälkeen historiaan verrattuna varsin alhaisella tasolla aina vuoteen 2009 asti. Mukautuminen merkitsi sitä, että suomalainen ay-liike irtaantui perinteisestä devalvaatiosyklin mukaisesta käyttäytymisestä. Käyttäytymisen muutoksessa korostuu palkansaajakeskusjärjestöjen rooli. Pitkälti niiden vaikutuksesta alhaisen inflaation tavoite omaksuttiin laajemminkin ay-liikkeessä. Uutta palkoista sopimisen mallia hahmotettaessa otetaan joko suoraan tai epäsuorasti kantaa tämänkaltaiseen työmarkkinakeskusjärjestöjen huomattavaan vaikutusvaltaan. Talouskriisivuodet sisältävä periodi 2008–2014 ei erottaudu keskimääräistä voimakkaamman palkkainflaation ajanjaksona.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan henkilön taustaominaisuuksien vaikutuksia päätyä julkisen sektorin työntekijäksi. Tarkastelu tehdään suomalaisella kaksosaineistolla, jonka avulla voidaan ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien muuten havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus. Tutkimuksessa käytetty aineisto kattaa vuodet 1990–2009. Tutkimusaineiston paneeliominaisuutta hyödynnetään tarkastelemalla henkilön siirtymiä yksityisen sektorin palveluksesta julkisen sektorin palvelukseen. Tulosten mukaan korkeampi koulutus ja ammatilliset preferenssit ovat yhteydessä henkilöiden päätymiseen julkisen sektorin palkkalistoille. Perheen perustaminen on myös positiivisesti yhteydessä henkilön todennäköisyyteen siirtyä yksityiseltä sektorilta julkiselle sektorille. Perheen perustamisen myötä riskin karttaminen kasvaa ja hakeutuminen vakaampiin ja vähemmän riskialttiisiin työsuhteisiin lisääntyy. Ekstrovertit henkilöt päätyvät myös muita todennäköisemmin julkisen sektorin työpaikkoihin. Myös palkka vaikuttaa siirtymiin. Korkeammilla palkkaluokilla työskentelevät jäävät todennäköisemmin yksityisen sektorin palvelukseen, koska julkisella sektorilla maksetaan näillä palkkaluokilla pienempää palkkaa.
Tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin työikäisen väestön, 20–59-vuotiaat vuonna 2000, tuloriskejä Tilastokeskuksesta hankitun laajan rekisteripohjaisen paneeliaineiston avulla. Vero- ja sosiaaliturvajärjestelmää tarkastellaan laajana sosiaalivakuutuksena ja vaikutusta riskiin mitataan tuotannontekijä-, brutto- ja käytettävissä olevien tulojen riskipreemioiden peräkkäisten erotusten avulla. Ennakkoon ennustetut (ex ante) toimeentuloriskit estimoidaan dynaamisen, eteenpäin katsovan mallin avulla. Logaritmimuotoinen malli kuvaa tuloliikkuvuutta suhteessa väestöryhmän vuosittaisiin keskituloihin. Estimoinnit perustuvat väestöositukseen, joka määräytyy ennusteperiodia edeltävän, syntymävuosikohortin, koulutusasteen ja sosioekonomisen aseman perusteella. Tulosten perusteella vero- ja tulonsiirtojärjestelmä pienentää merkittävästi kotitalouksien tulonvaihtelua ja tuloriskiä. Tästä näyttävät hyötyvän eniten ne ryhmät, joissa markkinatulojenriskit olivat suurimmat. Tulosten perusteella julkinen sektori saa aikaan merkittävää riskien (tulojen vaihtelun) uudelleenjakoa, joka täydentää tulonsiirtojen uudelleenjakoroolia. Välittömän verotuksen merkitys on huomattavasti tulonsiirtoja pienempi. Toteutuneihin arvoihin perustuvat (ex post) riskimittarit antoivat samansuuntaisia tuloksia kuin dynaamiseen malliin perustuvat mittarit. Kvalitatiivisesti arvioituna tulokset ovat myös pitkälle riippumattomia siitä, mitä riskinkaihtamisparametria laskelmissa käytetään.
Ammatillinen järjestäytymisaste on laskenut Suomessa viimeisen kahden vuosikymmenen aikana. Samaan aikaan rinnalle on syntynyt ammattiliitoista riippumattomat työttömyyskassat. Työttömyyskassoihin kuuluvien osuus potentiaalisista jäsenistä on kuitenkin pysynyt melko muuttumattomana viimeisen 20 vuoden aikana, ollen noin 85 prosenttia. Toisin sanoen, noin 15 prosenttia työllisistä ei kuulu työttömyyskassaan. Nykyisessä taloudellisessa tilanteessa työttömyyden uhka on todellinen ja koskettaa aiempaa laajempaa joukkoa palkansaajia. Tässä raportissa pyritään selvittämään, mitkä palkansaajaryhmät jättäytyvät vapaaehtoisen ansiosidonnaisen työttömyysvakuutuksen piirin ulkopuolelle.
Tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään Tilastokeskuksen vuoden 2013 Työolotutkimusta, joka on liitetty FLEED (Finnish Longitudinal Employer-Employee Data) aineiston tietoihin henkilön toimintahistoriasta. Empiiristen tulosten mukaan on joukko henkilöitä, jotka hyötyisivät kassajäsenyydestä merkittävästi, mutta jättäytyvät silti jäsenyyden ulkopuolelle. Kassaan kuulumattomat ovat tyypilliseltä profiililtaan nuoria, epätyypillisissä työsuhteissa työskenteleviä ja matalasti koulutettuja miehiä. Näillä palkansaajaryhmillä on selvästi suuri työttömyysriski. Tulosten mukaan työssäoloehdon täyttymättömyydellä ei voida selittää kyseessä olevien palkansaajaryhmien kassajäsenyyden vähäisyyttä. Lisäksi kun otetaan huomioon, että nettokorvausaste on matalapalkkaisilla selvästi parempi korkeapalkkaisiin verrattuna, työttömyyskassan ulkopuolelle jättäytyminen kertoo epärationaalisesta päätöksenteosta.
Jatkotutkimuksena voisi keskittyä kassajärjestelmän ulkopuolelle jättäytyneeseen joukkoon ja tutkia mikä ajaa heidän motiiveitaan olla liittymättä kassaan. Onko kyse budjettirajoitteesta, ideologiasta, välinpitämättömyydestä, ryhmäpaineesta vai kenties tiedon puutteesta?
Työpaperi koostuu kolmesta erillisestä osasta, joista ensimmäisessä vertaillaan työttömyyden kustannusten suuruutta ja niiden jakautumista eri osapuolten kesken Suomessa, Ruotsissa, Tanskassa ja Saksassa. Kustannuksista huomioidaan irtisanomisen kustannukset, työttömyysturvamenot ja työttömyydestä aiheutuvat tulonmenetykset. Kustannukset vaihtelevat maiden välillä etenkin niiden osatekijöiden suuruuden perusteella. Suomessa yhdenkään kustannusten osatekijän ei havaittu olevan erityisen suuri tai pieni. Työpaperin toinen osio on kirjallisuuskatsaus työttömyysetuuksien vaikutuksia työmarkkinakäyttäytymiseen tutkivaan kirjallisuuteen. Työttömyysturvaetuuksien tason ja enimmäiskeston on havaittu pidentävän työttömyysjaksoja, arviot vaikutuksen suuruudesta kuitenkin vaihtelevat melko paljon. Vaikutuksen on havaittu myös riippuvan suhdannetilanteesta. Vaikutus näyttää olevan pienempi, kun työttömyys on korkealla tasolla eikä työpaikkoja ole tarjolla. Työpaperin viimeisessä osiossa katsotaan kuinka työvoimapalvelut kohdistuvat ansioturvakauden loppuvaiheeseen ja kuinka ne vaikuttavat työllistymiseen. Työvoimapalvelut eivät näytä kohdistuvan erityisesti etuuskauden loppuvaiheeseen, havainto perustuu kuitenkin hyvin karkeaan tarkasteluun ja siihen täytyy suhtautua varauksella. Suomalaisessa tutkimuskirjallisuudessa työvoimakoulutuksen on usein havaittu parantavan siihen osallistuneiden työllistymistä. Työllistämisen vaikutus näyttää riippuvan sen kohteesta: julkiselle sektorille työllistäminen ei näytä parantaneen työllistymistä, mutta yksityiselle sektorille työllistämisellä on usein havaittu positiivisia vaikutuksia.
Tässä artikkelissa tutkitaan, miten Suomen vuoden 2010 ja Ruotsin vuoden 2012 ravintola-annosten arvonlisäveron alennus vaikutti niiden hintoihin. Tulokset osoittavat, että hintojen muutoksen keskittyivät joko veron täyteen läpimenoon hintoihin tai veron nollavaikutukseen hintoihin. Ravintoloiden jakaminen ketjuihin kuuluviin ja yksittäisiin ravintoloihin selittää veron kahtalaista vaikutusta hintoihin hyvin. Yksittäiset ravintolat muuttivat hintojaan vain harvoin, kun taas ketjuissa veron täysi läpimeno hintoihin oli tavallista. Tulokset osoittavat, että yrityksen sisäiset ominaisuudet ovat tärkeitä selitettäessä niiden hinnoittelukäyttäytymistä.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työn vaatimusten, työntekijän vaikutusmahdollisuuksien ja esimiehiltä saatavan tuen vaikutuksia erikseen ja yhdessä työssä koettuun hyvinvointiin. Tulokset osoittavat, että vaikutusmahdollisuudet ja esimiehen tuki ovat merkittäviä työhyvinvoinnin selittäjiä.
promotion plays key in development of an employee it is in the form of monetary and non monetary form. it gives motivation to the employee so that employee moves forward personally and as well professionally.
We examine the impact of a Finnish reform in the 1990s that restricted the use of particular early retirement channels, unemployment pension and individual early retirement, and
simultaneously changed the rules of firm size related experience rating in disability pensions. Our emphasis is on how the reforms affected the incentives of the firms to hire older employees. In a simple model we illustrate how forward-looking behaviour of firms affects the value of a new hire. Simulations with the model illustrate that although the reform in the unemployment pension in principle affected particular age groups, 53-54 year olds in the case of unemployment pension and 55-57 year olds in the case of individual early retirement, the impacts on hiring may have been felt also in other, younger, age groups. On the other hand, the effects of both reforms are likely to have varied by firm size. In a differences-indifferences- in-differences analysis with firm-level data we show that the impact of the reforms has been to increase the probability of hiring especially in the age group 51-52 and
especially in the largest firms.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työehtosopimuksissa määräytyvien alimpien taulukkopalkkojen vaikutuksia palkkajakaumaan ja työllisyyteen vähittäiskaupan alalla. Aineistona käytetään EK:n yksityisten palvelualojen palkka-aineistoa vuosilta 1990–2005. Tähän aineistoon on liitetty työehtosopimuksiin perustuvat kaupan alan vähimmäispalkat. Tutkimuksessa käytetään hyväksi erityisesti niitä poikkeuksia, joita vähimmäispalkkoihin sovittiin työmarkkinaosapuolten kesken 1990-luvun puolivälissä. Vuosina 1993–1995 oli mahdollista maksaa työehtosopimuksessa sovittua taulukkopalkkaa matalampaa palkkaa alle 25-vuotiaille nuorille. Tulosten perusteella nuoria koskevilla poikkeuksilla ei ollut vaikutuksia työllisyyteen, vaikka niillä olikin jonkin verran vaikutuksia todellisuudessa maksettuihin palkkoihin erityisesti palkkajakauman alapäässä.
This paper analyses the employment effects of mergers and acquisitions (M&As) by using matched establishment-level data from Finland over the period 1989–2003. The data covers all sectors. We compare the employment effects of cross-border M&As with the effects arising from two different types of domestic M&As and internal restructurings. The results reveal that cross-border M&As lead to downsizing in manufacturing employment. The effects of cross-border M&As on employment in nonmanufacturing are much weaker. Changes in ownership associated with domestic M&As and internal restructurings also typically cause employment losses, but they exhibit an interesting sectoral variation.
We examine the effect of the replacement rate of a social insurance system on sickness absence by exploiting a regression kink design. The elasticity of absence with respect to the benefit level, in addition to risk preferences, is a critical parameter in defining the optimal sickness insurance scheme. Using a large administrative dataset, we find a robust behavioral response. The statistically significant point estimate of the elasticity of the duration of sickness absence with respect to the replacement rate in a social insurance system is on the order of 1. Given our estimate, we characterize the optimal benefit level.
Low-wage subsidies are often proposed as a solution to the unemployment problem among the low skilled. Yet the empirical evidence on the effects of low-wage subsidies is surprisingly scarce. This paper examines the employment effects of a Finnish payroll tax subsidy scheme, which is targeted at the employers of older, full-time, low-wage workers. The system’s clear eligibility criteria open up an opportunity for a reliable estimation of the causal impacts of the subsidy, using the difference-in-difference-in-differences approach. Our results indicate that the subsidy system had no effects on the employment rate. However, it appears to have increased the probability of part-time workers obtaining full-time employment.
We examine the effects of establishment- and industry-level labor market turnover on employees’ well-being. The linked employer-employee panel data contain both survey information on employees’ subjective well-being and comprehensive register-based information on job and worker flows. Labor market turbulence decreases well-being as experienced job satisfaction and satisfaction with job security are negatively related to the previous year’s flows. We test for the existence of compensating wage differentials by explaining wages and job satisfaction with average uncertainties, measured by an indicator for a high moving average of past excessive turnover (churning) rate. The results are consistent with compensating wage differentials, since high uncertainty increases real wages, but has no effect on job satisfaction.
This paper focuses on the share and incidence of nominal and real wages cuts in the Finnish private sector. It complements other analyses of downward wage rigidities especially by looking for individual and employer characteristics that might explain the likelihood of observing an individual’s wage cut. The examinations are based on Probit models that include individual characteristics, employer characteristics, and the form of remuneration as explanatory variables. We find relatively few individual or employer characteristics that have a strong and common influence on the likelihood of wage decline across the different segments of labour markets. However, the full-time workers have had a lower likelihood of nominal and real wage declines during the 1990s compared with part-time workers. Declines in wages have also been more common in small plants/firms. In addition, nominal wage declines have been more transitory by their nature within the segments of the Finnish labour markets in which they are more common. Overall, the frequency of nominal wage declines has been fairly low for manufacturing nonmanuals and service sector workers but somewhat higher for manual workers in manufacturing. However, nominal wage moderation together with a positive inflation rate produced real wage cuts for a large proportion of employees during the worst recession years of the early 1990s.
The aim of this paper is to dicriminate between alternative compensation policies in Finnish industries using linked employer-employee data covering the period 1987–1992. Our results suggest that earnings equations should have a firm effect with a firm-specific intercept and seniority effect. There is also a strong association of firm-level compensation to education, in contrast to weak correlation to other human capital components such as general experience. Experience payments from initial tenure, and also from general experience, are increasing with educational level. We also examine the efficiency of the compensation policies on the basis of their impact on labor and total factor productivity. We find seniority compensations in general efficient. This holds particularly for the middle educated.
We analyse age segregation in hirings and separations using linked employer-employee data from Finland in the period 1990-2004. This allows us to identify at the firm level employees in different age groups that have been hired during the previous year, and employees who have exited the firms.
We analyze firm-level age segregation using segregation curves and Gini indices. The main result is that hirings of older employees have clearly been more segregated than exits or the stock of old employees even though hirings have become slightly less segregated towards the end of the period
in question. At the same time age segregation in exits and stocks has increased and these trends are not sensitive to small unit bias in measurement. We also examine trends in hiring and exit rates using aggregate data. According to our results the oldest age group is again underrepresented in
hirings. There is a positive upward trend in their recruitments related to the increasing cohort size, but it is much weaker than the trend in the relative share of older workers in employment. The exit rate of the older employees indicates cyclical variation while the small number of hirings seems to
be insensitive to changing labour demand. We present a decomposition of employment change by age group and with that decomposition we disentangle the role of hirings and exits from factors related to demographics and cohort effects. The latter factors include the effect of the large babyboom
generation entering the age group of older employees with higher employment rates than earlier cohorts. Finally, our regression analysis shows that larger firms are more likely to hire older employees, but their hiring rates are lower.
This paper explores the potential role of adverse working conditions in the determination of workers’ sickness absences. Our data contain detailed information on the prevalence of job disamenities at the workplace from a representative sample of Finnish workers. The results from reduced-form models reveal that workers facing adverse working conditions tend to have a greater number of sickness absences. In addition, reduced-form models clearly show that regional labour market conditions are an important determinant of sickness absences. Hence, sickness absences are more common in regions of low unemployment. Recursive models suggest that the prevalence of harms at the workplace is associated with job dissatisfaction and dissatisfaction with workers’ sickness absences.
In this study, we scrutinize the effect of labour taxation on employment and growth. We also analyze the effect of other fiscal policy instruments, e.g. the effect of public spending. In this context, our special interest is in the fiscal policy simulations that are neutralized for the government budget. The analysis will be performed with a macroeconomic model (EMMA) developed at the Labour Institute for Economic Research. The study finds that a one percentage point decrease in the income tax rate which is financed by increasing government debt improves GDP by 0.58 and employment by 0.25 per cent in the long run. Also, a one percentage point decrease in the income tax rate which is neutralized for the government budget by reducing public purchases produces a long-run increase in GDP and employment of a similar magnitude, even though its short-run effect on both variables is negative.
In January 2003, the unemployment benefits increased in Finland for workers with long employment histories. The average benefit increase was 15% for the first 150 days of unemployment spell. In this paper we evaluate the effect of benefit increase on the duration of unemployment by comparing the changes in the re-employment hazard profiles between the unemployed who became eligible to the increased benefits to a control group whose benefit structure remained unchanged. We find that benefit increase reduced re-employment hazards in the beginning of the unemployment spell but that the effect disappears after the period with increased benefits expires.
There is a lack of clear evidence of the ways in which dividend taxation affects dividend distributions and investment since the evidence is based mainly on the behaviour of large listed companies. This paper utilises a large register-based panel data set, where the vast majority of firms are small and medium-sized enterprises, to examine the responses to the Finnish dividend tax increase of 2005. This reform creates a useful opportunity to measure enterprise behaviour, since it involves exogenous variation in the tax treatment of different types of firms. The results, based on differences- in-differences estimation and matching methods, indicate that dividends declined somewhat in closely held corporations that faced a tax increase, perhaps for timing reasons, while investments did not decline. These findings are more in line with the new rather than the old view of dividend taxation.
The paper is concerned with the relationship between labour share and unemployment in the major OECD countries. Special emphasis is put on examining whether the relationship has altered in a manner which can be interpreted as an indication of the weakened bargaining power of labour. The
econometric analysis is based on the use of the theoretical framework which employs the notion of the wage curve as a central analytical tool. The investigation utilises cross-country panel data for twenty OECD countries over the period from 1972 to 2008 and statistical methods suitable for the
examination of non-stationary panels. According to the results, the decline in the labour share, which is apparent in most major OECD countries, is highly likely due, at least partly, to the weakened bargaining power of labour. With a given level of unemployment, the labour share is nowadays lower than before.
Dual income tax systems have become increasingly popular; yet, relatively little is known about the consequences of implementing such tax systems. This paper uses a representative panel of taxpayers from the 1993 Finnish tax reform to measure how overall taxable income and the relative shares of capital income and labour income reacted to the reform. The Finnish tax reform appears to be particularly suitable for analysing the effect of separating labour and capital income tax bases. The reform radically reduced the marginal tax rates on capital income to some, but not all, taxpayers, while the taxation of labour income was not reformed at the same time. We find that the reform led to a small positive impact on overall taxable income, but part of the positive response was probably offset by income shifting among the self-employed.
Tässä tutkimuksessa tutkitaan diskreettien valintajoukkojen vaikutusta palkansaajien työn tarjonnan reagoimiseen tuloveroihin. Artikkelin empiirisessä osiossa hyödynnetään opintotuen tulorajojen aiheuttamaa tuloveroissa tapahtuvaa äkillistä nousua, ja reformia, jossa tulorajoja nostettiin. Tulosten mukaan vuoden 2008 reformi, jossa tulorajaa nostettiin 9 opintotukikuukautta nostaneille 9000 eurosta 12000 euroon, aiheutti merkittäviä muutoksia opiskelijoiden tulojakaumassa. Tulojakauma siirtyi korkeammalle tasolle lähtien noin 2000 euron tuloista. Koska opiskelijoiden verojärjestelmässä ei tapahtunut muutoksia näin alhaisella tasolla vuoden 2008 reformissa, eivät työn taloustieteen normaalit mallit pysty selittämään tätä siirtymää. Artikkelissa esitetään empiirisiä lisätuloksia, teoreettisia argumentteja ja simulaatiomalli, jotka kaikki viittaavat siihen, että tuloksen pystyy selittämään diskreettien valintajoukkojen mallilla. Lisäksi artikkelissa esitetään, että verotuksen hyvinvointitappiot voivat olla suuremmat kuin empiirisesti estimoidut, jos valintajoukot ovat diskreettejä, mutta niiden ajatellaan olevan jatkuvia.
Similar to Seniority rules, worker mobility and wages: Evidence from multi-country linked employer-employee data (20)
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numero 4/2019 sisältää artikkeleita ja haastattelun, jotka kertovat alueellista keskittymistä käsitelleistä tutkimuksista. Suomen seitsemän suurimman kaupunkiseudun väestö kasvaa nopeimmin, kun taas pienempien kaupunkien ja maaseudun väestöosuus supistuu. Muutos on kuitenkin verrattain hidasta, ja sille on myös vastavoimia.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numeron 3/2019 teemana on työ ja terveys. Artikkeleissa tarkastellaan Suomen terveydenhuoltojärjestelmän toimivuutta ja pohditaan mitä voitaisiin oppia Ruotsissa jo tehdyistä terveydenhuollon uudistuksista. Muissa artikkeleissa käsitellään terveyskäyttäytymisen ja työmarkkinamenestyksen yhteyttä, työttömien aktivointia, työikäisten eritasoisia terveyspalveluja, työaikajoustojen vaikutusta terveyteen sekä informaatioteknologian ja tekoälyn käyttöä mielenterveyspalvelujen tukena. Haastateltavana on THL:n tutkimusprofessori Unto Häkkinen. Hänen mielestään sote-uudistus on tehtävä, vaikka se vaatiikin vielä monen yksityiskohdan ratkaisemista.
Opiskelijavalinta ylioppilaskirjoitusten nykyarvosanojen perusteella ei ole täysin perusteltua, todetaan Aalto-ylipiston ja Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitoksen uudessa tutkimuksessa. Ylioppilaskirjoitusten arvosanoilla on pitkän ajan vaikutuksia. Hienojakoisempi arvosteluasteikko tekisi opiskelijavalinnasta nykyistä reilumman.
Esimerkkiperhelaskelmissa tarkastellaan seitsemää kotitaloutta. Laskelmat kuvaavat ansiotulojen, tulonsiirtojen sekä verojen ja veronluonteisten maksujen kehityksen vaikutusta perheiden ostovoimaan. Perheille lasketaan Tilastokeskuksen tietoihin perustuvat perhekohtaiset kulutuskorit, jotka mahdollistavat perhekohtaisten inflaatiovauhtien ja reaalitulokehitysten arvioinnin. Ensi vuonna eläkeläispariskunnan ostovoima kasvaa eniten ja työttömien vähiten. Esimerkkiperhelaskelmia on tehty Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitoksella vuodesta 2009 lähtien.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos ennustaa Suomen talouskasvuksi tänä vuonna 1,3 prosenttia ja ensi vuonna 1,1 prosenttia. Kasvua hidastaa eniten yksityisen kulutuksen kasvun hidastuminen. Toisaalta vienti kasvaa tänä vuonna hieman ennakoitua nopeammin, neljä prosenttia, ja ensi vuonnakin vielä kaksi prosenttia. Tuotannollisten investointien kasvu jatkuu maltillisena, mutta rakentamisen vähentyminen kääntää yksityiset investoinnit kokonaisuutena pieneen laskuun ensi vuonna. Hallituksen vuoteen 2023 mennessä tavoittelemien 75 prosentin työllisyysasteen ja julkisen talouden tasapainon toteutumista on vaikea arvioida, koska nämä tavoitteet on määritelty rakenteellisina ja niiden eri arviointimenetelmät saattavat tuottaa hyvin erilaisia tuloksia.
Suomen palkkataso oli 2015 ylempää eurooppalaista keskitasoa. Suomen suhteellinen asema ei ole juurikaan muuttunut 2010-luvun alun tilanteesta. Hintatason huomioiminen kuitenkin heikentää asemaamme palkkavertailussa. Palkkaerot meillä olivat vertailumaiden pienimpiä ja pysyivät melko samalla tasolla koko tarkastelujakson 2007–2015 ajan. EU-maissa havaittiin erisuuntaista kehitystä palkkaeroissa. Suurin osa palkkojen kokonaisvaihteluista selittyi taustaryhmien sisäisillä palkkaeroilla.
Suomessa toteutettiin vuonna 2005 laaja eläkeuudistus, jossa vanhuuseläkkeen alaikärajaa laskettiin. Tutkimuksessa havaitaan, että ikärajan lasku aikaisti eläkkeelle jäämistä. Kun alaraja laskettiin 65:stä 63:een, myös yleinen eläköitymisikä laski. Taloudellisten kannustimien muutosten vaikutukset eläköitymiseen jäivät paljon heikommiksi alaikärajan muuttamiseen verrattuna. Eläköitymisikään voidaan siis vaikuttaa tehokkaasti ja vähäisin kustannuksin lakisääteistä eläkeikää muuttamalla.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numeron 2/2019 artikkelit ja haastattelu kertovat tutkimuksista, joita on tehty Suomen Akatemian strategisen tutkimuksen neuvoston hankkeessa "Osaavat työntekijät - menestyvät työmarkkinat". Keskeinen kysymys on, miten sopeudutaan teknologisen kehityksen mukanaan tuomaan työn murrokseen.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos on alentanut Suomen talouskasvun ennustettaan kuluvalle vuodelle viimesyksyisestä 2,3 prosentista 1,4 prosenttiin. Kansainvälisen talouden näkymien epävarmuus hidastaa Suomen talouskasvua etenkin kuluvana vuonna. Jos pahimmat uhkakuvat jäävät toteutumatta, kasvu piristyy ensi vuonna hivenen 1,5 prosenttiin. Viime vuonna pysähtynyt viennin kasvu elpyy, ja myös yksityisen kulutuksen kasvu tukee talouskasvua. Suomi on sopeutunut ammattirakenteiden murrokseen yleisesti ottaen hyvin, mutta etenkin perusasteen koulutuksen varassa olevien varttuneiden työntekijöiden työllistämiseen voi olla vaikea löytää työkaluja.
The Labour Institute for Economic Research has lowered its forecast of Finland’s economic growth for the current year from last autumn’s 2.4 per cent to 1.4 per cent. Uncertainty in the international economic outlook will slow Finland’s economic growth, particularly this year. If the worst threats do not materialise, growth will pick up slightly next year to 1.5 per cent. Export growth, which came to a halt last year, will recover and growth in private consumption growth will also provide support to economic growth. In general, Finland has adjusted well to occupational restructuring, but it may be difficult to find means to employ older workers who only have basic education.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos on alentanut Suomen talouskasvun ennustettaan kuluvalle vuodelle vii-mesyksyisestä 2,3 prosentista 1,4 prosenttiin. Kansainvälisen talouden näkymien epävarmuus hidastaa Suomen talouskasvua etenkin kuluvana vuonna. Jos pahimmat uhkakuvat jäävät toteutumatta, kasvu piristyy ensi vuonna hivenen 1,5 prosenttiin. Viime vuonna pysähtynyt viennin kasvu elpyy, ja myös yksityisen kulutuksen kasvu tukee talouskasvua. Suomi on sopeutunut ammattirakenteiden murrokseen yleisesti ottaen hyvin, mutta etenkin perusasteen koulutuksen varassa olevien varttuneiden työntekijöiden työllistämiseen voi olla vaikea löytää työkaluja.
Tämä PT Policy Brief tuo esiin havaintoja Suomen tuloerojen kehityksestä 1990-luvun puolivälin jälkeen. Tällä ajanjaksolla tuloerot ovat kasvaneet. Aluksi kasvu oli hyvin nopeaa, kunnes kehitys tasaantui finanssikriisin myötä. Tämä näkyy tarkasteltaessa kehitystä viiden vuoden ajalta lasketuissa keskituloissa. Taloudessa on tuloliikkuvuutta, ts. tulot vaihtelevat vuodesta toiseen. Havaitsemme, että liikkuvuus tuloportaikossa on vähentynyt. Samalla kun tuloerot ovat kääntyneet kasvuun, on tuloverotuksen progressiivisuus alentunut. Valtion tuloveron alennusten ohella tähän on erityisesti tulojakauman huipulla vaikuttanut pääomatulojen voimakas kasvu.
Julkisen budjetin sopeuttamistoimia toteutetaan usein etuuksien indeksileikkauksina tai tuloverojen korotuksina. Näillä toimenpiteillä on tulonjako- ja työllisyysvaikutuksia. Tämä PT Policy Brief esittää SISU-mallilla lasketut vaikutukset käytettävissä oleviin tuloihin tuloluokittain, jos valtion tuloveroasteikkoa korotettaisiin 0,4 prosenttiyksiköllä tai jos kansaneläkeindeksiä leikattaisiin. Molemmissa toimenpiteissä budjetti vahvistuisi 180 miljoonalla eurolla mutta tulonjakovaikutukset ovat huomattavan erilaiset. Oheisen kuvion mukaisesti indeksileikkaukset kohdistuvat voimakkaasti alempiin tulonsaajakymmenyksiin, kun taas tuloveron korotukset kohdistuvat ylempiin kymmenyksiin. Kun huomioidaan muutosten aiheuttamat työllisyysvaikutukset, kokonaiskuva muuttuu vain hieman.
Makeisvero otettiin käyttöön makeisille ja jäätelölle vuoden 2011 alusta. Virallinen perustelu oli kerätä verotuloja, mutta poliittisessa keskustelussa selvä tavoite oli ohjata kulutusta terveellisempään suuntaan. Makeisvero nosti selvästi makeisten kuluttajahintoja, mutta se ei vaikuttanut makeisten kysyntään. Toisaalta vuonna 2014 virvoitusjuomavero nousi sokerillisille juomille, mutta sokerittomat juomat jäivät alemmalle verotasolle. Tämä muutos alensi sokerillisten juomien kulutusta ja ohjasi kulutusta sokerittomiin juomiin. Onnistunut terveellisiin tuotteisiin ohjailu näyttääkin vaativan riittävän läheisen terveellisempien tuotteiden ryhmän olemassaolon.
Talous & Yhteiskunta-lehden "Suuren vaalinumeron" 1/2019 jutut käsittelevät aiheita, jotka voivat nousta esille kevään vaalikeskusteluissa. Pääpaino on ilmastonmuutoksessa: haastateltavana on Maailman ilmatieteen järjestön pääsihteeri Petteri Taalas, ja kahdessa eri artikkelissa pohditaan metsien hiilinielujen ja yhdyskuntarakenteen merkitystä pyrittäessä hillitsemään ilmaston lämpenemistä. Muut artikkelit käsittelevät tuloerojen kasvua, sotea, eläkkeiden riittävyyttä, maahanmuuttajien työllistymistä, EMUn uudistamista, eurooppalaista palkkavertailua ja kestävyysvajeen sopimattomuutta talouspolitiikan suunnitteluun.
Raportissa tehdään laskelmia korkeakouluopiskelijoille suunnatun opintotuen tulorajojen muutosten vaikutuksista. Opintotuen tulorajojen tavoite on, että suurituloisille opiskelijoille ei makseta opintotukea. Samalla nykyiset tulorajat kuitenkin estävät opiskelijoita tienaamasta niin paljon kuin he haluaisivat. Laskelmissa hyödynnetään simulaatiomallia, jonka avulla voidaan arvioida miten opiskelijoiden tulojakauma muuttuisi eri vaihtoehtoisissa opintotuen tulorajojen muutoksissa. Tulosten mukaan nykyisiä tulorajaoja voisi nostaa esimerkiksi 50 prosentilla, jolloin yhdeksän kuukauden ajan opintotukea nostavan opiskelijan vuosituloraja olisi 18 000 euroa nykyisen noin 12 000 euron sijaan. Laskelmien mukaan tällöin päästäisiin opintotuen nykyisten tulorajojen haitallisista tulovaikutuksista laajasti ottaen eroon, koska vain harva opiskelija tienaisi tätä tulorajaa enempää. Ottaen huomioon verotulot ja tulonsiirrot tämä vaihtoehto lisäisi julkisyhteisöjen nettotuloja arviolta 5,9 miljoonaa euroa vuodessa.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden uuteen numeroon sisältyy artikkeleita veropohjasta ja -vajeesta, liikenteen veroista, naisista tulojakauman huipulla, työllisyyden kasvusta, mikrosimulaatiomalleista ja digitalisaatiosta. Lehdessä on myös Helsingin yliopiston professori Uskali Mäen haastattelu, jossa käsitellään tieteenfilosofista näkökulmaa taloustieteeseen.
Tutkimuksessa rakennettiin uusia makrotaloudellisia malleja PT:n ennustetyötä varten. Malleilla tehtiin ennusteita vuosille 2017 ja 2018. Mallien BKT-ennuste vuodelle 2017 on 3,1 prosenttia (vrt. toteutunut 2,8 prosenttia) ja vuodelle 2018 1,8 prosenttia (vrt. PT:n 11.9 ennuste 2,7 prosenttia).
The boom becomes less pronounced but continues. This year, the growth of exports will not reach the peak figures of last year but the growth will to some extent pick up speed again in next year. The quickly decreased unemployment rate will continue to drop. An analysis of long-term employment growth by age group shows that positive employment growth is concentrated on the one hand on younger employees and, on the other hand, older employees, whereas the employment rate of men aged 25–34 is growing smaller. The government budget policy is too expansive, given the economic situation.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden uuden numeron 3/2018 teemana on "EMU 20 vuotta". Siinä arvioidaan monista eri näkökulmista euron kahta ensimmäistä vuosikymmentä. Kuinka se on vaikuttanut Suomen talouskehitykseen? Millaista finanssi- ja palkkapolitiikkaa tulisi harjoittaa? Onko EKP onnistunut rahapolitiikassaan?
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
ZGB - The Role of Generative AI in Government transformation.pdfSaeed Al Dhaheri
This keynote was presented during the the 7th edition of the UAE Hackathon 2024. It highlights the role of AI and Generative AI in addressing government transformation to achieve zero government bureaucracy
Understanding the Challenges of Street ChildrenSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Russian anarchist and anti-war movement in the third year of full-scale warAntti Rautiainen
Anarchist group ANA Regensburg hosted my online-presentation on 16th of May 2024, in which I discussed tactics of anti-war activism in Russia, and reasons why the anti-war movement has not been able to make an impact to change the course of events yet. Cases of anarchists repressed for anti-war activities are presented, as well as strategies of support for political prisoners, and modest successes in supporting their struggles.
Thumbnail picture is by MediaZona, you may read their report on anti-war arson attacks in Russia here: https://en.zona.media/article/2022/10/13/burn-map
Links:
Autonomous Action
http://Avtonom.org
Anarchist Black Cross Moscow
http://Avtonom.org/abc
Solidarity Zone
https://t.me/solidarity_zone
Memorial
https://memopzk.org/, https://t.me/pzk_memorial
OVD-Info
https://en.ovdinfo.org/antiwar-ovd-info-guide
RosUznik
https://rosuznik.org/
Uznik Online
http://uznikonline.tilda.ws/
Russian Reader
https://therussianreader.com/
ABC Irkutsk
https://abc38.noblogs.org/
Send mail to prisoners from abroad:
http://Prisonmail.online
YouTube: https://youtu.be/c5nSOdU48O8
Spotify: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/libertarianlifecoach/episodes/Russian-anarchist-and-anti-war-movement-in-the-third-year-of-full-scale-war-e2k8ai4
Many ways to support street children.pptxSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
A process server is a authorized person for delivering legal documents, such as summons, complaints, subpoenas, and other court papers, to peoples involved in legal proceedings.
Seniority rules, worker mobility and wages: Evidence from multi-country linked employer-employee data
1. 292
A Kink that
Makes You Sick:
The Incentive
Effect of Sick
Pay on Absence
Petri Böckerman*
Ohto Kanninen**
Ilpo Suoniemi***
302
Seniority rules,
worker mobility
and wages:
Evidence from
multi-country
linked employer-
employee data*
Petri Böckerman**
Per Skedinger***
Roope Uusitalo****
2. Helsinki 2015
* This research project is funded by the Finnish Work Environment Fund. The second author
also thanks the Johan and Jakob Söderberg Foundation for financial support. We are grateful
to Eija Ahopelto, Auli Jaakkola, Eija Savaja for their help with the Finnish payroll record data
and to Malin Olsson Tallås and Olga Pugatsova for assistance with the Swedish data.
We also thank seminar participants at EALE, IFN, VATT, SSB, GAPE, PT, Linnaeus
University and the Nordic Summer Institute for their comments.
** Petri Böckerman, Turku School of Economics, Labour Institute for Economic Reseach,
Helsinki and IZA, Bonn. E-mail: petri.bockerman@labour.fi
*** Per Skedinger, Research Institute of Industrial Economics, Stockholm, and Centre for
Labour Market and Discrimination Studies, Linnaeus University, Växjö.
E-mail: per.skedinger@ifn.se
**** Roope Uusitalo, Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics.
E-mail: roope.h.uusitalo@jyu.fi
3. TYÖPAPEREITA 302
WORKING PAPERS 302
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos
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Labour Institute for Economic Research
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ISBN 978-952-209-146-8
ISSN 1795–1801 (pdf)
4. 1
Tiivistelmä
Ikääntyneiden työntekijöiden irtisanomissuoja on Ruotsissa poikkeuksellisen vahva, sillä
yritykseen viimeksi tulleet työntekijät täytyy irtisanoa ensimmäiseksi. Suomessa
ikääntyneiden työsuhdeturvaa koskevat määräykset ovat oleellisesti löyhempiä.
Tutkimuksessa Ruotsin ja Suomen irtisanomissuojaa koskevan eron vaikutuksia tarkastellaan
muodostamalla ylikansallinen työntekijä- ja työnantaja-aineisto. Se perustuu Suomen ja
Ruotsin työnantajajärjestöjen kokoamien palkkarekisteriaineistojen yhdistämiseen vuosina
2000–2011. Ruotsissa ja Suomessa toimivia saman emoyrityksen yksiköitä käsitellään yhtenä
yrityksenä. Tulokset osoittavat, että Suomessa ikääntyneet työntekijät irtisanotaan
taloudellisten vaikeuksien myötä herkemmin kuin Ruotsissa. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan
myös irtisanomisjärjestystä koskevien lausekkeiden vaikutuksia työntekijöiden palkkoihin.
Pisimpään yrityksessä työskennelleet saavat suuremman palkkapreemion Ruotsissa.
Mahdollinen selitys tälle ilmiölle on irtisanomisjärjestystä koskevien säännösten aikaansaama
parempi työsuhdeturva ja tästä seuraava neuvotteluvoiman kasvu.
Abstract
We construct a multi-country employer-employee data to examine the consequences of
employment protection. We identify the effects by comparing worker exit rates between units
of the same firm that operate in two countries that have different seniority rules. The results
show that last-in-first-out rules reduce dismissals of older, more senior workers, especially in
shrinking multinational firms, and increase their bargaining power, resulting in a steeper
seniority-wage profile.
Keywords: Multi-country linked employer-employee data, Employment protection
legislation, Seniority rules
JEL codes: K310, J630, J320, J080, L510
5. 2
1. Introduction
Despite considerable amount of research, the effects of job protections are still controversial.
Economic theory predicts that tighter regulation decreases both the hiring and firing rates,
while the effects on employment are ambiguous. Tighter employment protection legislation
(EPL) may also strengthen the position of insiders and have harmful effects on new entrants.
Employment protection may also affect wages, for example, by increasing the bargaining
power of better-protected workers.
Empirical studies summarized in Skedinger (2010a) and in Boeri and Van Ours (2013)
generally confirm the predictions regarding the effects on labor flows, but the effect on
aggregate employment varies across studies. There is only scant evidence on the effects on
wages with some studies reporting positive (van der Wiel, 2010) and some negative effects
(eg. Leonardi and Pica, 2013)
We contribute to the empirical literature by examining the effects of labor market regulations
based on longitudinal multi-country employer-employee data. To the best of our knowledge,
this is the first effort linking personnel data for a large number of firms across national
borders. We merge the complete payroll records of 150 firms that operate in both Sweden and
Finland. These data allow us to observe the changes in employment status at the individual
worker level in the matched firms over the period 2000-2011 to compare seniority wage
profiles across units of the same firm operating under different employment protection laws.
The Swedish and Finnish units of the firms that are included in our linked data operate under
similar macroeconomic conditions but face different labor market regulations. The Swedish
and Finnish economies are comparable with respect to aggregate unemployment, GDP per
capita, general education level, union density, the fraction of workers with temporary jobs,
and industry structure. As both countries are export-oriented small economies selling largely
to the same markets, even the timing of the business cycle has coincided in the two countries.
Both Sweden and Finland experienced robust economic growth in the early 2000s and then
faced a severe aggregate contraction in 2008.
Focusing on the same firms makes the operating environment of the units in different
countries even more similar. The units of the same firm generally use similar production
6. 3
technology and often sell identical products, although (with the exception of exporting firms)
to different markets. These multinational firms are also likely to have a uniform corporate
culture, common personnel policies, similar job titles and the same general leadership.
The crucial difference between units located in different countries is that the units operating in
Finland are subject to Finnish labor law and the units operating in Sweden are subject to
Swedish law. Overall, the two countries’ rules related to EPL are not very different. However,
the aggregate indices mask important differences in details. In this paper, we concentrate on
the effects of seniority rules that differ markedly across these two countries. In Sweden, firms
must in principle follow a strict last-in-first-out policy, while such regulations do not exist in
Finnish labor law. Seniority rules may affect average dismissal costs and certainly should
affect the choice of workers who are fired when a firm downsizes. We are particularly
interested in how these rules affect the layoff risks and wages in different age groups.
Our research design exploiting within-firm cross-country variation is most directly
comparable to a recent study by Lafontaine and Sivadasan (2009), who examine the effects of
labor market rigidities using data on employment and sales from a single US-based
international fast-food chain that operates in 43 countries. Compared to their study, our two-
country study has much less variation in employment protection. However, focusing on two
rather similar countries makes the operating environments much more similar in several other
dimensions that affect employment than in a 43-country comparison. Similar to Lafontaine
and Sivadasan (2009), we also examine differences within firms across countries, thus
effectively controlling for differences in production technology, product type and firm-
specific personnel policies. The firms in our data operate in diverse industries, ranging from
retail sales to manufacturing, and hence our approach yields more generalizable results than
those obtained from a single firm that operates in a very specific market. Importantly, having
individual-level data on all employees in the linked firms allows us to examine worker
mobility and wages disaggregated by age and tenure, thereby providing reliable evidence on
the heterogeneous effects of seniority rules in these important dimensions.
Our findings regarding the effects of seniority rules should also be of interest outside the
Nordic context. In addition to in Sweden, seniority rules are part of EPL in several countries,
although their weight relative to other selection criteria varies. In many countries, including
the United States, collective agreements contain seniority rules.
7. 4
The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 summarizes the key aspects of the literature.
Section 3 describes the context of our two-country study focusing on the differences in
seniority rules and the similarity of the economies. Section 4 introduces the linked multi-
country employer-employee data. Section 5 reports on the empirical analyses. Section 6
concludes.
2. Literature
2.1. Effects on worker mobility
The vast majority of the early empirical studies on the effects of labor market regulations on
labor market flows were based on cross-country comparisons. These studies used indices of
the tightness of employment protection rules and related these indices to aggregate measures
of labor market performance (e.g., Lazear, 1990; Nickell and Layard, 1999). More recently,
the focus has shifted to a more disaggregated level, enabling separate analysis and more
nuanced estimates for specific sub-groups defined by gender, age, firm or industry (e.g.,
Burgess et al., 2000; Haltiwanger et al., 2006; Kahn, 2007; Messina and Vallanti, 2007).
However, a major problem in all cross-country studies is that differences in labor market
performance may be due to country-specific factors other than the strictness of EPL. Even
with panel data, identification is difficult because institutions tend to change slowly. Another
limitation is that cross-country comparisons typically rely on rather coarse measures of job
protection and therefore miss the effects of institutional details that are important for policy
design.
Causal inference on the effects of job protection legislation is more straightforward in within-
country studies. A wave of empirical studies have used data from ‘natural experiments’
exploiting settings in which the changes in employment protection rules affect only some
workers – for example workers in firms below some size threshold. An example of this strand
of research, most closely related to our paper, is a Swedish study by von Below and
Skogman-Thoursie (2010), who evaluate the effect of relaxing last-in-first-out rules in small
firms. Natural experiment approaches and within-country data have also been used by, e.g.,
Autor et al. (2007), Boeri and Jimeno (2005), Kugler (2004), Kugler and Pica (2008), and
Martins (2009). While analyzing the effects of reforms within countries may be useful in
obtaining causal effects, these studies suffer from an inability to capture economy-wide,
8. 5
general equilibrium effects, for example, through changes in wages. Reforms of EPL
affecting only some workers may have also had an impact on the comparison groups in the
analysis, which impairs causal interpretation of the treatment–control differences.
A general problem affecting both cross- and within-country studies is that EPL may be
endogenous. High unemployment increases the demand for better job protection, and hence
tighter rules may be a result of high unemployment rather than its cause. Additionally, the
targeted policy reforms that have been analyzed in the literature are problematic because the
explicit aim of these reforms has often been to alleviate unemployment in the targeted groups.
High layoff risks and associated costs in specific groups (e.g., older workers) may have
induced policy makers to create better job protections for these groups, or difficulties in
finding jobs in some groups (e.g., the young) may have resulted in policies that reduced hiring
risk by relaxing employment protection rules applicable to these specific groups. Both of
these mechanisms could lead to reverse causality and biased estimates concerning the effect
of EPL on labor market outcomes.
2.2. Effects on wages
As shown by Lazear (1990), income transfers from firms to workers, induced by EPL, can in
principle be neutralized by wage reductions for newly hired workers. The extent to which
such wage reductions actually occur is likely to be dependent on the specific institutional
framework in which the labor markets operate. Minimum wages, collective labor agreements
and social norms may hinder or slow the adjustment to lower wages, especially at the bottom
of the wage distribution and among blue-collar workers, as Lindbeck and Snower (2001)
argue.
Some prior evidence indicates that increased employment protection for workers on open-
ended contracts has differential impacts on wages, depending on the bargaining power of the
group concerned. Analyzing an Italian reform in 1990, Leonardi and Pica (2013) find that
entry wages were reduced as the stringency of employment protection increased, while
incumbents remained unaffected. According to van der Wiel (2010), longer periods of
advance notice before a dismissal contribute to higher wages among Dutch workers.
Similarly, Centeno and Novo (2014) report that the new cohorts with open-ended and fixed-
9. 6
term contracts were those who ultimately paid for additional employment protection for
incumbent workers with permanent contracts in Portugal in 2004.
To the best of our knowledge, there is no previous empirical research on the impact of
seniority rules on wages. Arguably, such rules, which do not apply to workers on fixed-term
contracts, will strengthen the bargaining power of long-tenured workers relative to those with
short tenures or with fixed-term contracts. Assuming that productivity increases with tenure in
a similar fashion for comparable workers in the Swedish and Finnish units of multinational
firms, our prior would then be that seniority-wage profiles are significantly steeper in
Sweden. Because union-bargained minimum wages are more binding in Sweden than in
Finland, it remains an open question whether our prior will be consistent with the empirical
facts.
There are also other relevant theoretical explanations that can characterize the potential
effects of seniority rules on wages. According to standard learning models (see, e.g.,
Jovanovic, 1979), employers gradually accumulate more precise information about their
employees, implying that the better-matched workers become less likely to leave the firm
over time. The existence of compensating wage differentials would imply that wages are, in
equilibrium, lower for the better-protected older workers. However, this argument is not time
consistent in the sense that there is an incentive for a worker to renegotiate his/her wage after
the contract has been signed. Alternatively, seniority rules can be interpreted as a commitment
device for the enforcement of implicit contracts. According to this theoretical reasoning,
employees’ wage profiles in the firm are increasing (Lazear, 1979). The model implies that
new employees are underpaid relative to their marginal productivity, i.e., their wage is lower
than their productivity. This positive difference between a worker’s productivity and wage is
held by the firm in the form of a ‘bond’. The difference is paid to the worker in later years if
the worker remains employed with the same firm. Thus, senior employees are overpaid, i.e.,
their wage exceeds their marginal productivity at the end of the working career in the firm.
The increasing wage profile solves the incentive problem of providing efficient effort because
the worker loses the bond if he quits or is fired from the firm. The firm retains these implicit
contracts to maintain its reputation. From this perspective, seniority rules can be regarded as
an explicit labor market rule that supports employers’ commitment to implicit contracts.
10. 7
3. Context
3.1. Employment protection legislation and seniority rules
In both Sweden and Finland, the basic rules regarding employment protection are stated in the
labor law. These laws determine the procedures that need to be followed when firms dismiss
workers. Dismissals for personal misconduct are possible in both countries, but by far the
most common reasons for dismissals are ‘economic and production related reasons’. For
example, the Finnish labor law states that a firm may dismiss a worker when available work
has ‘significantly and permanently reduced’, while the Swedish law stipulates that a ‘lack of
work’ may be sufficient reason for dismissal. The labor laws establish minimum requirements
for an advance notice period that increase with seniority in both countries. Compensation for
unfair dismissal is more generous to long-tenured workers in Sweden (for example, 32
monthly salaries for workers with 20 years’ tenure, as opposed to 14 in Finland).
Discrimination based on gender, age or ethnic origin is prohibited, and some groups of
workers, such as employee representatives, pregnant women, those on parental leave, and
those who have lost part of their work ability while working for the same employer, are better
protected. According to the most recent OECD summary indicators for 2013, job protection
for regular workers is slightly tighter in Sweden than in Finland, while the regulation of
temporary contracts is somewhat more lenient in Sweden.
In addition to such legislation, most firms in both countries have to follow collective
agreements. The union contracts are binding irrespective of whether the individual worker is a
union member.1
The union contracts typically extend the minimum requirements stated in the
law, for example, by increasing the advance notice periods.
The crucial difference in the EPL concerns last-in-first-out-rules. These seniority rules have
been included in Swedish legislation since 1974. The basic rule states that workers have to be
laid off in inverse order of seniority when a firm downsizes for economic reasons. For
workers with equal seniority, the youngest worker is laid off first. Such rules do not exist in
Finnish labor law.
1
In Sweden, the contracts are binding only if the employer belongs to an employer association or has signed a
local collective agreement (‘hängavtal’), whereas in Finland, contracts may also be binding for non-member
firms if the collective agreement has been legally extended to cover such employers.
11. 8
In practice, the differences between the two countries are somewhat smaller. The Swedish
legislation on last-in-first-out rules specifies the group of workers and workplace units for
which the rankings apply (‘turordningskrets’). In addition to the establishment as the basic
unit for the ranking of workers, it is usually the case that separate rankings apply depending
on negotiation area, implying that blue- and white-collar workers are treated as separate
groups. The legislation also allows some latitude for the competence of the worker to be a
factor when determining the relevant group of workers. The more narrowly defined the group
is, the larger is the scope for the employer to retain the most valuable employees.
Additionally, an important feature of Swedish legislation is the possibility to depart from last-
in-first-out rules, in local agreements (‘avtalsturlista’) between employers and unions, as long
as the agreements are not discriminatory or otherwise improper. There is scant documentation
of these agreements, and they are not recorded in our data. A survey of representatives of
employers and unions in 200 firms that had to reduce production during the last two years
indicates that local agreements were made in 50% of cases of downsizing for white-collar
workers but that these agreements were rare occurrences for blue-collar workers
(Confederation of Swedish Enterprise, 2012; Larsson et al., 2013). Thus, strict adherence to
the last-in-first-out rules is more prevalent when dismissing blue-collar workers, and some of
their unions have also adopted a policy of approving local agreements only in exceptional
cases.
As mentioned above, Finnish labor law does not contain any reference to the layoff order.
However, some union contracts, for example the contract for the engineering industry, contain
a supplement with regulations on how to choose which workers to lay off when the firm
downsizes. By contrast, the collective agreements in, for example, retail trade or hotels and
restaurants contain no clauses on the layoff order. Even in engineering, the employer has a
right to retain key workers who are ‘crucial for the production process’. Other valid selection
criteria include competency in, for example, operating specific machines. Only after
mentioning these criteria does the contract list tenure in the firm and the number of dependent
children as possible additional factors that should affect the choice of which workers to fire.
There are some cases in the Labor Court in which the employer has been found guilty of
breaking the contract, but in these cases, the employer fired a worker with a tenure of over 20
years while retaining a less competent worker with a much shorter tenure. Even in these
cases, the fines have been rather small, between €2000 and 4000.
12. 9
Seniority rules are part of a wider concept in EPL, namely right-to-priority (RTP) rules. RTP
defines criteria according to which employees should be prioritized in the event of dismissals
for economic reasons. A number of countries incorporate RTP rules in their legislation (see,
e.g., Bergström, 2011, for an extensive discussion and World Bank, 2015), but very few
explicitly refer to seniority as the exclusive or main criterion. In addition to Sweden, such
countries include India and the Netherlands, and the details specifying how seniority should
be taken into account differ somewhat among them. RTP rules in other countries, e.g.,
Austria, China, France, Germany and Spain, do not emphasize seniority at all or only to a
limited extent. Other factors, such as the number of dependents, disability, age or status as a
union representative, should be given all or equal weight relative to seniority. However,
another group of countries, including Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Norway, the United
Kingdom and the United States, implement no RTP rules whatsoever in their EPL. Instead,
legislation is limited to defining what constitutes ‘unfair’ grounds for dismissal (which is also
included in legislation in countries with RTP rules). Thus, discrimination on the basis of
ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, etc., is prohibited, and certain personal circumstances,
such as pregnancy, parental leave and military service, should not be cause for dismissal.
3.2. Stylized features of the Swedish and Finnish economies
Both Sweden and Finland are small open economies and members of the European Union.
Finland is the smaller of the two with a population of 5.1 million, while Sweden has 9.6
million inhabitants. The countries are located on either side of the Gulf of Bothnia, and they
were part of the same nation for centuries until the Swedish-Russian war of 1809. The
economic and cultural ties between these two Nordic countries are tight. Approximately 5%
of Finns speak Swedish as their native tongue, and approximately 5% of Swedes are first- or
second-generation immigrants from Finland.
The macroeconomic cycles were nearly identical in Sweden and Finland over the period
1999-2011. This pattern is plainly shown in the indicators of change in GDP, export growth
and the fluctuations of aggregate domestic demand (Figure 1). Similar macroeconomic
conditions are naturally reflected in the key labor market indicators such as employment
growth.
[Figure 1]
13. 10
Both Sweden and Finland are export-oriented small economies and heavily dependent on the
demand conditions in their primary export markets in Europe, the US and Asia. Business
cycle fluctuations in both countries are therefore usually due to changes in export demand.
The fact that Sweden retains its own currency while Finland is part of the Economic and
Monetary Union has not changed this situation. In fact, the exchange rate between the
Swedish krona and euro was quite stable during the observation period, except for a brief
period with a temporarily weaker Swedish krona in 2009. In particular, the evolution of the
Swedish and Finnish economies in the aftermath of the global financial crisis that began in
2008 was similar. The global financial crisis represented a major export shock that hit both
countries, causing a drastic decline in export volume and GDP. After 2009, both countries
began to recover from the shock.
The structure of the economies is also strikingly similar on relevant dimensions. For example,
the average education level of the workforce is comparable. The share of the population that
has completed tertiary education among 25-34 year-olds is close to 40% in both countries
(OECD, 2013). The female labor force participation rate is high in both countries. Sweden has
a slightly larger public sector and, as a result of this, a higher tax rate. According to the
CESifo DICE database,2
worker mobility is also rather similar between the two countries.
Most workers are hired on permanent contracts. Average tenure is slightly over 10 years in
both Sweden and Finland. The share of workers with tenures of 10 years or more is 22.2% in
Finland and 21.9% in Sweden. The fraction of workers with temporary contracts was 16-17%
of all employed persons and 14% for prime-age men in both countries during the early 2000s.
The countries’ market institutions and wage formation also share many similar features. Wage
contracts are negotiated between industry unions and employer organizations with some co-
ordination across industries. Neither Sweden nor Finland has statutory minimum wage laws.
Instead, minimum wages are determined separately in each industry in the contracts between
the unions and the employer organizations. The union contracts specify a set of task-specific
minimum wages that may vary by region, job-complexity level and worker experience. The
union density is approximately 70% in both countries. The union contracts are extended to all
workers in each firm and are therefore also binding for non-union workers with few
2
http://www.cesifo-group.de/ifoHome/facts/DICE.html
14. 11
exceptions. The coverage of collective labor agreements is consequently close to 90% in both
countries.
Employees are generally well insured against income losses. Sweden and Finland both have
earnings-related unemployment insurance. The replacement rate is dependent on pre-
unemployment earnings and is relatively similar in these countries. For example, the net
replacement rate for those who have been unemployed for six months was 64% of pre-
employment earnings in Finland and 69% in Sweden in 2009. Earnings-related
unemployment insurance is based on voluntary membership in mostly union-run
unemployment insurance funds. This system, whereby the unions administer government-
subsidized unemployment insurance funds, is known as the Ghent system. Both countries also
have earnings-related pensions and guaranteed minimum pensions. The expected effective
retirement age for 50-year-olds is a few years higher in Sweden than in Finland. Early
retirement schemes in Finland are mostly relevant for those who are aged 60 or over
(Tuominen, 2013).
4. Data
Our primary data originate from the payroll records of the Swedish and Finnish central
employers’ organizations. Employers’ organizational structures in Sweden and Finland are
quite similar, with a large central federation in both countries that is composed of several
industry-wide member organizations.3
The central federation in each country maintains the
payroll records, but access to the data is more cumbersome in Sweden because not only the
central federation but also each member organization has to approve access to data on their
member firms. We gained access to data from three large industries: engineering, retail trade,
and hotels and restaurants. For Finland, our data contain the entire private sector. Originally,
the Finnish data for the hourly paid blue-collar and monthly paid white-collar workers were
collected separately, but we have included both in the data linked to Swedish firms.
3
Finland formerly had two different employer federations that merged in 2005. Currently, most large employers
belong to the Confederation of Finnish Industries (EK) that is also the organization that kindly provided us with
data on both its members and on the members of the previous employer organizations.
15. 12
The payroll record data cover all workers in all firms that are members of the employers’
organizations in the respective countries. Nearly all large firms are members of the
employers’ organizations, but not all small firms are included. On the one hand, this implies
that the data provided by the employers’ organizations are not representative of the overall
economy. On the other hand, nearly all large multinational firms are members of the
employers’ organizations and hence are included in the payroll data.
Information in the payroll data comes directly from the firms’ pay systems. These data were
originally gathered to monitor wage growth after a union contract has been agreed upon, and
consequently, they are used as a basis for ongoing negotiations over collective labor
agreements. The statistical authorities also use these data to construct official measures of
earnings growth. Thus, these data are highly accurate and contain minimal measurement error
that is common in wage surveys. These data have been frequently used in research both in
Sweden and in Finland but thus far always in anonymized form whereby person and firm
identifiers are removed such that individual firms and workers cannot be identified from data.
For our specific linking purposes, it was necessary to obtain the true firm IDs and firm names
for which we obtained permission from the respective employer organizations in both
countries.
The payroll data contain records on each worker employed by the member firms at the end of
each year, and they can be used to calculate various measures of employment in firms. They
also contain a large amount of useful information on the individual workers, including age,
gender, wage, working hours, occupation, pay period, collective agreement and, in Finland,
tenure in the firm.
Payroll data in both Sweden and Finland contain unique identifiers for both firms and workers
that are consistent over time. For this study, we use data covering the period 2000-2011. A
wide time range is particularly important for the analyses of the effects of seniority rules on
worker mobility, as the data cover a full business cycle from peak to trough in both countries.
For the identification of the effects, it is also useful that the data period captures the recent
global financial crisis that caused a major exogenous demand shock for the firms in our data
and induced them to adjust their workforce.
16. 13
Using the national payroll data, we create a multi-country linked employer-employee panel.
Swedish and Finnish payroll records are linked using firm names that are provided by the
employers’ organizations from their membership records. After the link between the national
payroll record data is established, the actual names of the firms are replaced with unique
anonymous identifiers that are common for those firms that operate units both in Sweden and
Finland.
Specifically, we linked Swedish and Finnish payroll data using approximate string matching,
based on firm-name variations. To accomplish this, we first removed any country-specific
abbreviations such as Finnish and Swedish language versions of limited companies and the
name extensions referring to a specific country (Sweden, Swedish, etc.). We then used
probabilistic matching to match not only firms that operate under identical names but also
firms that use slightly different names (often abbreviations) in the two countries. Finally, we
manually checked all records and in uncertain cases checked the firms’ websites to ensure that
we were indeed capturing correct matches. We also manually verified that we included in the
data all parts of the firm in cases in which the firm reports its wages separately in different
units (e.g., R&D, sales, maintenance) or in different plants. We then created a new firm ID
that is shared by all units of the same firm in both countries and use this new firm ID as a
definition of the firm in our empirical analyses.
Table 1 reports the number of observations for both firms and employees in the linked data
for each year over the period 2000-2011. In total, we have 150 multinational firms in the
linked data that operate units in both Sweden and Finland. The panel is unbalanced, not all
firms are observed in all years. This is primarily due to mergers or firm entry during the
observation period. The total number of firms is slightly larger in the Finnish data. Because
most of the multinational firms are large as measured by number of employees, the total
number of employee observations in the linked firms exceeds two million over the period
2000-2011. This gives us considerable statistical power in the individual-level models.
[Table 1]
The number of workers in the Swedish units is almost twice as large as that in the Finnish
units (Table 1). This pattern reflects both the absolute size difference of the countries and the
fact that many of the firms in the linked data are large Swedish-based multinational firms that
17. 14
subsequently entered the Finnish market. Additionally, many multinational firms from other
countries (e.g., in the retail sector) expanded to Sweden before entering Finland because of
the former’s larger market size. The total number of employees in the linked Swedish firms
has risen notably over the period. In contrast, in the Finnish data, there is no notable trend in
the total number of employees in the linked firms.
Table 2 documents that the key employee characteristics typically do not differ substantially
across the linked Finnish and Swedish units. For example, the average age of employees is
comparable in the Swedish and Finnish units. However, the share of white-collar workers is
larger in the Swedish units, reflecting the headquarter status of Swedish multinational firms in
the linked data.
[Table 2]
The final linked data set that is used in the analyses covers three major industries because of
more restrictive data access policy on the Swedish side. Employment growth in the linked
Swedish and Finnish units is comparable (Appendix Figure A1). The distribution of
employment growth is not notably different between these countries.
The information content of the variables that are used in the analyses is standardized in our
linked data. Thus, the variables are comparable in content, both across firms and industries
within countries but also across countries. We adjusted wages to make them comparable, both
in terms of reporting period and various wage components (overtime pay, Sunday bonuses,
performance bonuses, etc.). We also converted all monthly wages (typically received by
white-collar workers) to hourly wages using the explicit formulas from collective labor
agreements.
Worker mobility measures are calculated based on changes in common firm codes in the
linked data. A worker who disappears from the data while the firm is still present in the
following year is classified as an exit, and a worker who appears in the data for the first time
while the firm existed in the previous year is classified as a new entrant. If a worker is
observed in the data in two consecutive years under different firm codes, we classify her as an
exit from the first firm and an entrant in the second. As our data do not contain the entire
population (the Finnish data lack the public sector and small firms; the Swedish data contain
18. 15
only engineering, retail trade and hotels and restaurants), we cannot reliably distinguish
between job-to-job movements and entry from unemployment or exit into unemployment.
Thus, we do not distinguish movements of workers between firms and out of the data. As is
typical, we also cannot distinguish between layoffs and voluntary quits.
Mobility measures are corrected for artificial firm code changes that are caused by, e.g.,
mergers and acquisitions or ownership or name changes leading to new firm ID codes. To
detect artificial code changes, we implemented identical procedures for both the Swedish and
Finnish data. Our main correction procedure involves reclassifying cases in which the
common firm code changes in the same way for more than 70% of the workers initially
employed in the same firm.
In the empirical specifications, we use three measures for tenure: age, imputed tenure, and
relative tenure within the firm (i.e., seniority). Age contains a minimal amount of
measurement error because it is calculated based on personal ID codes that are available in the
payroll data. For tenure and seniority, we focus on the firm level that is relevant for last-in-
first-out rules. Creating comparable measures of tenure was challenging. The Finnish data
contain a date of entry into the current firm that is reliable enough for calculating tenure, but
such a measure does not exist in the Swedish data.
Thus, we imputed tenure in both countries using the panel dimension of the data. We are able
to follow the workers consistently in both countries back to 1995, and impute tenure based on
the number of consecutive observations in the same firm. We take into account one or two
year gaps in the data but having consecutive observations of the same person in the same
firm. The cumulative number of gaps is added to imputed tenure. The measure of imputed
tenure is also corrected for artificial firm code changes. As comparable data only extends to
1995, our tenure measures are severely censored, particularly in the earlier years of the
observation period. However, for the seniority rules, the key measure is relative tenure
compared to the other workers in the same firm in a given year. This can be reasonably well
calculated from the data, although it is naturally impossible to distinguish between two long
tenure workers. A comparison between imputed tenure and actual tenure reported in the
Finnish data indicates that the imputation procedure works reasonably well. The Spearman’s
rank correlation coefficient for imputed and observed tenure within Finnish firms is 0.8. The
correlation between imputed tenure and observed tenure is particularly strong for observed
19. 16
tenure up to 10 years (Appendix Figure A2). Because the measurement of seniority involves
comparison to other workers in the same firm, cross-country differences in measurement are
arguably less important.
5. Results
5.1. Worker exits by age
Figures 2-3 illustrate the basic patterns of the worker exit and entry rates for the linked
Swedish and Finnish firms. We focus on the 1-year mobility measures using the common firm
codes. Worker exit covers both worker movements from the firm to other firms included in
the data and transitions out of the linked data. Similarly, worker entry also covers both entries
from other firms in the data and entries to the linked data.
[Figures 2-3]
Figures 2-3 document the aggregate labor market flows for all workers and three specific age
groups (i.e., youngest, prime-age and oldest workers) that are the most interesting for our
purposes. Figure 2 reveals that the average worker exit rate for all workers was at
approximately the same level in the linked Swedish and Finnish units over the period 2000-
2010. The pattern is particularly notable at the end of the observation period. Worker exit
rates disaggregated by worker age indicate that worker exits were the highest for the youngest
workers in both countries. The level of mobility among the youngest workers is consistent
with the stylized empirical facts of worker turnover. There are also some other distinct
differences in the worker exit measures across age groups in Sweden and Finland. However,
the use of a fully fledged regression framework is needed to pinpoint the exact differences
between countries in this respect.
For comparison, Figure 3 shows the worker entry rates for the same age groups. The level of
worker entry in the Swedish and Finnish units is comparable. Worker entry was the highest
for workers aged less than 29 both in the Swedish and Finnish units of the same multinational
firms. There was also a significant reduction in worker entry for the youngest workers in 2008
at the onset of the global financial crisis. Thus, a major part of the adjustment at the hiring
20. 17
margin occurs for the youngest workers. In contrast, for prime-age workers, we observe only
a modest decline in worker entry during the crisis.
Table 3 reports the first set of estimates for the determinants of worker exit at the individual
level for the linked firms. These models include a full set of indicators for three age groups
(with prime-age workers as the reference group), a full set of dummy variables for the years
and a country indicator for Sweden. The most interesting explanatory variables in these
models are the interactions between the country indicator for Sweden and three age groups.
We use Finland as the base category, and hence the estimated effects can be directly
interpreted as the effects of seniority rules in the Swedish units. From Column 2 onward, the
models also account for the common firm effects (i.e., firm IDs that are same for all units of
the multinational firm in both countries), as indicated in the table.
[Table 3]
The specification in Column 1 of Table 3 reveals that the overall worker exit rate was
approximately 4 percentage points higher in the Swedish units over the estimation period
2000-2010. The indicators for the age groups show that worker exit was highest for workers
aged less than 30 compared to the reference age group consisting of prime-aged workers aged
30-49.
The most interesting observation that emerges from Table 3 is that the difference between the
exit rate in the oldest age group and the prime age group was 2.5 percentage points larger in
Sweden. This interaction effect is both statistically and economically significant. The finding
is consistent with the effects of the seniority rules in Sweden that significantly reduce
dismissals among the oldest workers from the Swedish units of the same multinational firms.
The model in Column 2 of Table 3 adds the common firm effects to the specification using
the unique feature of our linked data. Provided that firms are in the same industries in both
countries, the set of firm indicators also captures prevailing industry differences. The firm
effects are jointly significant at the 1% level in all models that are reported in Table 3.
However, adding the firm effects have a relatively minor effect on the point estimates of
interest, and their addition does not qualitatively alter the results in Column 1. The difference
in the exit rates between the oldest age group and the prime age group is 2.8 percentage points
21. 18
larger in Sweden. The specification in Column 3 adds a full set of year and firm interactions
to the estimated model. The point estimate of interest remains essentially unchanged in this
specification.4
A potential concern for the interpretation of the estimates as the effects of the seniority rules
enforced in Sweden is that the estimates for the oldest workers in Table 3 may reflect the
differences in early retirement schemes between the two countries. For this reason, in Column
4, we have excluded those who are older than 60 from the estimation sample. The earlier
result for the oldest age group is confirmed in this specification. In fact, the point estimate of
interest is even larger in this model. Thus, we conclude from the results in Table 3 that the
exit rate of the oldest employees compared to the prime age group is considerably lower in
Sweden.5
5.2. Worker exits by tenure and seniority
Table 4 reports the results when we use either imputed tenure or both imputed tenure and
seniority (i.e., rank within firm) as explanatory variables. The structure of the models is
similar to the results in Table 3. Because of their statistical significance, all estimated models
now include the firm effects. We find that worker exit is less likely for those who have a long
(imputed) tenure (Column 1). The interaction term between imputed tenure and the country
indicator for Sweden shows that the effect of tenure is to reduce exits slightly more in the
Swedish units (Column 1).
[Table 4]
Column 2 adds seniority to the model. Our measure of seniority is the decile to which the
worker belongs when ranked according to tenure within the firm. The estimate indicates that
4
We have also estimated a set of models that add some key individual-level controls such as gender to the vector
of explanatory variables. Their addition has only a marginal effect on the point estimates of interest.
5
Appendix Table A1 reports estimates for the determinants of worker entry at the firm level for the linked firms.
We use the firm level in this analysis because entry cannot be consistently defined at the individual level.
Observation is country–age group–firm–year cell. These estimates are weighted by firm size. The most
interesting finding that emerges from these regressions is that there is no statistically significant difference in
worker entry between the units that are located in Sweden vs. Finland in terms of age groups. The result remains
intact when we add common firm effects (Column 2) and use the narrower estimation window that is dominated
by the global financial crisis (Column 3).
22. 19
worker exit is substantially less likely for workers with higher seniority within a firm
(Column 2). We find that those with higher seniority have a significantly lower exit
probability from the Swedish units relative to the Finnish units.
In Column 3 of Table 4, we also add the age groups from Table 3 to the specification and
their interactions with a country indicator for Sweden. Importantly, the earlier conclusion for
the workers with higher seniority in the Swedish units of the same multinational firms
remains unchanged in this specification.
Following the structure of Table 3, in Column 4 of Table 4, we estimate the specification by
excluding those workers who are older than 60. The pattern remains intact. Our findings for
seniority are consistent with the effects of last-in-first-out rules on the worker exit rates in
Sweden. These results also support our earlier conclusion that used employee’s age as a crude
measure of tenure.
5.3. Worker exits by tenure and seniority in expanding vs. shrinking firms
To identify the effects of seniority rules, we next proceed to examine worker exits separately
in expanding or stable and in shrinking firms. This setting is interesting because seniority
rules should have more ‘bite’ in firms that need to reduce workers. We therefore split the data
to firms where employment increases by more than 10% compared to the previous year,
where employment declines by more than 10%, and to firms where employment stays within
10% of the previous year. As there were no notable differences between the stable and the
expanding firms we have combined these groups and compare the patterns in these firms to
the shrinking firms.
In Figures 4 and 5 we report the effects of tenure and seniority on the exit rates. The estimates
plotted in the figure are based on a linear regression model where the exit rates are explained
by the firm effects and year, age, tenure and seniority – all interacted with the country effect.
Age effects are controlled by using indicators for ten-year age intervals allowing nonlinear
patterns. The effect of tenure and seniority on worker exit rates are also unlikely to be linear.
For this reason, we use indicators for each possible level of tenure and model the effect of
seniority by adding indicators for each decile of within-firm seniority. To facilitate
interpretation of the seniority profiles, the estimates are normalized to median seniority in the
23. 20
figures. The upper panels of Figures 4-5 show the estimated profiles, and the lower panels
document the differences in the profiles between the Swedish and Finnish units. To assess the
statistical significance of the differences, we provide conservative confidence intervals for the
estimates by clustering at the common firm identifier level.
[Figures 4-5]
We find that the worker exit rates are generally much lower for those workers with longer
tenure and higher seniority in both Sweden and Finland (Figures 4-5). This pattern that
applies to expanding and shrinking firms is consistent with the estimation results in Table 4.
Regarding the cross-country differences in the effects of tenure and seniority we find some
indications that seniority rules affect exit rates in the shrinking firms. Increasing tenure has a
monotonously decreasing effect on the exit rates in Sweden while in Finland the pattern is
somewhat U-shaped so that the workers with highest tenure are relatively more likely to exit
in Finland. Also the effect of seniority is slightly different. An increase in seniority decreases
the exit rates more in the Swedish units than in the Finnish units of the same firms. However,
with clustered standard errors these differences are not statistically significant.
5.4. Effects on seniority–wage profile
To examine the effects of seniority rules on wage formation, we estimate a set of regression-
adjusted seniority-wage profiles. We use the logarithm of the standardized measure of total
(hourly) wages that are trimmed at the 1st
and 99th
percentiles. We estimate the profiles for the
full-time blue- and white-collar workers that have a weekly working time of 30-45 hours.
Seniority is calculated separately for blue-collar and white-collar workers. To allow for the
nonlinear effects of seniority on wages, we use indicators for each decile of seniority as in
Figures 4-5.
The regression-adjusted seniority-wage profiles are based on regression models that account
for the worker-firm (i.e., spell-specific) fixed effects, country and year.6
Tenure and age are
controlled for non-parametrically and their effects are allowed to vary across county. Note
6
Buhai et al. (2014) also estimate models that account for spell-specific fixed effects.
24. 21
that the effect of seniority is identified even after controlling for the effects of tenure and
including spell-specific fixed effects because seniority is affected also by the tenure
distribution among other workers in the firm (see Buhai et al., 2014). Standard errors are
clustered at the firm level.
We find higher returns to seniority for above-median-seniority workers in Sweden (Figure 6).
This pattern is consistent with seniority rules increasing the relative individual-level
bargaining power of older workers in the Swedish units of multinational firms. The pattern
remains intact if we estimate the seniority-wage profiles only for those who are younger than
55.
[Figure 6]
Importantly, the regression-adjusted seniority-wage profiles differ significantly for blue- and
white-collar workers (Figure 7).7
Swedish blue-collar workers earn a substantial and robust
seniority wage premium while seniority has no effect on wages in Finland beyond the lowest
decile. For the white-collar workers the seniority wage profiles are more similar the only
notable difference occurring at the lower tail of the seniority distribution. Available evidence
suggests that this is probably due to higher minimum wages in Sweden. For example, in
construction, retail and the hotels and restaurant sector, the union-bargained minimum wages
are approximately 10 percentage points higher, relative to the average manufacturing wage for
production workers, in Sweden than in Finland (Skedinger, 2010b).8
[Figure 7]
6. Conclusions
The effects of institutions are challenging to analyze with standard cross-country data because
countries are very difficult to make fully comparable. On the other hand, single-country
studies tend to suffer from relatively minor variation in these institutions and from external
7
There is a larger fraction of white-collar workers in Sweden compared to Finland due to the location of
headquarters of Swedish multinational firms.
8
For 20-year-old unskilled workers with no previous experience, the minimum wage bite in Sweden and
Finland, thus calculated, amounted to 50% and 40%, respectively, in construction, 56% and 44%, respectively,
in retail, and 55% and 44%, respectively in hotels and restaurants, in 2006.
25. 22
effects, as it is seldom possible to exclude the possibility that reforms targeted to specific
groups or firms also affect others indirectly.
We shed fresh light on the workings of labor market institutions by creating a novel type of
international data. It is the first-ever effort to create a multi-country linked employer-
employee data set with firms matched across countries. The data contain information on
workers and firms in matched firms operating in two countries, Finland and Sweden.
Therefore, it is possible to identify workers in the respective countries who share a common
employer. While our research focused on the specific effects of seniority rules, the new type
of multi-country linked employer-employee data that we constructed also holds promise for
studies examining other key labor market institutions and their impacts.
Seniority rules, which are firmly specified by law in Sweden but not in Finland, stipulate that
employees be laid off in inverse order of seniority when firms dismiss workers for economic
reasons. Our results show that seniority rules have effects on worker mobility and wages.
Seniority rules protect the oldest workers against dismissals. The exit rates of older, more
senior workers are significantly smaller in a country with tighter seniority rules. The effect of
seniority rules on worker exit is more pronounced in shrinking firms. We also document that
seniority rules cause steeper seniority-wage profiles, which is consistent with increased
bargaining power for those who have stayed with the same firm for longer.
26. 23
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Figure 1. Macroeconomic indicators in Finland and Sweden.
-10-50510
2000 20051999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Finland Sweden
GDP at market prices, %-change
-20-1001020
2000 2005 20101999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011
Year
Finland Sweden
Exports of goods and services, %-change
-50510
2000 2005 20101999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011
Year
Finland Sweden
Aggregate demand, %-change
-4-2024
2000 2005 20101999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011
Year
Finland Sweden
Employment growth -- annual averages
Source: Eurostat.
31. 28
Table 2. Mean employee characteristics in the linked Finnish and Swedish firms.
Sweden Finland
Average age 39.4 40.1
Share of males 0.63 0.65
Share of white-collar workers 0.52 0.40
Imputed tenure 4.3 5.5
Average wage (€) 19.8 18.4
Usual weekly hours 36.2 37.2
Worker exit rate 0.21 0.17
Worker entry rate 0.21 0.16
Notes: Average wage is deflated to the year 2000 level using the consumer price index and converted into euros
using the average exchange rate for each year. White-collar / blue-collar work is defined using occupational
codes.
32. 29
Figure 2. Worker exit rates by age group.
0.1.2.3.40.1.2.3.4
2000 2005 2010 2000 2005 2010
Age 18-29 Age 30-49
Age 50-64 All
Sweden Finland
Exitrate
Year
Notes: Exit rates are calculated based on firm ID changes using common firm definitions in both countries. See
the text for a detailed description.
33. 30
Figure 3. Worker entry rates by age group.
0.1.2.3.40.1.2.3.4
2000 2005 2010 2000 2005 2010
Age 18-29 Age 30-49
Age 50-64 All
Sweden Finland
Entryrate
Year
Notes: Entry rates are calculated based on firm ID changes using common firm definitions in both countries. See
the text for a detailed description.
34. 31
Table 3. Determinants of worker exits at the individual level.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Country indicator (Sweden) 0.039***
(0.001)
0.053***
(0.001)
0.051***
(0.001)
0.030***
(0.001)
Age group (18-29) 0.171***
(0.001)
0.163***
(0.001)
0.163***
(0.001)
0.162***
(0.001)
Age group (50-64) 0.011***
(0.001)
0.014***
(0.001)
0.013***
(0.001)
-0.008***
(0.001)
Sweden × age group (18-29) 0.020***
(0.002)
-0.010***
(0.002)
-0.014***
(-0.002)
-0.006***
(0.002)
Sweden × age group (50-64) -0.025***
(0.001)
-0.028***
(0.001)
-0.026***
(0.001)
-0.031***
(0.001)
Year effects X X X X
Firm effects X X X
Firm by year effects X X
Excluding those who are 60+ X
N 1 918 300 1 918 300 1 918 300 1 721 472
Notes: Estimation period 2000–2010. Reference age group is 30–49. Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors
are reported in parentheses: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, and * p<0.1.
35. 32
Table 4. Determinants of worker exits at the individual level.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Tenure (years) -0.016***
(0.0001)
-0.004***
(0.0002)
-0.002***
(0.0002)
-0.003***
(0.0003)
Tenure (years) × Sweden -0.002***
(0.0001)
0.0005***
(0.0003)
0.001***
(0.0003)
0.002***
(0.0003)
Seniority -0.182***
(0.003)
-0.142***
(0.003)
-0.148***
(0.004)
Seniority × Sweden -0.009**
(0.004)
-0.017***
(0.004)
-0.020***
(0.004)
Sweden × age group (18-29) 0.004**
(0.002)
0.006***
(0.002)
Sweden × age group (50-64) -0.029***
(0.002)
-0.029***
(0.002)
Common firm effects X X X X
Age group effects X X
Country indicator (Sweden) × year
effects
X X X X
Excluding those who are 60+ X
N 1 918 300 1 918 300 1 918 300 1 837 676
Notes: Seniority is measured as the decile the worker belongs to when ranked according to tenure within the
firm. Estimation period 2000–2010. Reference age group is 30–49 in Columns 3–4. Heteroskedasticity-robust
standard errors are reported in parentheses: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, and * p<0.1.
36. 33
Figure 4. Effect of tenure and seniority on exit rates
-.1-.050
0 5 10 15
Tenure (years)
Finland Sweden
Effect of tenure
-.020.02
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
Finland Sweden
Effect of seniority
-.2-.10.1.2
0 5 10 15
Tenure (years)
95% CI
Difference in profiles
-.2-.10.1.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
95% CI
Difference in profiles
Stable and expanding firms
Notes: Stable and expanding firms are defined based on employment growth, as described in the text. The 95%
confidence intervals are indicated.
37. 34
Figure 5. Effect of tenure and seniority on exit rates, shrinking firms.
-.4-.20
0 5 10 15
Tenure (years)
Finland Sweden
Effect of tenure
-.10.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
Finland Sweden
Effect of seniority
-.4-.20.2.4
0 5 10 15
Tenure (years)
95% CI
Difference in profiles
-.4-.20.2.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
95% CI
Difference in profiles
Shrinking firms
Notes: Shrinking firms are defined based on employment growth, as described in the text. The 95% confidence
intervals are indicated.
39. 36
Figure 7. Regression-adjusted seniority-wage profiles for white- and blue-collar workers.
-.03-.02-.010.01.02
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
Finland Sweden
Seniority-wage profile, White collar
-.020.02.04
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
Finland Sweden
Seniority-wage profile, Blue collar
-.020.02.04.06
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
95% CI
Difference in profiles
-.050.05.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seniority decile
95% CI
Difference in profiles
Notes: The 95% confidence intervals are indicated.
40. 37
Appendix Figure A1. Firm growth in the linked data.
0.05.1.15.2
0 .5 1 1.5 2 0 .5 1 1.5 2
Sweden Finland
Fraction
Firm growth (future)
Notes: Definition of firm growth: number of workers in firm in year t+1 / number of workers in year t.
41. 38
Appendix Figure A2. The correlation between imputed tenure and observed tenure in the
Finnish data.
051015
Imputedtenure(years)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Observed tenure (years)
Notes: Upper and lower quartile and minimum, maximum and median values are marked.
42. 39
Appendix Table A1. Determinants of worker entry at the firm level.
(1) (2) (3)
Country indicator (Sweden) 0.046***
(0.009)
0.046***
(0.009)
0.034***
(0.007)
Age group (18-29) 0.239***
(0.008)
0.225***
(0.008)
0.228***
(0.010)
Age group (50-64) -0.057***
(0.007)
-0.051***
(0.006)
-0.054***
(0.007)
Sweden × age group (18-29) -0.005
(0.013)
-0.016
(0.011)
-0.001
(0.013)
Sweden × age group (50-64) -0.005
(0.013)
-0.009
(0.012)
-0.013
(0.010)
Common firm effects X X
Common year effects X X X
Estimation period 2000-2011 2000-2011 2005-2011
N 5 581 5 581 3 800
Notes: Reference age group is 30–49. All regressions are weighted by firm size. Heteroskedasticity-robust
standard errors are reported in parentheses: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, and * p<0.1.