This document provides an introduction to semantics, which is defined as the study of meaning, particularly in human language. It discusses some key concepts in semantics, including the difference between utterances and sentences. Utterances are specific instances of language used in context, while sentences are abstract linguistic forms. It also introduces the idea of propositions, which are the meaningful aspects of declarative sentences that can be either true or false. The document uses examples and practice questions to illustrate these fundamental semantic concepts.
This document discusses different types of sense relations between linguistic expressions, including synonymy, hyponymy, paraphrase, and entailment.
1) Synonymy is defined as the relationship between two predicates that have the same sense. Hyponymy is a sense relation where the meaning of one predicate is included within the meaning of another more general predicate.
2) Paraphrase is the relationship between two sentences that express the same proposition. Entailment is where the truth of one proposition necessarily follows from the truth of another.
3) The relationships are interdependent. Synonymy is a special case of symmetrical hyponymy. Paraphrase is symmetrical entailment. The basic
This document discusses participant roles in language. It defines participant roles as the semantic relationships between a verb's arguments and the situation described by the verb. The main participant roles discussed are agent, affected, instrument, beneficiary, location, and experiencer. Examples are provided to illustrate each role. The relationships between participant roles and grammatical positions like subject, object, and complement are also examined. Finally, the concept of a verb's role frame is introduced as a way to represent the typical participant roles associated with that verb.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
This document discusses deixis and definiteness in language. It defines deictic words as words that take on meaning based on the context of the utterance, such as pronouns. Definiteness refers to whether a noun phrase assumes the listener can identify its referent based on the context. The use of definite and indefinite articles and expressions helps establish and refer to entities in the conversation context. Deixis allows language to be portable across situations by anchoring word meanings to utterance context.
This document discusses different types of sense relations, including oppositeness, antonymy, contradictoriness, and ambiguity. It defines four basic types of antonymy: binary antonyms, converses, multiple incompatibles (systems), and gradable antonymy. It also distinguishes between homonymy and polysemy as two types of ambiguous words. Finally, it discusses lexical ambiguity from ambiguous words and structural (or grammatical) ambiguity in sentences without ambiguous words.
This document discusses different types of sense relations, including antonymy and contradictoriness. It defines four types of antonymy:
1) Binary antonymy, where predicates come in pairs that exhaust all relevant possibilities.
2) Converses, where predicates describe relationships in opposite orders.
3) Multiple incompatibles, where terms in a system are mutually incompatible.
4) Gradable antonymy, where predicates are at opposite ends of a continuous scale.
It also discusses contradictoriness between sentences. The document examines ambiguity, distinguishing between homonymy, polysemy, and vague words. It describes lexical and structural ambiguity in sentences.
The document discusses the triangle of reference and the relationship between sense and reference in language. [1] It explains that the triangle of reference describes how words suggest ideas in the mind that relate to real-world objects. [2] It then discusses the difference between sense, which deals with relationships within language, and reference, which deals with relationships between language and the world. [3] It provides examples of how expressions can have variable or constant reference and how the same sense can belong to expressions in different languages.
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
This document discusses different types of sense relations between linguistic expressions, including synonymy, hyponymy, paraphrase, and entailment.
1) Synonymy is defined as the relationship between two predicates that have the same sense. Hyponymy is a sense relation where the meaning of one predicate is included within the meaning of another more general predicate.
2) Paraphrase is the relationship between two sentences that express the same proposition. Entailment is where the truth of one proposition necessarily follows from the truth of another.
3) The relationships are interdependent. Synonymy is a special case of symmetrical hyponymy. Paraphrase is symmetrical entailment. The basic
This document discusses participant roles in language. It defines participant roles as the semantic relationships between a verb's arguments and the situation described by the verb. The main participant roles discussed are agent, affected, instrument, beneficiary, location, and experiencer. Examples are provided to illustrate each role. The relationships between participant roles and grammatical positions like subject, object, and complement are also examined. Finally, the concept of a verb's role frame is introduced as a way to represent the typical participant roles associated with that verb.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
This document discusses deixis and definiteness in language. It defines deictic words as words that take on meaning based on the context of the utterance, such as pronouns. Definiteness refers to whether a noun phrase assumes the listener can identify its referent based on the context. The use of definite and indefinite articles and expressions helps establish and refer to entities in the conversation context. Deixis allows language to be portable across situations by anchoring word meanings to utterance context.
This document discusses different types of sense relations, including oppositeness, antonymy, contradictoriness, and ambiguity. It defines four basic types of antonymy: binary antonyms, converses, multiple incompatibles (systems), and gradable antonymy. It also distinguishes between homonymy and polysemy as two types of ambiguous words. Finally, it discusses lexical ambiguity from ambiguous words and structural (or grammatical) ambiguity in sentences without ambiguous words.
This document discusses different types of sense relations, including antonymy and contradictoriness. It defines four types of antonymy:
1) Binary antonymy, where predicates come in pairs that exhaust all relevant possibilities.
2) Converses, where predicates describe relationships in opposite orders.
3) Multiple incompatibles, where terms in a system are mutually incompatible.
4) Gradable antonymy, where predicates are at opposite ends of a continuous scale.
It also discusses contradictoriness between sentences. The document examines ambiguity, distinguishing between homonymy, polysemy, and vague words. It describes lexical and structural ambiguity in sentences.
The document discusses the triangle of reference and the relationship between sense and reference in language. [1] It explains that the triangle of reference describes how words suggest ideas in the mind that relate to real-world objects. [2] It then discusses the difference between sense, which deals with relationships within language, and reference, which deals with relationships between language and the world. [3] It provides examples of how expressions can have variable or constant reference and how the same sense can belong to expressions in different languages.
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
Reference, Sense, and Referring Expression in SemanticsErsa Dewana
This document discusses reference, sense, and referring expressions in semantics. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the world, while sense deals with relationships inside language. There are two types of reference: variable reference, where a word can refer to different things, and constant reference, where a word always refers to the same thing. Sense is the place of an expression in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions. A referring expression is any expression used to refer to something, and can be indefinite or definite depending on the context. Opaque contexts and equative sentences are also discussed in relation to referring expressions.
This document provides an outline of the key topics in deixis, including: person deixis which refers to the speaker, addressee, and others; spatial deixis which indicates locations using terms like here and there; temporal deixis which refers to time using expressions like now and then. It discusses concepts like proximal and distal forms, deictic projection, psychological distance, and how deixis relates to grammar and shifts between direct and indirect speech. Deixis involves linguistic elements that point to aspects of the context of an utterance, including who is speaking, their location, and time.
The document discusses deixis and definiteness in language. It defines deixis as words that take meaning from the context of an utterance, such as personal pronouns and spatial/temporal indicators. Definiteness refers to a speaker assuming a hearer can identify a noun phrase's referent. Common definite noun phrases include proper names and those introduced with a definite determiner. The extension of a predicate is the set of all potential referents, while sense is the linguistic meaning and reference connects language to specific real-world entities.
This document provides an overview of semantics, the study of linguistic meaning. It discusses several subfields of semantics including lexical semantics, which examines word meanings, and sentential semantics, which analyzes the meanings of larger syntactic units. The document also explores topics such as what speakers know about language meaning, ambiguity, compositional semantics, lexical relations between words, and thematic roles. Overall, the document outlines key concepts in semantics and how meaning is constructed in language.
Semantics: Predicate, Predicators and Degree of Predicate Shova Zakia
This document discusses key concepts in semantics including predicators, predicates, and degree of predicates.
[1] A predicator is the single word or part of a word in the remainder of a sentence that carries the most specific meaning. Examples of predicators include "beautiful", "curly", and "meet". [2] A predicate is any word that can function as a predicator. Predicates can have different degrees depending on the number of arguments they take, such as one place, two place, or three place predicates. [3] The degree of a predicate indicates the number of arguments it is normally understood to have in a simple sentence.
The document discusses semantic analysis of simple declarative sentences. It defines key terms like predicator, predicate, and arguments. The predicator is the word that makes the most specific contribution to a sentence's meaning and describes the state of the referring expressions. Predicates are words that can function as predicators. Arguments are the referring expressions involved in the predicate. For example, in "Marcus Brutus killed Julius Caesar", "killed" is the predicator and "Marcus Brutus" and "Julius Caesar" are arguments. The document also discusses predicates of different degrees based on how many arguments they typically involve.
The document introduces the concept of referring expressions and discusses how some expressions can be used to refer to objects or people depending on the context, while others can never be used to refer. It also defines opaque contexts as parts of sentences where substituting co-referential expressions can change the meaning, and equative sentences as those used to assert the identity of two referring expressions.
(1) Deixis refers to the use of words or expressions whose meanings depend on the context of the utterance, such as who is speaking, their location in space and time, gestures, or the topic of discussion. Common deictic expressions include pronouns, demonstratives, temporal adverbs, and articles.
(2) Deixis is important in pragmatics and conversation analysis because it concerns how the structure of language relates to the context in which it is used. Deictic expressions point to elements either in the immediate physical context ("proximal") or not ("distal").
(3) There are different types of deixis, including personal deixis referring to people, temporal
This document discusses key concepts in semantics including referring expressions, predicates, and arguments. It defines referring expressions as any expression that refers to something or someone. Predicates are words or phrases that can function as the main verb of a sentence, such as "hungry" or "asleep". Arguments are the individual entities that fill roles in predicates, expressed through referring expressions. Several examples are provided to illustrate these concepts. Practices questions with answers are included to help distinguish referring expressions, predicates, and arguments in example sentences. Contexts that can affect meaning like opaque contexts and equative sentences are also examined.
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that depend on context for their interpretation. There are three main types of deixis: person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he; spatial deixis refers to spatial relationships like here and there; and temporal deixis refers to temporal relationships like now and then. Deixis is important in linguistics because it shows how language relies on and reflects the context in which it is used. Grammatical structures like direct and indirect speech demonstrate the difference between proximal and distal deixis.
This document discusses semantics and the key concepts of reference, sense, and referring expressions. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the world, while sense deals with relationships inside language. Referring expressions are used to refer to something and can be indefinite or definite noun phrases depending on context. The document provides examples and explanations of these semantic concepts.
This document discusses implicature and entailment. It defines implicature as what is suggested in an utterance, even if not directly expressed or implied. There are two types of implicature: conversational and conventional. Conversational implicature relies on conversational principles while conventional implicature is part of a lexical item's meaning. Entailment is the relationship between sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other due to word meanings. There are also different types and classifications of entailment.
Pragmatics is concerned with 4 main areas: 1) studying a speaker's intended meaning, 2) how context influences meaning, 3) how listeners infer more from what is said than just the literal words, and 4) how the level of closeness between speakers is expressed. It differs from semantics and syntax in that pragmatics considers the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms, allowing human aspects like intentions and assumptions to be analyzed. Studying language through pragmatics allows us to better understand intended meanings but is more difficult to do in an objective, consistent way compared to semantics or syntax.
This document discusses two key aspects of meaning proposed by German semanticist Gottlob Frege: sense and reference. [1] Reference refers to the relationship between a linguistic expression and something in the real world. Sense refers to the semantic relationship an expression has within a language. The document provides examples and properties of reference, such as how one expression can have multiple referents depending on context. It also distinguishes between sense, which is the meaning or thought conveyed by an expression, and reference, which is the object represented.
This document contains study guide notes for two units: Unit 12 on Logic and Unit 19 on Derivation. In Unit 12, key terms are defined such as logic, connectives, and logical notation. Examples of logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, and negation are provided. The purpose of developing a logical notation rather than using ordinary English is discussed. In Unit 19, morphological terms are defined including derivation, inflection, and zero derivation. Examples of derivational affixes and processes in English are given. Productivity in word formation is explained.
Unit 8 Words and Things - Extensions and PrototypesAshwag Al Hamid
This document discusses the relationships between sense, extension, and reference in determining the meaning of linguistic expressions. It defines extension as the set of all individuals a predicate can be applied to, reference as the thing picked out by a referring expression on a particular occasion, and prototype as the most typical member of a predicate's extension. The document explores how these concepts help explain a speaker's ability to group entities and make descriptive statements using language. However, it also notes limitations, such as the fuzziness of many predicates' extensions and cultural differences in prototypes.
The document discusses key concepts related to the relationship between language and the world, including sense, reference, extension, and prototype. Sense involves a set of ideas about a word, extension refers to the complete set of all things a word can apply to, and reference picks out a specific instance of a word's use. Prototype refers to a typical member of a word's extension that best represents the category. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts and their differences. It notes that language connects to the real world through reference, extension, and prototypes.
PREDICATOR, PREDICATE, AND DEGREE OF PREDICATESWardhani Qusuma
This document appears to be an assignment from the English Department at STAIN Salatiga in 2014 on the topic of semantics. It discusses the key concepts of predicator, predicate, and degree of predicate. It provides examples of identifying the predicator and predicates in sample sentences. It also explains that the degree of a predicate refers to the number of arguments it typically takes in a simple sentence.
Reference, Sense, and Referring Expression in SemanticsErsa Dewana
This document discusses reference, sense, and referring expressions in semantics. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the world, while sense deals with relationships inside language. There are two types of reference: variable reference, where a word can refer to different things, and constant reference, where a word always refers to the same thing. Sense is the place of an expression in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions. A referring expression is any expression used to refer to something, and can be indefinite or definite depending on the context. Opaque contexts and equative sentences are also discussed in relation to referring expressions.
This document provides an outline of the key topics in deixis, including: person deixis which refers to the speaker, addressee, and others; spatial deixis which indicates locations using terms like here and there; temporal deixis which refers to time using expressions like now and then. It discusses concepts like proximal and distal forms, deictic projection, psychological distance, and how deixis relates to grammar and shifts between direct and indirect speech. Deixis involves linguistic elements that point to aspects of the context of an utterance, including who is speaking, their location, and time.
The document discusses deixis and definiteness in language. It defines deixis as words that take meaning from the context of an utterance, such as personal pronouns and spatial/temporal indicators. Definiteness refers to a speaker assuming a hearer can identify a noun phrase's referent. Common definite noun phrases include proper names and those introduced with a definite determiner. The extension of a predicate is the set of all potential referents, while sense is the linguistic meaning and reference connects language to specific real-world entities.
This document provides an overview of semantics, the study of linguistic meaning. It discusses several subfields of semantics including lexical semantics, which examines word meanings, and sentential semantics, which analyzes the meanings of larger syntactic units. The document also explores topics such as what speakers know about language meaning, ambiguity, compositional semantics, lexical relations between words, and thematic roles. Overall, the document outlines key concepts in semantics and how meaning is constructed in language.
Semantics: Predicate, Predicators and Degree of Predicate Shova Zakia
This document discusses key concepts in semantics including predicators, predicates, and degree of predicates.
[1] A predicator is the single word or part of a word in the remainder of a sentence that carries the most specific meaning. Examples of predicators include "beautiful", "curly", and "meet". [2] A predicate is any word that can function as a predicator. Predicates can have different degrees depending on the number of arguments they take, such as one place, two place, or three place predicates. [3] The degree of a predicate indicates the number of arguments it is normally understood to have in a simple sentence.
The document discusses semantic analysis of simple declarative sentences. It defines key terms like predicator, predicate, and arguments. The predicator is the word that makes the most specific contribution to a sentence's meaning and describes the state of the referring expressions. Predicates are words that can function as predicators. Arguments are the referring expressions involved in the predicate. For example, in "Marcus Brutus killed Julius Caesar", "killed" is the predicator and "Marcus Brutus" and "Julius Caesar" are arguments. The document also discusses predicates of different degrees based on how many arguments they typically involve.
The document introduces the concept of referring expressions and discusses how some expressions can be used to refer to objects or people depending on the context, while others can never be used to refer. It also defines opaque contexts as parts of sentences where substituting co-referential expressions can change the meaning, and equative sentences as those used to assert the identity of two referring expressions.
(1) Deixis refers to the use of words or expressions whose meanings depend on the context of the utterance, such as who is speaking, their location in space and time, gestures, or the topic of discussion. Common deictic expressions include pronouns, demonstratives, temporal adverbs, and articles.
(2) Deixis is important in pragmatics and conversation analysis because it concerns how the structure of language relates to the context in which it is used. Deictic expressions point to elements either in the immediate physical context ("proximal") or not ("distal").
(3) There are different types of deixis, including personal deixis referring to people, temporal
This document discusses key concepts in semantics including referring expressions, predicates, and arguments. It defines referring expressions as any expression that refers to something or someone. Predicates are words or phrases that can function as the main verb of a sentence, such as "hungry" or "asleep". Arguments are the individual entities that fill roles in predicates, expressed through referring expressions. Several examples are provided to illustrate these concepts. Practices questions with answers are included to help distinguish referring expressions, predicates, and arguments in example sentences. Contexts that can affect meaning like opaque contexts and equative sentences are also examined.
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that depend on context for their interpretation. There are three main types of deixis: person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he; spatial deixis refers to spatial relationships like here and there; and temporal deixis refers to temporal relationships like now and then. Deixis is important in linguistics because it shows how language relies on and reflects the context in which it is used. Grammatical structures like direct and indirect speech demonstrate the difference between proximal and distal deixis.
This document discusses semantics and the key concepts of reference, sense, and referring expressions. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language. Reference deals with the relationship between language and the world, while sense deals with relationships inside language. Referring expressions are used to refer to something and can be indefinite or definite noun phrases depending on context. The document provides examples and explanations of these semantic concepts.
This document discusses implicature and entailment. It defines implicature as what is suggested in an utterance, even if not directly expressed or implied. There are two types of implicature: conversational and conventional. Conversational implicature relies on conversational principles while conventional implicature is part of a lexical item's meaning. Entailment is the relationship between sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other due to word meanings. There are also different types and classifications of entailment.
Pragmatics is concerned with 4 main areas: 1) studying a speaker's intended meaning, 2) how context influences meaning, 3) how listeners infer more from what is said than just the literal words, and 4) how the level of closeness between speakers is expressed. It differs from semantics and syntax in that pragmatics considers the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms, allowing human aspects like intentions and assumptions to be analyzed. Studying language through pragmatics allows us to better understand intended meanings but is more difficult to do in an objective, consistent way compared to semantics or syntax.
This document discusses two key aspects of meaning proposed by German semanticist Gottlob Frege: sense and reference. [1] Reference refers to the relationship between a linguistic expression and something in the real world. Sense refers to the semantic relationship an expression has within a language. The document provides examples and properties of reference, such as how one expression can have multiple referents depending on context. It also distinguishes between sense, which is the meaning or thought conveyed by an expression, and reference, which is the object represented.
This document contains study guide notes for two units: Unit 12 on Logic and Unit 19 on Derivation. In Unit 12, key terms are defined such as logic, connectives, and logical notation. Examples of logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, and negation are provided. The purpose of developing a logical notation rather than using ordinary English is discussed. In Unit 19, morphological terms are defined including derivation, inflection, and zero derivation. Examples of derivational affixes and processes in English are given. Productivity in word formation is explained.
Unit 8 Words and Things - Extensions and PrototypesAshwag Al Hamid
This document discusses the relationships between sense, extension, and reference in determining the meaning of linguistic expressions. It defines extension as the set of all individuals a predicate can be applied to, reference as the thing picked out by a referring expression on a particular occasion, and prototype as the most typical member of a predicate's extension. The document explores how these concepts help explain a speaker's ability to group entities and make descriptive statements using language. However, it also notes limitations, such as the fuzziness of many predicates' extensions and cultural differences in prototypes.
The document discusses key concepts related to the relationship between language and the world, including sense, reference, extension, and prototype. Sense involves a set of ideas about a word, extension refers to the complete set of all things a word can apply to, and reference picks out a specific instance of a word's use. Prototype refers to a typical member of a word's extension that best represents the category. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts and their differences. It notes that language connects to the real world through reference, extension, and prototypes.
PREDICATOR, PREDICATE, AND DEGREE OF PREDICATESWardhani Qusuma
This document appears to be an assignment from the English Department at STAIN Salatiga in 2014 on the topic of semantics. It discusses the key concepts of predicator, predicate, and degree of predicate. It provides examples of identifying the predicator and predicates in sample sentences. It also explains that the degree of a predicate refers to the number of arguments it typically takes in a simple sentence.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
2. Table of content
Chapter 1: Basic ideas in semantics
Chapter 2: From reference …
Chapter 3: … to sense
Chapter 4: Logic
Chapter 5: Word meaning
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 2
6. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
KEY TERMS:
o linguistics
o language
o components of language
o theory of semantics
o semantics
o sentence (word) meaning
o speaker meaning
o native speaker (informant)
o “knowing ” the meaning(s) of a word
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 6
7. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
SEMANTICS is:
the STUDY of MEANING.
the STUDY of MEANING in LANGUAGE.
the STUDY of MEANING in HUMAN LANGUAGE.
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 7
8. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 1 (P.1)
you
glory
it
6, 8
9, 12, 12, 135/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 8
9. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 2 (p.2)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) Asking what JOHN meant in saying it
(5) No
(6) [your own answer]
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 9
10. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 10
SPEAKER MEANING
SENTENCE (WORD)
MEANING
What a speaker means (i.e. intends to
convey) when he uses a piece of language.
What a sentence (or word) means, i.e.
what it counts as the equivalent of in the
language concerned.
y #OR
11. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 3 (P.3)
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 11
ANSWER
(1) probably not
(2) Yes, probably
(3) No
(4) No
(5) Probably not
(6) Yes
(7) With B’s enquiry in line 6
(8) With B’s question in line 12
12. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
Meaningfulness vs. Informativeness
Many sentences carry information in a
straightforward way;
Information exchange contexts
To provide the hearer with the necessary information or
knowledge
AND
Many sentences are used by speakers not to give
information at all
Small talks
To maintain social relationships
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 12
13. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 4 (P.5)
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 13
ANSWER
(1) “Are you?”, “That’ll be nice for the family”, and “Nice day”
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) No, she is probably being sarcastic
(5) Yes
(6) No
(7) part of a polite prelude to more interesting conversation
(8) In the husband’s case, the remark is used to end a
conversation, rather than initiate one.
14. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
The same sentences used by different
speakers on different occasions to mean
different things
SPEAKER MEANING
Problems: there are GAPS between sentence
meaning and speaker meaning.
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 14
15. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 5 (P.6)
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 15
ANSWER
(1) No
(2) No
(3) No
(4) No
(5) No
16. AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
Speakers can convey meaning quite vividly
using sentences whose meanings are in some
sense problematical.
Semantic analysis:
1. to show what is wrong with such sentences, i.e. why they
can’t be literally true
2. how speakers nevertheless manage to communicate
something by means of them.
5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 16
17. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 17
AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 6 (P.6-7)
ANSWER
(1) No
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) Yes
(5) Probably not
(6) Yes
(7) Yes
(8) the Sar-
speaker
18. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 18
AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
Methods of semantics
Semantics theory of meaning
THEORY
A precisely specified, coherent, and
economical frame-work of
interdependent statements and
definitions, constructed so that as large a
number as possible of particular basic
facts can either be seen to follow from it
or be describable in terms of it
19. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 19
AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 7 (p. 8)
ANSWER
(1) T
(2) T
(3) T
(4) T
(5) F
(6) T
(7) F
(8) T
(9) T
20. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 20
AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
Each of the above true statements belongs to
the scope of semantics.
Semantic theory deals with semantic facts,
i.e. facts about meaning.
Meaning of individual words, sentences and
utterances
21. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 21
AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
PRACTICE 8 (p. 9)
ANSWER
(1) T
(2) T
(3) T
(4) T
22. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 22
AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
The statements are general in some ways.
(1) Deal with whole classes of words, not just with the
individual examples actually mentioned.
(2) Apply to human languages in general, not just to
English.
Semantics focus on the similarities between
languages rather than their differences.
25. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 25
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
In groups of 4, say aloud the following sentences
TWICE.
(i) Good morning!
(ii) I love you!
(iii) What a beautiful day!
(iv) “Utterances may consist of a single word, a single
phrase or a single sentence. They may also consist of a
sequence of sentences. It is not unusual to find
utterances that consist of one or more grammatically
incomplete sentence-fragments. In short, there is no
simple relation of correspondence between utterances
and sentences.”
26. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 26
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Then, discuss the following questions.
1. Do you say the sentences differently each time?
Why (not)?
2. What about your partners?
3. Can you guess the reason?
27. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 27
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
The same sentence can be read differently
each time even by the same speaker.
Different UTTERANCES
Different unique physical events
28. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 28
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
UTTERANCE
Any stretch of talk, by one person, before
and after which there is a silence on the
part of that person.
An UTTERANCE is the USE by a particular
speaker, on a particular occasion, of a
piece of language, such as a sequence of
sentences, or a single phrase, or even a
single word.
29. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 29
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 1 (P. 16) ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) Yes
(4) No, this is a string of sounds
(5) No, this is a string of sounds
30. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 30
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Utterances are physical events.
Events are ephemeral, i.e. short-lived.
Utterances MUST be analyzed in a specific contexts
(time, place, speaker, and language).
Utterances have no special form or content.
31. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 31
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN UTTERANCE
It is spoken.
It is a physical event. Events are ephemeral, i.e. short-lived.
It may be grammatical or not.
It is a piece of language (a single phrase or even a single
word).
It can be meaningful or meaningless.
It is identified by a specific time or on a particular occasion.
It is said / uttered by a a specific person (in a particular accent)
32. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 32
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
A sentence has no time or place, etc. but it has a
different linguistic form.
SENTENCE
(PARTIAL DEFINITION)
A sentence is neither a physical event not
a physical object. It is, conceived
abstractly, a string of words put together
by the grammatical rules of a language.
A sentence can be thought of as the
IDEAL string of words behind various
realizations in utterances and inscriptions.
33. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 33
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 2 (P. 17)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) No
(3) No
(4) Yes
(5) No
(6) Yes
34. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 34
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
CONVENTION IN SEMANTICS
A book contains NO UTTERANCES or SENTENCES.
In semantics, there is a need to make a careful
distinct between utterances and sentences.
o An utterance is written between single quotation marks.
o A sentence is written in an italicized way.
35. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 35
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 3 (p. 18)
ANSWER
(1) John announced “Mary’s here” .
(2) Mary thought how nice John was. OR Tom: ‘Mary thought how nice John
was.’
36. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 36
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
RULE:
A given sentence always consists of the same
words, and in the same order.
Any change in the words, or their order, makes a
different sentence, for our purposes.
37. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 37
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 4 (p. 18)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Le jour de gloire est arrivé FRENCH
Alle Menschen sprechen eine Sprache GERMAN
39. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 39
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
SENTENCE
(PARTIAL DEFINITION)
A sentence is a grammatical complete
string of words expressing a complete
thought.
Example:
(1) I would like a cup of coffee
(2) Coffee, please.
(3) In the kitchen
(4) Please put it in the kitchen
40. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 40
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Any strings of words
that do not have a verb
in it are not sentences.
A sentence is a complete
expression in a
language.
41. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 41
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 5 (P. 19)
ANSWER
(1) NS
(2) S
(3) NS
(4) S
(5) NS
42. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 42
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Utterances of non-sentences:
short-phrases, or even single words
used in daily communications
Because:
people usually don’t converse in (tokens of)
wellformed sentences.
How to understand these utterances?
an abstract idea of the sentence is necessary .
consider them as abbreviations, or incomplete
versions, of whole sentences.
43. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 43
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 6 (p. 19)
ANSWER
(1) Goethe died in 1832
(2) I would like coffee please
(3) Wellington won the battle of Waterloo
45. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 45
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PROPOSITION
The part of meaning of the utterance of a
declarative sentence which describes
some states of affairs
a claim about the world
just the form of an idea.
a (potential) fact about the world can be TRUE
or FALSE
47. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 47
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
propositions:
true: correspond to facts
false: do not correspond to facts
48. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 48
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 8 (p. 21)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) No
49. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 49
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Can one entertain propositions in the mind
regardless of whether they are true or false?
e.g.:
What am I doing if I entertain the thought that the
moon is made of green cheese?
Entertain = to admit into the mind, consider
Can one entertain propositions in the mind
regardless of whether they are true or false?
YES, by thinking them, or believing them.
50. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 50
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
However,
ONLY true proposition can be
known.
Not all true beliefs are knowledge.
Not all unknown beliefs are false.
51. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 51
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 9 (p. 21)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) Yes
(4) Yes, there is a kind of contradiction here, in that the
same thing is said to be both ‘a fact’ and ‘not possibly
true’.
(5) No, there is nothing odd about this sentence, because
we stated that propositions can be either true or false.
52. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 52
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Example:
(1) I went to the supermarket yesterday.
(2) What did you do yesterday?
(3) Tell me where you went to yesterday.
Do sentences (2) and (3) have their propositions?
53. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 53
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
Propositions are involved in the meanings of
other types of sentences in addition to
declarative.
DECLARATIVE: the speaker commits himself to the
truth of the corresponding proposition: i.e. he asserts
the proposition.
INTERROGATIVE: is used to ask questions. The
speaker questions the truth of the proposition.
IMPERATIVE: is used to convey orders. The speaker
demands carrying out the proposition.
54. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 54
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
PRACTICE 10 (P. 22)
ANSWER
(1) A/ No
B/ No
C/ Yes
(2) A/ Yes
B/ No common proposition is involved.
C/ Yes
55. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 55
ephemeral
either loud or quiet
no two utterances
can be the same.
either true or false
in a particular
regional accent
in a particular
language
in the form of a
sentence or non-
sentence
UTTERANCES
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
sentences in different
languages can
correspond to the
same proposition.
can be grammatical
or not
not spoken
either true or false
not belonging to any
particular regional
accent
belonging to a
particular language
SENTENCES
not spoken
not dealing with
grammatical aspects
either true or false
not belonging to any
particular regional
accent
not belong to a
particular language
no
PROPOSITIONS
57. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 57
Family tree relationship among utterances,
sentences and propositions
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
58. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 58
Proposition: an abstract grasped by the mind
of an individual person
Proposition is an object of thought.
Can one equate propositions as thoughts? Why
(not)?
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
59. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 59
SENTENCES, UTTERANCES &
PROPOSITIONS
private, personal and mental
processes
a process going on in an
individual’s mind
public
(the same proposition is accessible to
different persons: different individuals
can grasp the same proposition)
not a process
THOUGHTS PROPOSITIONS
The word “thought” may sometimes be used loosely in a way
which includes the notion of a proposition.
relationship between
o mental processes: THOUGHTS
o abstract semantic entities: PROPOSITIONS
o linguistic entities: SENTENCES
o actions: UTTERANCES
62. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 62
Reference and Sense
Key terms:
sense
reference
referent
context
dialect
proposition
63. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 63
Reference and Sense
In linguistics, the triangle of reference is a
model for explaining how words convey
meaning.
64. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 64
Reference and Sense
Triangle of reference:
also known as
o Triangle of Semantics,
o Triangle of reference,
o the Semiotic Triangle,
o the Referent Triangle,
o Triangle of Meaning,
o the Ogden-Richards Triangle,
and
o the Meaning of Meaning Model
Triangle of reference:
describes a simplified form of relationship
between the speaker as subject, a concept
as object or referent, and its designation (sign,
signants)
66. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 66
Reference and Sense
SENSE Relationships inside the language
REFERENCE
Relationships between language and
the world
67. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 67
Reference and Sense
Example:
REFERENCE
By means of reference, a speaker
indicates which things in the world
(including persons) are being talked
about
68. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 68
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 1 (p. 27)
ANSWER
(1) Your left ear
(2) Part of the world
(3) Yes
(4) No
69. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 69
Reference and Sense
The same expression can, in some
cases, be used to refer to different
things.
Many expressions in a language can
have .
Can the same expression be used to
refer to different things?
70. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 70
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 2 (p. 28)
ANSWER
(1) (a) George W. Bush (b) Bill Clinton
(2) variable reference
(3) (a) George W. Bush (b) Bill Clinton
(4) (c)
71. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 71
Reference and Sense
Can the same expression be used to
refer to different things?
72. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 72
Reference and Sense
In most everyday situations that one can
envisage, have constant reference.
In fact,
very little constancy of reference in language
In everyday discourse almost all of the fixing
of reference comes from the context in which
expressions are used.
Example:
the Morning Star and the Evening Star
73. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 73
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 3 (p. 28)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) Yes
(4) Yes
75. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 75
Reference and Sense
SENSE
Its place in a system of semantic
relationships with other expressions in
the language
Semantic relationships:
1/ sameness of meaning
2/ converseness of meaning
76. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 76
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 5 (p. 29)
ANSWER
(1) S
(2) S
(3) S
(4) D
(5) D
77. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 77
Reference and Sense
Can longer expressions (phrases
and sentences) have their sense?
YES!!!
They can.
79. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 79
Reference and Sense
Can one word have different
senses?
YES!!!
It can. Example:
bank
row
bear
80. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 80
Reference and Sense
any spelled with the same sequence of
letters and pronounced with the same
sequence of phonemes (distinctive sounds) in
a standard dialect
in an ordinary dictionary, different entries of
one word (word-form) distinguished by a
subscript
e.g.: bank1 bank2
81. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 81
Reference and Sense
Can one sentence have different
senses?
YES!!!
It can.
82. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 82
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 7 (p. 30)
ANSWER
(1) The chicken is ready to be eaten. // The chicken is
ready to eat something.
(2) Smiling, he greeted the girl. // He greeted the smiling
girl.
(3) He changed the direction over the field. // He turned
the field over.
83. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 83
Reference and Sense
Relationship between sense and reference:
The referent of an expression is often a thing or
a person in the world.
The sense of an expression is not a thing at all; it
is an abstraction that can be entertained in the
mind of a language user.
It is difficult to say what sort of entity the sense
of an expression is. It is useful to think of sense as
that part of the meaning of an expression that is
left over when reference is factored out.
It is much easier to say whether or not two
expressions have the same sense.
84. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 84
Reference and Sense
Every expression that has meaning
has sense.
Does every
expression have
reference?
85. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 85
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 8 (p. 31)
ANSWER
None of the above words refers to a thing in
the world.
Nevertheless all these words, almost, probable,
and, if, and above have some sense.
86. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 86
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 9 (p. 31)
ANSWER
(1) an expression with the same sense
(2) words
(3) Yes
(4) Yes
87. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 87
Reference and Sense
Circularity
defining the senses of words and expressions by
other words or expressions
not a bad thing
often unavoidable
88. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 88
Reference and Sense
There is something semantically complete
about a proposition, as opposed to the sense
of a phrase or single word.
Roughly speaking, a proposition
corresponds to a complete independent
thought.
89. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 89
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 10 (p. 32)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) No
(3) No
(4) Yes
91. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 91
Reference and Sense
Can the same sense belong to
expressions in different languages?
In case that perfect
translation between
languages is possible,
the answer is YES.
Expressions in
different DIALECTS of
one language can have
the same sense.
93. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 93
Reference and Sense
SIMILARITY
SENSE
REFERENCE
PROPOSITION
UTTERANCE
DIRECT
NOT SO DIRECT
94. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 94
Reference and Sense
Both referring and uttering are acts
performed by particular speakers on
particular occasions.
Most utterances contain, or are accompanied
by, one or more acts of referring.
An act of referring is the picking out of a
particular referent by a speaker in the course
of a particular.
95. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 95
Reference and Sense
Although the concept of reference is
fundamentally related to utterances, in that acts of
reference only actually happen in the course of
utterances.
When talking about reference in connection with
sentences, or parts of sentences, we are imagining
a potential utterance of the sentence or expression
in question.
In daily conversation, the words meaning, means,
mean, meant, etc. are sometimes used to indicate
reference and sometimes to indicate sense.
96. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 96
Reference and Sense
PRACTICE 12 (p. 34)
ANSWER
(1) R
(2) R
(3) S
(4) S
(5) S
(6) R
99. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 99
Referring Expressions
ANSWER
(1) George W. Bush, the former governor of Texas
(2) My daughter
(3) the sun, Vietnam
(4) the Morning Star and the Evening Star
(5) and, if, furthermore
(6) (c)
101. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 101
Referring Expressions
e.g.:
The name Fred
“Fred hit me”
“There is no Fred at this address”
REFERRING
EXPRESSION
Any expression used in an utterance to
refer to something or someone (or a
clearly delimited collection of things or
people)
i.e. used with a particular referent in
mind
102. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 102
Referring Expressions
PRACTICE 1 (p. 37) ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) Yes
(5) Yes
(6) Yes
(7) No
(8) No
103. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 103
Referring Expressions
can be a referring expression or not
= may or may not have a “referring interpretation”
Depending on the context
This is true of INDEFINITE NOUN PHRASES.
Can the same expression always be
referring expression?
NO!!!
It cannot.
104. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 104
Referring Expressions
PRACTICE 2 (p. 37-38)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) No
(5) Yes
(6) No
105. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 105
Referring Expressions
INDEFINITE NOUN PHRASES
linguistic context
often gives a vital clue to decide a particular
indefinite noun phrase is a referring expression or
not
not always give a clear indication
106. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 106
Referring Expressions
PRACTICE 3 (p. 38)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) ambiguous sentence
(3) ambiguous sentence
(4) Yes and No
(5) Yes
(6) Yes and No
107. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 107
Referring Expressions
By the use of the word certain immediately following
the indefinite article a
Indefinite noun phrases can be referring expressions.
referring expressions depend heavily on linguistic
context and on circumstances of utterance.
How can one resolve the
ambiguities in the above examples?
109. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 109
Referring Expressions
DEFINITE NOUN PHRASES
different kinds
proper names (e.g. John)
personal pronouns (e.g. he, I)
longer descriptive expressions (e.g. The young man
who won the first prize in the competition)
Most frequently used as referring
expressions
Are there any definite noun phrases that are
not used as referring expressions?
110. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 110
Referring Expressions
PRACTICE 5 (p. 39)
ANSWER
(1) No
(2) No
(3) Not a referring expression
(4) Not a referring expression
111. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 111
Referring Expressions
The notion of “referring expression” is not
always easy to apply
It is not clear what we mean when we say a speaker
must have a particular individual in mind in order to
refer.
Definite noun phrases are very much dependent on
the context and circumstances of use.
113. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 113
Referring Expressions
Reference vs. Definiteness
Definiteness is a condition of the referring expression.
e.g.:
‘The boy is honest’
‘The boy may get sick as the girl’
Indefiniteness indicates that a language expression is
not a referring expression.
e.g.:
‘Look there! I see a boy climbing the tree’
‘A boy must have broken the window’
False.
It is just one of the
necessary conditions.
False.
It depends on
the context of
the utterance
114. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 114
Referring Expressions
‘Definite’ and ‘Indefinite’ are grammatical
terms which are not directly parallel to the
semantic terms of ‘referring expression’ and
‘non-referring expression’.
Definite and indefinite noun phrases can be
used as referring expressions depending on
the context and circumstances of use.
115. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 115
Referring Expressions
A referring expression can be
one word
or
more than one word
e.g.:
‘London’
‘The man who wrote on the oaktree’
117. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 117
Referring Expressions
Normally, utterances which differ only in that
they use different expressions referring to the
same thing (or person) will have the same
meaning.
However, there is a class of exceptions to
this generalization, involving opaque contexts.
118. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 118
Referring Expressions
OPAQUE
CONTEXT
A part of a sentence which could be
made into a complete sentence by the
addition of a referring expression, but
where the addition of different
referring expressions, even though
they refer to the same thing or person,
in a given situation, will yield
sentences with DIFFERENT meanings
when uttered in a given situation.
119. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 119
Referring Expressions
PRACTICE 7 (p. 41)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) Yes
(4) No
(5) Yes
(6) Yes
(7) No
120. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 120
Referring Expressions
OC is a linguistic context in which it is not
always possible to substitute “co-referential”
expressions (expressions referring to the same
object) without altering the truth of the
sentences.
Substitution of co-referential expressions
into an opaque context does not always
preserve the truth.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opaque_context)
123. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 123
Referring Expressions
OPAQUE CONTEXT:
these contexts seem to “block our view” through
them to the referential interpretations (referents) of
referring expressions.
typically involve a certain kind of verb: WANT,
BELIEVE, THINK and WONDER ABOUT.
NOTE:
It is often in the context of opacity-creating verbs that
indefinite noun phrases could be ambiguous between
a referring and a non-referring interpretation.
e.g.: ‘Mary wants to marry a Norwegian’
124. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 124
Referring Expressions
e.g.:
Mark Zugckerberg is Facebook’s founder.
Mark Zugckerberg = Facebook’s founder
That woman over there is my daughter’s teacher.
EQUATIVE
SENTENCE
is used to assert the identity of the
referents of two referring expressions,
i.e. to assert that two referring
expressions have the same referent.
125. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 125
Referring Expressions
Equative sentence:
the order of the two referring expressions can be
reversed without the loss of acceptability.
However,
The ‘reversal test’ / ‘inversion test’ is not a perfect
diagnosis for equative sentences.
e.g.:
Facebook’s founder is Mark Zugckerberg.
What I need now is a cup of coffee.
That is the man who stole my wallet.
126. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 126
Referring Expressions
Why?
Facebook’s founder is Mark Zugckerberg.
Reversible + acceptable Equative
What I need now is a cup of coffee.
Reversible + not a referring expression has no
particular referent in mind Equative
That is the man who stole my wallet.
Equative + not reversible unacceptable
127. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 127
Referring Expressions
PRACTICE 8 (p. 42)
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) No
(4) No
(5) Yes
(6) No
131. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 131
Predicates
Simple declarative sentences contain
one or more referring expressions,
and
some other words that do not form part of any of
the referring expressions
e.g.:
Mary’s new job seems inspirational
To me, February is the most beautiful time in the
year.
132. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 132
Predicates
PRACTICE 1 (p. 46)
ANSWER
(1) bit
(2) is writing
(3) is in
(4) is between
(5) stinks
(6) is red
(7) was a genius
133. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 133
Predicates
The ‘remainder’
varied set
it is possible to discern one word (or part of a word)
which ‘carries more meaning’ than the others.
Write in example (2) carries more specific information than
is and the suffix –ing.
134. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 134
Predicates
If one strips away such less meaningful
elements, one is left with a sequence of words,
which, though ungrammatical and inelegant,
can still be understood as expressing a
proposition.
The result is a kind ‘Tarzan jungle talk’
e.g.:
Boy bad for The boy is bad
Woman write speech for The woman is writing the
speech.
135. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 135
Predicates
PRACTICE 2 (p. 46)
ANSWER
(1) write
(2) in
(3) between, and
(4) stink
(5) red
(6) genius
136. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 136
Predicates
The words that just have been isolated from
their original sentences are called
PREDICATORS of those sentences.
137. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 137
Predicates
PREDICATOR
(partial definition)
Of a simple declarative sentence is the
word (sometimes a group of words)
which does not belong to any of the
referring expressions and which, of the
remainder, makes the most specific
contribution to the meaning of the
sentence.
Intuitively speaking, the predicator
describes the state or process in which
the referring expressions are involved.
138. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 138
Predicates
e.g.:
asleep is the predicator in Mummy is asleep and
describes the state Mummy is in.
love is the predicator in The white man loved the
Indian maiden and describes the process in which the
two referring expressions the white man and the
Indian maiden are involved.
wait for is the predicator in Jimmy was waiting for
the downtown bus and describes the process
involving Jimmy and the downtown bus.
139. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 139
Predicates
PRACTICE 3 (p. 47)
ANSWER
(1) hungry
(2) in
(3) a crook
(4) is whimsical
(5) behind
140. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 140
Predicates
Note:
The semantics of tense:
o contributes to the meaning of a sentence differently
o e.g.: the indicators of past and present tense
The verb BE in its various forms (is, am, are, was,
were, been): NOT the predicator
141. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 141
Predicates
Types of predicators: various parts of speech
adjectives
verbs
prepositions
nouns
Exceptions: words of other parts of speech
cannot serve as predicators in sentences
conjunctions
articles
to BE
144. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 144
Predicates
PRACTICE 4 (p. 48)
ANSWER
(1) predicator: menace, argument: Denis
(2) predicator: showed, arguments: Fred, Jane, his BMW
(3) predicator: proud, arguments: Donald, his family
(4) predicator: outside, arguments: the hospital, the city
145. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 145
Predicates
Semantic and Grammatical Predicates
Although there is some overlap, the semantic
analysis does not correspond in most cases to the
traditional grammatical analysis.
This course is concerned almost exclusively with the
semantic analysis of sentences.
146. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 146
Predicates
SENTENCES
SEMANTIC
ANALYSIS
TRADITIONAL
GRAMMATICAL
ANALYSIS
PREDICATOR
+
ARGUMENT (S)
SUBJECT
+
PREDICATE
147. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 147
Predicates
PREDICATE
Any word (or sequence of word)
which (in a given single sense) can
function as the predicator of a
sentence.
148. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 148
Predicates
PRACTICE 5 (p. 48-49)
Are the following predicates?
(1) dusty Yes / No
(2) drink Yes / No
(3) woman Yes / No
(4) you Yes / No
(5) Fred Yes / No
(6) about Yes / No
ANSWER
(1) Yes
(2) Yes
(3) Yes
(4) No
(5) No
(6) Yes
149. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 149
Predicates
The definition of ‘predicate’ contained two
parenthesized conditions.
(or sequence of words): seems sensible to analyse
as single predicates.
(in a given single sense): more important
illustrates a degree of abstractness in the notion of
predicate
A predicate can have only one sense.
150. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 150
Predicates
e.g.:
bank1 bank2
row1 row2
Normally the context clarifies what
sense (what predicate) we have in mind
Occasionally use subscripts on words to
distinguish between different predicates
151. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 151
Predicates
identifies elements in the
language system
independently of particular
examples
can envisage a list of predicates in
English
identifies semantic roles
played by a word (or more) in a
particular sentence
can’t list the predicators of
English
PREDICATE PREDICATOR
The semantic term ‘predicator’
~ the grammatical term ‘subject’
The subject of a
particular sentence
NOT
A list of ‘the
subjects of English’
The predicator of a
particular sentence
NOT
A list of ‘the
predicators of
English’
A simple sentence only
has ONE PREDICATOR,
although it may well
contain MORE THAN ONE
instance of PREDICATE.
152. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 152
Predicates
e.g.:
A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon
This sentence consists of
one predicator: enter
predicates: tall, handsome, stranger, saloon
These predicates can function as predicators in other
sentences.
e.g.:
John is tall
He is handsome
He is a stranger
That ramshackle building is a saloon
154. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 154
Predicates
e.g.:
asleep is a predicate of degree one (~ one-place
predicate)
love (v) is a predicate of degree two (~ two-place
predicate)
DEGREE of
PREDICATE
A number indicating the number of
arguments it is normally understood
to have in simple sentences
155. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 155
Predicates
PRACTICE 7 (p. 50)
ANSWER
(1) (a) Yes (b) No (c) No
(2)Yes
(3) (a) No (b) Yes (c) No
(4) No
(5) Yes
(6) Yes
(7) No
156. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 156
Predicates
How many arguments can a verb
have?
most naturally with just
two arguments
two-place predicates
Are there any verbs that
are THREE-PLACE
PREDICATE?
Give examples.
157. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 157
Predicates
PRACTICE 8 (p. 51)
ANSWER
(1) (a) No (b) Yes (c) No
(2) Yes
(3) Yes
(4) Yes
159. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 159
Predicates
English semantics only deals with
verbal predicates. Is it true?
No, English semantics
can have predicates that
are ADJECTIVES, NOUNS
and PREPOSITIONS.
160. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 160
Predicates
PREPOSITIONAL PREDICATES
e.g.:
London is in Europe. two-place predicate
The cat is on the tree. two-place predicate
161. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 161
Predicates
PRACTICE 9 (p. 51) ANSWER
(1) 2
(2) No
(3) No
(4) 2
(5) 2
(6) No
(7) Yes
(8) 3
162. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 162
Predicates
ADJECTIVAL PREDICATES
The majority of adjectives are one-place predicates.
e.g.:
The new English teacher is good-manned
Can you find any
examples in which
adjectives are two-
place predicates?
e.g.: different, similar
163. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 163
Predicates
The role of prepositions in compound
adjectives as predicates
e.g.: fond of, afraid of, aware of
NOT predicates
Some adjectives in English require (grammatically)
to be joined to a following argument by a
preposition.
Adj. + prep + argument
Often considered as relatively meaningless linking
particles
164. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 164
Predicates
The role of prepositions in compound
adjectives as predicates
Often considered as relatively meaningless linking
particles
Adj. + linking particle complex or multi-word
predicate with basically one unified meaning
Often one can use different linking preposition with
NO change in meaning
e.g.: different to and different than
165. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 165
Predicates
NOUNS AS PREDICATES
e.g.:
Hanoi is the capital city of Vietnam.
Most nouns are one-place predicates.
However, a few nouns could be said to be
‘inherently relational’ two-place predicates
e.g.:
father, son, neighbour
167. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 167
Predicates
Can two predicates
of different
grammatical parts of
speech have the
same sense?
168. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 168
Predicates
Two predicates are of different grammatical
parts of speech but can have nearly the same
sense.
e.g.:
Tom is a fool and Tom is foolish
I am afraid of snakes and I fear cats
The corresponding predicates have the same
degree.
169. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 169
Predicates
The relation can be found in equative
sentences.
The identity relation has very basic role in
communication of information.
e.g.:
Ms Janet is my daughter’s new English teacher
My daughter’s new English teacher is Ms Janet
170. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 170
Predicates
VERB BE in English semantics
expresses the identity of the referents of two
different referring expressions
functions as a grammatical device: to link a
predicate that is not a verb (e.g.: adjective,
preposition, noun) to its first argument
functions as a device for ‘carrying’ the tense of a
sentence
171. 5/24/2018 Semantics (2017-18) HongOanh 171
Predicates
PRACTICE 11 (p. 54)
ANSWER:
The identity relation is expressed by a form of be in sentences
(2), (3), and (5).
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Semantics
is the study of Meaning.
Is the study of Meaning in language.
Language vs. language
Reference:
http://wobewo.be/semantic-triangle/
Ogden & Richards in The meaning of meaning (1923)
http://inmyownterms.com/mysmartterms/mysmarterms-5-the-semantic-triangle-words-dont-mean-people-mean/
https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-meaning-of-meaning-model/
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-triangle-of-reference.htm
http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/4-1-ogden.htm
As far as I can tell, the term 'predicate' is used rather differently in syntax and semantics.
Syntacticians speak of 'predicates' only when a 'predication' relation - 'primary' (as in Bill came home) or 'secondary' (as in Bill came home rather depressed)- is established with a syntactic 'subject', which may be the (unique) subject of the clause or another NP/DP, in certain cases of 'secondary predication' in which the 'subject' is not the subject of the clause, but an object, or the subject of a subordinate 'small clause', etc., depending on which analysis each syntactician favours (as in, e.g., I saw Bill rather depressed, I consider Bill an excellent teacher, etc.).
Hence, syntactic predicates normally or even invariably (depending on the analyses syntacticians adopt), correspond to only one type of what semanticists would call 'first-order one-placepredicates', the type in which the argument that must 'saturate' the unsaturated one-place predicate to yield a 'proposition' is discharged, precisely, by the syntactic subject of the clause, but, of course, the undischarged argument of an unsaturated one-place predicate need not correspond to the subject of the clause; semantically speaking, I sent Bill__ is also a one-place first-order predicate, even though the missing argument is, syntactically, not discharged by a subject, but by a direct object (say the invitation in I sent Bill the invitation, or which in This is the invitation which I sent Bill, etc.).
In semantics, on the contrary, the term 'predicate' is used much more generally. Of course it is applied in cases of 'functional application' that do correspond to syntactic predications, but also to many other cases that do not. For one thing, semanticists, following logicians, speak of 'monadic' (= one-place), 'dyadic' (two-place), and, generally, 'n-adic' (n-place) 'predicates' (and all are 'predicates', from the semantic point of view). A transitive verb, for example, is, semantically speaking, a two-place (first-order) predicate, although, obviously, it does not by itself constitute a complete syntactic predicate, and a 'ditransitive' verb is a three-place first-order 'predicate', although it would need to be construed with two objects to constitute a complete syntactic predicate, etc. On the other hand, the 'predicates' the semanticist talks about need not be first-order, they may also be higher-order (2nd, third,... etc., depending on how rich the semanticist's ontology is), and, as a consequence, ad-nominal APs, PPs, relative clauses, etc. internal to an NP/DP, for example, are also one-place 'predicates' (2nd order, in this case, since they are predicated of a common, or modified common noun, that is itself, semantically speaking, a first-order predicate), and, correspondingly, AdvPs, PP's, etc. modifying unsaturated VPs also qualify as one-place (in this case, nth-order) predicates, since they are 'predicated' of partially constructed VPs. Actually, 'adverbials', as Ernst and Cinque, in particular, have shown, may be 'predicated' of entities that syntactically correspond to many different types of verbal or extended verbal projections, AuxPs, Modality Phrases, full predications, propositions (with polarity specified), ForcePs etc., etc., which are not first-order entities, either. So, in sum, in semantics, the extension of the predicate 'predicate' is much bigger than it is in syntax.
https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/6781/is-there-an-established-distinction-between-semantic-and-syntactic-predicates?rq=1
According to traditional grammar, the predicate is the part of a sentence that modifies the subject, i.e., the sentence can be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate. For example, in the sentence The kids may have started the game, the NP (the kids) is the subject and the VP (may have started the game) is the predicate. I know that the term predicate identifies elements in the language system and predicator identifies the semantic roles. The former is related to syntax/grammar while the latter is related to semantics (argument structure). However, inspired by predicate calculus, modern theories of syntax and grammar see predicates as relations between or functions over arguments. Predicates assign a property to a single argument or relate two or more arguments to one other, e.g., Sam helped you (help is a predicate, while Sam and you are arguments). Up to this point it's clear.
Now, Hurford (2007) defines predicator and predicate as follows:
Predicator
The predicator of a simple declarative sentence is the word (sometimes a (partial) group of words) which does not belong to any of the referring expressions and which, of the remainder, makes the most specific contribution to the meaning of the sentence. Intuitively speaking, the predicator describes the state or process in which the referring expressions are involved.
Predicate
Predicate is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense) can function as the predicator of a sentence.
The problem arises with the following example:
A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon.
This sentence only contains one predicator (enter) but the sentence also contains the words tall, handsome, stranger and saloon, all of which are predicates, and can function as predicators in other sentences, e.g. John is tall, He is handsome, He is a stranger and That ramshackle building is a saloon.
Now, some people illustrate this specific example as:
A tall, handsome stranger (predicate) and entered (predicator)
While others, on the basis of traditional grammar, argue that since A handsome stranger is the subject of the sentence, it cannot be a predicate. According to them:
A tall, handsome stranger (subject), entered the saloon (predicate) and entered (predicator)
In my view, the sentence can be illustrated as follows:
A tall, handsome stranger (argument of predicate) entered (matrix predicate/predicator) the saloon (argument of predicate)
A tall, handsome stranger (as a subject) may not necessarily be acting as a predicate in this specific sentence, but the illustration given in Hurford (2007) may simply mean that these words can act as predicator or predicate in other sentences e.g. He is tall, He is handsome and He is a stranger. In all these sentences, the VP (is tall, is handsome, is a stranger) is a predicate and the words tall, handsome and stranger are predicators. Is this correct?
The question is about the first group who label the sentence according to traditional grammar and are confused when they interpret A tall handsome stranger as the predicate in the sentence A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon.
https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/12443/predicate-traditional-vs-modern-view-semantics-vs-syntax?rq=1
(1) (a) Yes (b) No (c) No (2) Yes (3) (a) No (b) Yes (c) No (4) No (5) Yes
(6) Yes (7) No