This document provides an overview of key artists, artistic movements, and techniques from the 18th and 19th centuries. It discusses Rococo painters like François Boucher and their pastoral, decorative works. It then covers Neoclassicists like Jacques-Louis David who reacted against Rococo and emphasized classical ideals of beauty and virtue. The document also summarizes Romanticism's focus on emotion and nature, Realism's emphasis on accurate depictions of contemporary life, and the Orientalist fascination with exotic Eastern subjects during this period.

1. ART HISTORY 2 de Beaufort
STUDY GUIDE TEST 4
WORKS
FRANÇOIS BOUCHER, Cupid a Captive.
JEAN-BAPTISTE GREUZE, Village Bride.
JOSEPH WRIGHT OF DERBY, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery.
JEAN-BAPTISTE-SIMÉON CHARDIN, Saying Grace.
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, Oath of the Horatii.
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, The Death of Marat.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, (INGRES)Large Odalisque.
EUGENE DELACROIX, The Death of Sardanapalus
THÉODORE GÉRICAULT, Raft of the Medusa.
HENRY FUSELI,The Nightmare.
FRANCISCO GOYA,Third of May, 1808
FRANCISCO GOYA,Saturn Devouring one of his Sons
GUSTAVE COURBET, Burial at Ornans.
JEAN-FRANÇOIS MILLET, The Gleaners.
HONORÉ DAUMIER, Rue Transnonain.
NADAR, Eugène Delacroix.
JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS, Ophelia.
ÉDOUARD MANET, Le Déjeunersurl’Herbe (Luncheon on the Grass).
Artists and Works
Jacques Louis David
• Started as a Rococo painter (relative of Boucher)
• Spent time in Italy and turned to academic painting
– Declared Rococo “artificial taste”
– Exalted classical art as the imitation of nature in the most beautiful and perfect
form
–
Jacques Louis David and Napoleon
• David’s political agenda was highly successful through the influence of his art
• Was imprisoned in 1794 after supporting a regime which fell out of favor
• Pulled back from center stage, painted portraits and classical events
• Napoleon, upon being crowned emperor in 1804, sought David’s artistic abilities
• David enthusiastically accepted, depicted Napoleon as an invincible hero
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
• Student of David
• Spokesman for the traditional style of painting
• Intellect and draftsmanship
– Never let the brushstroke show
• His intricate line work influenced Picasso, Matisse, and Degas
Eugène Delacroix
• French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French
Romantic school. Delacroix's use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical

2. effects of color profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for
the exotic inspired the symbolists.
•
• Delacroix in Morocco
• Visit to Morocco changed his life/subject matter, color expression
• Renewed his conviction that beauty exists in the fierceness of nature, especially
animals
•
Francisco de Goya
• Defines Spanish Romantic movement
• Started off painting cartoons for Rococo tapestries
• French Revolution (1789) inspired his art
• Political enlightenment and the freedom of the individual
• Disillusionment sets in as reforms in France were short-lived
Gustave Courbet
• style: self-educated; copied Spanish, Dutch & Venetian masters @ Louvre
• Baroque lighting (e.g., Caravaggio, Rembrandt)
• objective record of customs & appearances of contemporary society
• fight against official art (salon REJECT)
• subjects: “Show me an angel, and I’ll paint one”
• No exotic locales, no gods and goddesses, no heroes of history.. Only wht you can see
or touch.
Thomas Eakins
• Thomas Eakins (1844-1916)
– teacher: Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts
• taught anatomy to medical students & figure drawing to art students
• disapproved of academic technique of drawing from plaster casts
– used nude model
– allowed female students to study male nude
• Critics called him a “butcher” and “degrading”
Movements and “Schools”
The Rococo - 1700-1750
• Though Rococo originated in the purely decorative arts, the style showed clearly in
painting. These painters used delicate colors and curving forms, decorating their
canvases with cherubs and myths of love. Portraiture was also popular among Rococo
painters. Some works show a sort of naughtiness or impurity in the behavior of their
subjects, showing the historical trend of departing away from the Baroque's church/state
orientation. Landscapes were pastoral and often depicted the leisurely outings of
aristocratic couples.
• “Rococo” derived from rocaille, (pebble or shell) and barocco. Motifs in Rococo art
resemble ornate shell or pebble work popular in gardens.
• Refined, fanciful, and often playful style fashionable in France at turn of century, spread
thru Europe in 18th century
• Pastel colors, delicately curving forms, dainty figures, light hearted
• Reaction against rigidity and solemnity of 17th century court
“The Natural”
morality painting expressing real sentiment and honest virtue.

3. Inspired by the writing of Rousseau and Diderot, father of modern art criticism-wrote that
art’s proper function was to improve virtue and purify manners… criticized rococo
“immoral” art…
The Grand Tour
• the completion of an aristocratic education was a tour of the major cultural sites of
Europe
• Paris, Venice, Florence, Naples, and Rome
• This heavily inspires the growth of Neoclassicism during the Enlightenment
• Pleased the senses and taught moral lessons
• Was a reaction to frivolity of Rococo
• Pompeii and Herculaneum discovered in 1738
The History of Ancient Art
• Published by Johann Joachim Winckelmann
• “A noble simplicity and calm grandeur…”
• Greek art is hailed for its beauty and moral character
– Response to Rococo frivolity
• Became the focus and agenda for Neoclassical art
Neoclassicism
• A reaction against both the Baroque and Rococo styles, and as a desire to return to the
perceived "purity" of the arts of Rome, the more vague perception ("ideal") of Ancient
Greek arts (where almost no western artist had actually been) and, to a lesser extent,
16th century Renaissance Classicism.
• Stimulated by widespread interest and enthusiasm among the literati for the findings at
archaeological excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii and by the interpretative
writings of J. J. Winckelmann, especially his History of Ancient Art (1764).
Romanticism
• Literary, artistic, and philosophical movement that began in Europe in the 18th century
and lasted roughly until the mid-19th century. In its intense focus on the individual
consciousness, it was both a continuation of and a reaction against the Enlightenment.
Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the
personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental.
• Among its attitudes were a deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature; a general
exaltation of emotion over reason and of the senses over intellect; a turning in upon the
self and a heightened examination of human personality; a preoccupation with the
genius, the hero, and the exceptional figure; a new view of the artist as a supremely
individual creator; an emphasis on imagination as a gateway to transcendent experience
and spiritual truth; a consuming interest in folk culture, national and ethnic cultural origins,
and the medieval era; and a predilection for the exotic, the remote, the mysterious, the
weird, the occult, the monstrous, the diseased, and even the satanic.
Romantic Landscapes
• Rather than just describing the scene, Romantic artists colored it by mood and used
nature as allegory
• Artists comment on spiritual, moral, historical, or philosophical issues
– Allows the artist to “naturalize” conditions – make them appear normal,
acceptable, or inevitable
Orientalism
• European art patrons wanted landscapes of more exotic, unfamiliar places
• The lands of the east tended to capture the imagination of Western Europeans

4. • Romantic fascination with foreign culture
• Oriental subjects engaged both Romantic and Neoclassical artists
• Stressed sex and violence
• Who is depicting whom?
Realism
• context: cultural
– role of artist:
• no longer to simply reveal beautiful & sublime
• aimed to tell the truth
• not beholden to higher, idealized reality (i.e., God)
– subjects:
• ordinary events and objects
• working class & broad panorama of society
• psychological motivation of characters
• Enlightenment put focus on scientific method and observation
• Empiricism – knowledge based on what can be measured and directly
experienced
• What can actually be seen/experienced in the world
• Realists only painted subjects they themselves could experience
(personal experience)
•
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
• Not everyone was enjoying the world produced by industrialization
• In England, Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood departed from subject matter of French Realists
• Tired of classical themes, focused on medieval stories and spirituality
Methods and Techniques:
Neoclassical Art Training
• Tended to continue to dominate academies
• Teachers stressed the study of ancient sculpture and great artists from the past
– Raphael, Michelangelo
– Art was for the universal and the beautiful, meant to shape public thinking
towards virtue and taste
• Art was for cultural indoctrination
• Paris was the center of the cultural world
• Ecole des Beaux-Arts renowned academy
• Ateliers – private studios offering instruction
• Paris Salon was preeminent place to show art
– Controlled by juries that stressed conservative views of art
• Gradually alternatives begin to appear to meet needs for different forms of art (see
Impressionists)
•
“Odalisque”
• Reclining female nude
• Turkish word for “harem girl”
• Found throughout Western art
Influential Figures:
Napoleon and Art
• Napoleon used art to help push his ambitious agenda

5. • Arc de Triomphe was based on Arch of Titus
• His political order combined with the art ushered in the Romantic era of art
• Created a model for how modern politicians and leaders could use the power of art and
images for political means.
Edmund Burke
• 18th c. English politician and philosopher
– wrote A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origins of Our Ideas of the Sublime and
Beautiful
• Sublime = feelings of awe mixed with terror
• The most intense human emotions are evoked by pain or fear and that when these
emotions are distanced they can be thrilling
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Tranquility is found also in dungeons; but is that enough to make them desirable places
to live in?
• To say that a man gives himself gratuitously, is to say what is absurd and inconceivable;
such an act is null and illegitimate, from the mere fact that he who does it is out of his
mind. To say the same of a whole people is to suppose a people of madmen; and
madness creates no right.
• Even if each man could alienate himself, he could not alienate his children: they are born
men and free; their liberty belongs to them, and no one but they has the right to dispose
of it.
History:
The Industrial Revolution
• The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major
changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a
profound effect on the socioeconomic, and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the
United Kingdom , then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and
eventually the world.
• The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human history; almost every
aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notably, average income and
population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. In the two centuries
following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over 10-fold, while the
world's population increased over 6-fold.
The Enlightenment
th
• Europe started the 18 century in a semi-feudal state
– Economic and political power was centrally-based
– Aristocratic class held most of the power
– By the end, industrial manufacturing would shift the economic paradigm
• The Enlightenment pushed thinkers, philosophes, to improve the institutions of mankind
– Nature is both rational and good
– Observation of natural laws could theoretically lead to happiness for mankind
French Revolution 17889, Causes
• Enlightenment (knowledge & observation)
• Economic crisis
• Clash between the Third Estate and the First and Second Estates
rd
– 3 = peasants, workers, bourgeoisie
st nd
– 1 & 2 = clergy & nobility
• Fought over issue of representation in the legislative body, the Estates-General
– Convened to discuss taxation

6. The Realist Era
• Typically associated with the 1850’s
• Scientific method is used rather than accept dogma
• Develops the “Age of Reason”
• Industrial Revolution takes shape as factories produce goods cheaper and faster
• Migration from rural areas into cities (urbanization), economies change from agrarian to
industrial
• Major inventions are the train and photography
Realism: Exploring human evolution & social equality
• political context: Marxism
• Communist Manifesto(c. 1850)
– thesis: all history was history of class struggles
– determined by humanity’s relationship to material wealth
• Darwin: theory of evolution
• POSITIVISM: all knowledge comes from tested scientific proof
– Developed by philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
– All knowledge could be derived from objectivity of scientific observation
– (Ahem…anyone ever hear of Aristotle??!!)
– Social scientists would deduce laws of human culture
– Metaphysical and theological speculation was out
– Positivism stressed emphasis on objectivity