This document is a makalah (paper) written by Muhammad Abdur Rohman Azis for a class on the Philosophy and History of Sports at the University of Negeri Surabaya in 2021. The paper aims to review international journals and increase the reader's understanding of international journal reviews. It consists of an introduction, three chapters on journals, reviewing journals, and conclusions/recommendations, and a bibliography. The author thanks various parties for their assistance in completing the paper and acknowledges that the paper could still be improved with constructive criticism.
Some people realized about the importance of physical activity in maintaining health and wellness. This perception exists because there is a lot of efforts and studies done to improve people health and wellness through physical activity. In top of that, it is known that motivation is one of the main effects of the people participation in sports or physical activity. Therefore, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, many have agreed that motivation plays important role in determining physical activity level. Hence, this study will be conducted to determine the relationship between extrinsic motivations with the physical activity level. The researcher has randomly selected 172 students from Faculty of Education UiTM as a respondent of this study. The study was conducted using questionnaire based on the Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI) and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) which then been edited to fulfil the requirement of the study. This study is to examine the relationship between extrinsic motivations with the physical activity level. The results showed that there was significant relationship between extrinsic motivations with the physical activity level. The male respondent was found to have high level of physical activity better than female respondents.
This document discusses a study that examines transformational and transactional leadership styles in martial arts coaches. The study tested the validity of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X) in assessing leadership behaviors of 186 martial arts students' perceptions of their coaches. The results supported a nine-factor structure of the MLQ-5X, including scales for transformational, transactional, and non-leadership behaviors. While transactional leadership predicted leader effectiveness, transformational leadership explained additional variance and provided unique predictive ability beyond transactional leadership alone. This lends further support to the idea that transformational leadership has an "augmentation effect" in predicting leader effectiveness. The results provide insight into assessing distinct leadership styles of coaches
The Influence of Leadership on Followers Performance among Bottle Water Compa...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between leadership style and followers' performance in bottle water companies in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. It identified democratic, autocratic, participative, and transactional leadership styles as the independent variables, and followers' performance as the dependent variable.
A questionnaire was distributed to 100 employees across several bottle water companies, with a response rate of 90%. The results found that democratic leadership had a mean range of 3.04-3.34 and was agreed to have a high impact on followers' performance. Autocratic leadership obtained a mean range of 3.20-3.50 and was also agreed to highly impact performance. Overall, the study concluded that leadership styles positively impact followers, but each style
Development and validation of psychic energyMalika Sharma
This document describes the development and validation of a Psychic Energy Assessment Scale for gymnasts. It began with generating statements to measure psychic energy based on a literature review. An initial 7-item scale was administered to 120 gymnasts and exploratory factor analysis identified a 2-factor model explaining 57.98% of variance. A 5-item scale was then administered to 65 gymnasts and factor analysis supported a 1-factor model explaining 47.39% of variance. The scale aims to measure arousal awareness and regulation as important psychological factors for gymnast performance. Establishing validity and reliability indicated the 5-item scale is a valid and reliable measure of psychic energy for use in training and identifying strengths and weaknesses.
This dissertation investigates the motivations of males and females for participating in obstacle course races. The author conducted a survey of over 600 obstacle course race participants to determine their motivations. The survey was based on an existing motivation scale for marathon runners but was adapted for obstacle course races. The results showed that both males and females rated personal achievement, affiliation with obstacle course racing, and health orientation as very important motivations. Competition was more important for males than females but was not as important as other motivations for either gender. The study concluded that fun, excitement and the uncertain nature of obstacle courses are also key motivations for participants, and may be even more important for sustaining participation than other motivational factors.
Leadership Effectiveness of Islamic Education Management Department at Educat...inventionjournals
The purpose of this study was to reveal: (1) The direct effect of confidence level toward work discipline, (2) The direct effect of the task structure toward work discipline, (3) The direct effect of the level of confidence toward effectiveness of the leadership, (4) The direct effect of the task structure toward effectiveness of leadership, (5) the direct effect of labor discipline toward effectiveness of the leadership of the Islamic Education Management Department at Faculty of Education of the State Islamic University of North Sumatra. This research method used correlated path models. The study population was faculty and students with the number of 148 people. Sampling using Krecji table, with this technique resulted in a sample 108 people. The instrument used to collect data was questionnaire Likert scale models. The analysis technique used is path analysis. The findings of this study indicate: (1) The confidence level affect the work Discipline of 16.9%, (2) Structural work tasks affect the Discipline of 18.7%, (3) The level of trust directly affects the effectiveness of the leadership of 19,4% , (4). The task structure directly affects the effectiveness of the leadership of 19.5% and (5) Work Discipline directly influence the effectiveness of the leadership of the Department of 22.1%.
The Effects of a Psychological Skills Training Program on Mental Toughness of...QUESTJOURNAL
This study investigated the effects of an 8-week Psychological Skills Training (PST) program on the mental toughness of skilled female volleyball players. The experimental group underwent two 30-minute PST sessions per week focused on goal setting, relaxation, visualization, and self-talk. Their mental toughness was assessed before and after using the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire. The results showed a significant increase in confidence, constancy, control, and overall mental toughness for the experimental group compared to the control group. Thus, the PST program effectively improved the mental toughness of skilled female volleyball players.
This study examined the relationship between selected anthropometric variables and performance among high school male kabaddi players in Mandya District, India. The anthropometric variables assessed were height, leg length, arm length, and ideal weight. The purpose was to predict kabaddi performance from these anthropometric measures. It was found that physical structure, especially height and leg length, provided advantages in kabaddi. The study aimed to increase understanding of anthropometric demands for kabaddi performance at different levels.
Some people realized about the importance of physical activity in maintaining health and wellness. This perception exists because there is a lot of efforts and studies done to improve people health and wellness through physical activity. In top of that, it is known that motivation is one of the main effects of the people participation in sports or physical activity. Therefore, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, many have agreed that motivation plays important role in determining physical activity level. Hence, this study will be conducted to determine the relationship between extrinsic motivations with the physical activity level. The researcher has randomly selected 172 students from Faculty of Education UiTM as a respondent of this study. The study was conducted using questionnaire based on the Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI) and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) which then been edited to fulfil the requirement of the study. This study is to examine the relationship between extrinsic motivations with the physical activity level. The results showed that there was significant relationship between extrinsic motivations with the physical activity level. The male respondent was found to have high level of physical activity better than female respondents.
This document discusses a study that examines transformational and transactional leadership styles in martial arts coaches. The study tested the validity of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X) in assessing leadership behaviors of 186 martial arts students' perceptions of their coaches. The results supported a nine-factor structure of the MLQ-5X, including scales for transformational, transactional, and non-leadership behaviors. While transactional leadership predicted leader effectiveness, transformational leadership explained additional variance and provided unique predictive ability beyond transactional leadership alone. This lends further support to the idea that transformational leadership has an "augmentation effect" in predicting leader effectiveness. The results provide insight into assessing distinct leadership styles of coaches
The Influence of Leadership on Followers Performance among Bottle Water Compa...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between leadership style and followers' performance in bottle water companies in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. It identified democratic, autocratic, participative, and transactional leadership styles as the independent variables, and followers' performance as the dependent variable.
A questionnaire was distributed to 100 employees across several bottle water companies, with a response rate of 90%. The results found that democratic leadership had a mean range of 3.04-3.34 and was agreed to have a high impact on followers' performance. Autocratic leadership obtained a mean range of 3.20-3.50 and was also agreed to highly impact performance. Overall, the study concluded that leadership styles positively impact followers, but each style
Development and validation of psychic energyMalika Sharma
This document describes the development and validation of a Psychic Energy Assessment Scale for gymnasts. It began with generating statements to measure psychic energy based on a literature review. An initial 7-item scale was administered to 120 gymnasts and exploratory factor analysis identified a 2-factor model explaining 57.98% of variance. A 5-item scale was then administered to 65 gymnasts and factor analysis supported a 1-factor model explaining 47.39% of variance. The scale aims to measure arousal awareness and regulation as important psychological factors for gymnast performance. Establishing validity and reliability indicated the 5-item scale is a valid and reliable measure of psychic energy for use in training and identifying strengths and weaknesses.
This dissertation investigates the motivations of males and females for participating in obstacle course races. The author conducted a survey of over 600 obstacle course race participants to determine their motivations. The survey was based on an existing motivation scale for marathon runners but was adapted for obstacle course races. The results showed that both males and females rated personal achievement, affiliation with obstacle course racing, and health orientation as very important motivations. Competition was more important for males than females but was not as important as other motivations for either gender. The study concluded that fun, excitement and the uncertain nature of obstacle courses are also key motivations for participants, and may be even more important for sustaining participation than other motivational factors.
Leadership Effectiveness of Islamic Education Management Department at Educat...inventionjournals
The purpose of this study was to reveal: (1) The direct effect of confidence level toward work discipline, (2) The direct effect of the task structure toward work discipline, (3) The direct effect of the level of confidence toward effectiveness of the leadership, (4) The direct effect of the task structure toward effectiveness of leadership, (5) the direct effect of labor discipline toward effectiveness of the leadership of the Islamic Education Management Department at Faculty of Education of the State Islamic University of North Sumatra. This research method used correlated path models. The study population was faculty and students with the number of 148 people. Sampling using Krecji table, with this technique resulted in a sample 108 people. The instrument used to collect data was questionnaire Likert scale models. The analysis technique used is path analysis. The findings of this study indicate: (1) The confidence level affect the work Discipline of 16.9%, (2) Structural work tasks affect the Discipline of 18.7%, (3) The level of trust directly affects the effectiveness of the leadership of 19,4% , (4). The task structure directly affects the effectiveness of the leadership of 19.5% and (5) Work Discipline directly influence the effectiveness of the leadership of the Department of 22.1%.
The Effects of a Psychological Skills Training Program on Mental Toughness of...QUESTJOURNAL
This study investigated the effects of an 8-week Psychological Skills Training (PST) program on the mental toughness of skilled female volleyball players. The experimental group underwent two 30-minute PST sessions per week focused on goal setting, relaxation, visualization, and self-talk. Their mental toughness was assessed before and after using the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire. The results showed a significant increase in confidence, constancy, control, and overall mental toughness for the experimental group compared to the control group. Thus, the PST program effectively improved the mental toughness of skilled female volleyball players.
This study examined the relationship between selected anthropometric variables and performance among high school male kabaddi players in Mandya District, India. The anthropometric variables assessed were height, leg length, arm length, and ideal weight. The purpose was to predict kabaddi performance from these anthropometric measures. It was found that physical structure, especially height and leg length, provided advantages in kabaddi. The study aimed to increase understanding of anthropometric demands for kabaddi performance at different levels.
This document presents a proposed integrative model examining the relationships between personality, behavior, and leader effectiveness. Specifically, it aims to show how certain behaviors may mediate the relationship between personality traits and leader effectiveness. The document provides background on the trait approach and behavior approach to studying leadership. It discusses extraversion and expressed control as personality traits consistently linked to leader effectiveness. Change-oriented and relational-oriented behaviors are identified as aspects of transformational leadership. The study then proposes a model where specific behaviors mediate the effect of personality traits on leader effectiveness. It aims to address gaps in prior research by focusing on specific traits and behaviors in an integrated model.
Research in physical education involves systematically and objectively investigating sports performance and issues through scientific methods to gain new knowledge. The speaker defines research as a search for solutions to problems and questions in an organized manner. Research aims to add to the existing body of knowledge through discovery and development. Areas of research in physical education include exercise physiology, sports psychology, sociology, medicine, physiotherapy, biomechanics, training methods, indigenous sports, adaptive physical education, growth studies, and motor learning. Research is important for physical education to become a scientific discipline and help coaches develop a research perspective.
This document provides a review and summary of leadership theories, competency frameworks, and leadership development initiatives. It begins with an overview of the evolution of leadership theories from trait theories to transformational leadership. It then describes 24 leadership competency frameworks from the private and public sectors. The document also briefly outlines 6 examples of leadership development programs and initiatives. It concludes with a discussion of competency frameworks and an argument for more collective and emergent approaches to leadership.
This document outlines a study on the impact of field training with and without yogic practice on cricket players. It discusses how 48 male cricket players were divided into 3 groups: field training only, field training combined with yogic practice, and a control group. The field training and yogic practice packages were administered for 12 weeks. The study measured effects on physical fitness, physiological, psychological, and performance variables. Statistical analysis was conducted to analyze the data collected and determine the impact of the different training packages.
The perceptionofawardwinningathletesontheeffectsofcoachingandpsychologicalbeh...alonzo mortejo
This study examined award-winning athletes' perceptions of coaching behavior and psychological factors that influence their sports performance. The study surveyed 49 athletes and 9 coaches from a state university in the Philippines. Results showed that coaching style and mental toughness had the greatest positive impact on athletic performance, while anxiety had a slight negative effect. There was little difference between how coaches and athletes rated coaching behaviors like motivation and communication skills. Coaching style was found to be the strongest predictor of athletic achievement over other psychological variables. The study concluded coaching behaviors and mental toughness significantly influence athletes' performance, and qualitative research should further explore other performance-related factors.
Analyzing Correlation of Leadership Style with Organizational Maturity a Mili...inventionjournals
Management and leadership are the pillars of every organization and society. Advancement of technology, complexity and size of today’s organizations, and organizations’ continuous effort to gradually evolve their processes and achieve organizational maturity to gain competitive advantage and greater sustainability have highlighted the role of organizational leadership more than ever. Conducted in 2016, the present research is an attempt to determine the Correlation between Leadership Style and Organizational Maturity in a Military Organization .This research is an applied study in terms of objective, and a descriptivesurvey study with respect to data collection method. The statistical population included 150 personnel of a military organization. The data is collected using two questionnaires: the leadership style questionnaire and the organizational maturity questionnaire. The questionnaire's reliability is 0.98 using the Cronbach’s alpha for all dimensions of the questionnaire. A construct validity assessment is conducted to calculate the questionnaire’s validity, and results reflected validity of the research instrument (AVE>0.5). Data analysis is carried out through structural equations modeling in Smart PLS. Results revealed that the variance and path coefficients have significantly adequate values. Findings were also reflective of a significant Correlation between leadership style and organizational maturity of employees. However, a significant negative Correlation is observed between organization’s leadership goal setting and organizational maturity on the one hand, and leadership style and organizational maturity on the other. As a result, the research hypotheses were rejected. In addition, there is no Correlation between organizational maturity and leadership style, and thus the related hypothesis is rejected in studied organization.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
The study analyzed the aerobic endurance of 480 basketball players aged 13 to 45 who participated in the 2015-2016 state championships. The players were divided into four groups based on age: under 14, under 16, under 18, and senior. Aerobic endurance was measured using the 12-minute cooper test. The results showed significant differences in aerobic endurance among the four age groups.
This document presents a research project comparing the effects of unilateral and bilateral lower body resistance and plyometric training on soccer performance. The introduction provides background on increased professionalism in soccer and the importance of training specificity. A literature review finds that resistance training improves maximal strength, vertical jump height, and sprint performance in soccer players. Plyometric training also enhances vertical jump and sprint performance. Combined resistance and plyometric training may provide further benefits. However, the effects of unilateral versus bilateral training are less clear given soccer's unilateral nature. The study aims to address this by comparing the training modalities' impacts on relevant fitness variables.
This document is a literature review and methods section from a honours project examining the relationships between exercise behaviour, stages of change, self-determination theory, and future time perspective. The literature review provides background on the stages of change model, self-determination continuum, and future time perspective theory. It indicates that higher stages of change are associated with more intrinsic motivation. The study aims to examine how future time perspective and self-determination relate to exercise behaviour and stages of change. The methods section describes using online questionnaires to measure these variables in university students and analyzing the results to address the study objectives.
This document discusses the development and validation of a behavioral checklist for assessing the mental skills of university football players. It was found to have moderate but significant test-retest reliability and high face validity. The checklist can help identify target mental skills for improvement to aid in athletic development. Further research is still needed but this checklist provides a useful tool for evaluating mental preparation in football players.
K. Sletten - Performance enhancing effects of nitrate related supplementsKristian Sletten
This extended paper systematically reviewed 23 studies on the effects of nitric oxide (NO)-related supplementation on aerobic performance in healthy humans. The studies showed that NO supplementation, in the form of beetroot, arginine, citrulline or pharmacological NO substances, can improve exercise performance by increasing time to exhaustion and lowering submaximal oxygen consumption. The ergogenic effects appeared to be more consistent for untrained individuals and with high-intensity exercise. While NO supplements may enhance aerobic performance, the size of the effect depends on training status, exercise type, and supplementation regimen.
Comparative effect of SAQ and circuit training programme on selected physical...Sports Journal
The present study was undertaken to study the comparative effect of SAQ and circuit training program on
selected physical fitness variables of school level basketball players. Thirty (30) school level basketball
players aged between 14-17 years will randomly be selected from Simpkins School Agra U.P. The
subjects were randomly divided in three groups as group A (SAQ training group), group B (circuit
training group) and group C (control group). After the pre-test with Physical fitness test Experiment
Group-A underwent a training SAQ programme of selected exercise. Experiment Group-B received a
Circuit training program of selected exercises, whereas the Control group did not participate in any
training program. Group A has gone under SAQ training program and Group has gone under circuit
training for 60 minutes three times a week except Sunday for duration of 12 weeks. Post data was
collected after 12 weeks of experimental period. Analysis of Variance (ANOCOVA) was applied at 0.05
level of significance and Post hoc mean comparison was done by using LSD test. It may be concluded
that SAQ training program was significantly better than circuit training program for speed and agility
whereas circuit training program was better than SAQ training program for abdominal, arms & shoulder
endurance being studied by the researcher. In case of explosive strength no significant difference was
found between both the training programs
This document is a senior seminar project that examines the influence of time management skills on stress levels of student athletes who are in season and out of season. It begins with an introduction that outlines the problem, significance, and hypotheses of the study. A literature review then discusses previous research on how being in season affects academic performance for student athletes compared to being out of season. The literature review also examines how stress and time management can influence academic performance and well-being. The methodology section describes how the study was conducted, including administering time management and stress questionnaires to student athletes at the beginning and middle of the semester. Results of the study are then analyzed, followed by a discussion of findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
Analysis of the physical fitness of the physical education professional stude...Sports Journal
The purpose of this study was to compare the selected physical fitness variables of the Physical
Education Professional students participated in the different competition levels. To achieve the purpose,
eighty three male physical education students studying B.P.Ed. Courses at Alvas B.P.Ed. Moddigere and
General Kariyappa B.P.Ed. College Shimogga during 2015 with age ranging 18-25 were selected at
random. They had their credit in participating Intercollegiate, South Zone and All India competitions.
The physical fitness variables selected for the study were the Shoulder Strength (Pull ups in nos.);
Abdominal Strength (Sit ups in nos.); Agility (Shuttle Run in secs.); Speed (50 meters dash in secs.);
Explosive Power (Standing Broad Jump in meters) and Cardiovascular Endurance (600 Meters Run/Walk
in minutes). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to find out the significant difference
among different disciplines. Further the Scheffe’s Post Hoc test was used to find the significant
difference in paired mean scores. It was concluded that there was a significant difference in the Pull Ups,
Sit Ups and Speed of the Physical Education Professional students participated in the different
competition levels. A better understanding of these relationships will help to understand the power and
endurance and also help to plan sport specific strength training at South Zone, All India and National
level athletes.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed physical performance test data from 1,161 New Zealand rugby union players from 2004 to 2007 to determine differences between playing positions, levels, and years, and changes within players between competitions. The study found that props had the highest mass, body fat, and strength but slowest speeds, while outside backs had the lowest body fat and fastest speeds. Players at higher levels generally performed better than lower levels. Players improved annually in strength and repeated sprint ability. Physical performance generally decreased during professional competitions but increased when moving to higher level competitions.
Review Jurnal Theoretical and Methodical ApproachesDefiRachmawati
This document is a makalah, or paper, written by Defi Wulan Rachmawati for a class on the Philosophy and History of Sports at Surabaya State University in Indonesia. The paper aims to review international journals on the topic of team cognition in sports. It begins by explaining the importance of studying team cognition in sports, as sports require both physical and cognitive coordination between teammates. It then reviews two main theoretical approaches to studying team cognition - the information processing approach and the ecological approach. The paper focuses on these approaches and their application to research on team cognition in sports. It also discusses methods that can be used to study cognition within sports teams.
This document summarizes a journal article that discusses recommendations for improving sport management internships based on experiential learning theory. It begins by outlining the importance of internships in sport management education and reviews experiential learning theory. It then identifies the primary stakeholders in internships - the student, university program and internship coordinator, and host organization and supervisor. Finally, it applies John Dewey's model of experiential learning to make recommendations for how to improve the internship process by focusing on elements like the social environment, knowledge organization, learner experience and outcomes. The overall goal is to provide a framework to help develop guided learning experiences and administer internship programs for sport management.
This document summarizes a research report on the challenges of transitioning young athletes into the Australian Football League (AFL) and the strategies used by Player Development Managers (PDMs) at six AFL clubs. Semi-structured interviews with PDMs found that current transition strategies are individualized and holistic, providing care and empowerment for each athlete. The PDM plays an important role by building relationships to effectively support athletes through the transition process. The results provide insights to expand career transition models to account for relocation factors faced by interstate athletes and help clubs reduce athletes returning to their home state.
A Critical Review Of Executive Coaching Research A Decade Of Progress And Wh...Jim Jimenez
This document provides a critical review of executive coaching research over the past decade. It summarizes the current state of coaching research and identifies areas for future research.
The document is divided into three sections. The first two sections review research from the 20th century through the past decade, categorizing recent studies into the nature of coaching, coach behavior, client behavior, relationships, and impact. Research has grown significantly in the past decade but still uses primarily case studies and surveys.
The third section considers future directions for research, identifying key questions like which groups benefit most from different approaches. Future research should build on past studies through controlled trials, large samples, and meta-analyses to develop theories and establish coaching as an evidence-
This document is a business project submitted by Dan Taylor to the University of Worcester investigating the most successful leadership styles exercised by sports team coaches. It includes an introduction outlining the purpose to analyze the relationship between leadership styles and success of sports teams. The methodology section describes distributing questionnaires to coaches and players from 16 university sports teams to identify leadership styles and measure team cohesion. The results will analyze relationships between leadership styles, key performance indicators of success, and team cohesion.
This document presents a proposed integrative model examining the relationships between personality, behavior, and leader effectiveness. Specifically, it aims to show how certain behaviors may mediate the relationship between personality traits and leader effectiveness. The document provides background on the trait approach and behavior approach to studying leadership. It discusses extraversion and expressed control as personality traits consistently linked to leader effectiveness. Change-oriented and relational-oriented behaviors are identified as aspects of transformational leadership. The study then proposes a model where specific behaviors mediate the effect of personality traits on leader effectiveness. It aims to address gaps in prior research by focusing on specific traits and behaviors in an integrated model.
Research in physical education involves systematically and objectively investigating sports performance and issues through scientific methods to gain new knowledge. The speaker defines research as a search for solutions to problems and questions in an organized manner. Research aims to add to the existing body of knowledge through discovery and development. Areas of research in physical education include exercise physiology, sports psychology, sociology, medicine, physiotherapy, biomechanics, training methods, indigenous sports, adaptive physical education, growth studies, and motor learning. Research is important for physical education to become a scientific discipline and help coaches develop a research perspective.
This document provides a review and summary of leadership theories, competency frameworks, and leadership development initiatives. It begins with an overview of the evolution of leadership theories from trait theories to transformational leadership. It then describes 24 leadership competency frameworks from the private and public sectors. The document also briefly outlines 6 examples of leadership development programs and initiatives. It concludes with a discussion of competency frameworks and an argument for more collective and emergent approaches to leadership.
This document outlines a study on the impact of field training with and without yogic practice on cricket players. It discusses how 48 male cricket players were divided into 3 groups: field training only, field training combined with yogic practice, and a control group. The field training and yogic practice packages were administered for 12 weeks. The study measured effects on physical fitness, physiological, psychological, and performance variables. Statistical analysis was conducted to analyze the data collected and determine the impact of the different training packages.
The perceptionofawardwinningathletesontheeffectsofcoachingandpsychologicalbeh...alonzo mortejo
This study examined award-winning athletes' perceptions of coaching behavior and psychological factors that influence their sports performance. The study surveyed 49 athletes and 9 coaches from a state university in the Philippines. Results showed that coaching style and mental toughness had the greatest positive impact on athletic performance, while anxiety had a slight negative effect. There was little difference between how coaches and athletes rated coaching behaviors like motivation and communication skills. Coaching style was found to be the strongest predictor of athletic achievement over other psychological variables. The study concluded coaching behaviors and mental toughness significantly influence athletes' performance, and qualitative research should further explore other performance-related factors.
Analyzing Correlation of Leadership Style with Organizational Maturity a Mili...inventionjournals
Management and leadership are the pillars of every organization and society. Advancement of technology, complexity and size of today’s organizations, and organizations’ continuous effort to gradually evolve their processes and achieve organizational maturity to gain competitive advantage and greater sustainability have highlighted the role of organizational leadership more than ever. Conducted in 2016, the present research is an attempt to determine the Correlation between Leadership Style and Organizational Maturity in a Military Organization .This research is an applied study in terms of objective, and a descriptivesurvey study with respect to data collection method. The statistical population included 150 personnel of a military organization. The data is collected using two questionnaires: the leadership style questionnaire and the organizational maturity questionnaire. The questionnaire's reliability is 0.98 using the Cronbach’s alpha for all dimensions of the questionnaire. A construct validity assessment is conducted to calculate the questionnaire’s validity, and results reflected validity of the research instrument (AVE>0.5). Data analysis is carried out through structural equations modeling in Smart PLS. Results revealed that the variance and path coefficients have significantly adequate values. Findings were also reflective of a significant Correlation between leadership style and organizational maturity of employees. However, a significant negative Correlation is observed between organization’s leadership goal setting and organizational maturity on the one hand, and leadership style and organizational maturity on the other. As a result, the research hypotheses were rejected. In addition, there is no Correlation between organizational maturity and leadership style, and thus the related hypothesis is rejected in studied organization.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
The study analyzed the aerobic endurance of 480 basketball players aged 13 to 45 who participated in the 2015-2016 state championships. The players were divided into four groups based on age: under 14, under 16, under 18, and senior. Aerobic endurance was measured using the 12-minute cooper test. The results showed significant differences in aerobic endurance among the four age groups.
This document presents a research project comparing the effects of unilateral and bilateral lower body resistance and plyometric training on soccer performance. The introduction provides background on increased professionalism in soccer and the importance of training specificity. A literature review finds that resistance training improves maximal strength, vertical jump height, and sprint performance in soccer players. Plyometric training also enhances vertical jump and sprint performance. Combined resistance and plyometric training may provide further benefits. However, the effects of unilateral versus bilateral training are less clear given soccer's unilateral nature. The study aims to address this by comparing the training modalities' impacts on relevant fitness variables.
This document is a literature review and methods section from a honours project examining the relationships between exercise behaviour, stages of change, self-determination theory, and future time perspective. The literature review provides background on the stages of change model, self-determination continuum, and future time perspective theory. It indicates that higher stages of change are associated with more intrinsic motivation. The study aims to examine how future time perspective and self-determination relate to exercise behaviour and stages of change. The methods section describes using online questionnaires to measure these variables in university students and analyzing the results to address the study objectives.
This document discusses the development and validation of a behavioral checklist for assessing the mental skills of university football players. It was found to have moderate but significant test-retest reliability and high face validity. The checklist can help identify target mental skills for improvement to aid in athletic development. Further research is still needed but this checklist provides a useful tool for evaluating mental preparation in football players.
K. Sletten - Performance enhancing effects of nitrate related supplementsKristian Sletten
This extended paper systematically reviewed 23 studies on the effects of nitric oxide (NO)-related supplementation on aerobic performance in healthy humans. The studies showed that NO supplementation, in the form of beetroot, arginine, citrulline or pharmacological NO substances, can improve exercise performance by increasing time to exhaustion and lowering submaximal oxygen consumption. The ergogenic effects appeared to be more consistent for untrained individuals and with high-intensity exercise. While NO supplements may enhance aerobic performance, the size of the effect depends on training status, exercise type, and supplementation regimen.
Comparative effect of SAQ and circuit training programme on selected physical...Sports Journal
The present study was undertaken to study the comparative effect of SAQ and circuit training program on
selected physical fitness variables of school level basketball players. Thirty (30) school level basketball
players aged between 14-17 years will randomly be selected from Simpkins School Agra U.P. The
subjects were randomly divided in three groups as group A (SAQ training group), group B (circuit
training group) and group C (control group). After the pre-test with Physical fitness test Experiment
Group-A underwent a training SAQ programme of selected exercise. Experiment Group-B received a
Circuit training program of selected exercises, whereas the Control group did not participate in any
training program. Group A has gone under SAQ training program and Group has gone under circuit
training for 60 minutes three times a week except Sunday for duration of 12 weeks. Post data was
collected after 12 weeks of experimental period. Analysis of Variance (ANOCOVA) was applied at 0.05
level of significance and Post hoc mean comparison was done by using LSD test. It may be concluded
that SAQ training program was significantly better than circuit training program for speed and agility
whereas circuit training program was better than SAQ training program for abdominal, arms & shoulder
endurance being studied by the researcher. In case of explosive strength no significant difference was
found between both the training programs
This document is a senior seminar project that examines the influence of time management skills on stress levels of student athletes who are in season and out of season. It begins with an introduction that outlines the problem, significance, and hypotheses of the study. A literature review then discusses previous research on how being in season affects academic performance for student athletes compared to being out of season. The literature review also examines how stress and time management can influence academic performance and well-being. The methodology section describes how the study was conducted, including administering time management and stress questionnaires to student athletes at the beginning and middle of the semester. Results of the study are then analyzed, followed by a discussion of findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
Analysis of the physical fitness of the physical education professional stude...Sports Journal
The purpose of this study was to compare the selected physical fitness variables of the Physical
Education Professional students participated in the different competition levels. To achieve the purpose,
eighty three male physical education students studying B.P.Ed. Courses at Alvas B.P.Ed. Moddigere and
General Kariyappa B.P.Ed. College Shimogga during 2015 with age ranging 18-25 were selected at
random. They had their credit in participating Intercollegiate, South Zone and All India competitions.
The physical fitness variables selected for the study were the Shoulder Strength (Pull ups in nos.);
Abdominal Strength (Sit ups in nos.); Agility (Shuttle Run in secs.); Speed (50 meters dash in secs.);
Explosive Power (Standing Broad Jump in meters) and Cardiovascular Endurance (600 Meters Run/Walk
in minutes). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to find out the significant difference
among different disciplines. Further the Scheffe’s Post Hoc test was used to find the significant
difference in paired mean scores. It was concluded that there was a significant difference in the Pull Ups,
Sit Ups and Speed of the Physical Education Professional students participated in the different
competition levels. A better understanding of these relationships will help to understand the power and
endurance and also help to plan sport specific strength training at South Zone, All India and National
level athletes.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed physical performance test data from 1,161 New Zealand rugby union players from 2004 to 2007 to determine differences between playing positions, levels, and years, and changes within players between competitions. The study found that props had the highest mass, body fat, and strength but slowest speeds, while outside backs had the lowest body fat and fastest speeds. Players at higher levels generally performed better than lower levels. Players improved annually in strength and repeated sprint ability. Physical performance generally decreased during professional competitions but increased when moving to higher level competitions.
Review Jurnal Theoretical and Methodical ApproachesDefiRachmawati
This document is a makalah, or paper, written by Defi Wulan Rachmawati for a class on the Philosophy and History of Sports at Surabaya State University in Indonesia. The paper aims to review international journals on the topic of team cognition in sports. It begins by explaining the importance of studying team cognition in sports, as sports require both physical and cognitive coordination between teammates. It then reviews two main theoretical approaches to studying team cognition - the information processing approach and the ecological approach. The paper focuses on these approaches and their application to research on team cognition in sports. It also discusses methods that can be used to study cognition within sports teams.
This document summarizes a journal article that discusses recommendations for improving sport management internships based on experiential learning theory. It begins by outlining the importance of internships in sport management education and reviews experiential learning theory. It then identifies the primary stakeholders in internships - the student, university program and internship coordinator, and host organization and supervisor. Finally, it applies John Dewey's model of experiential learning to make recommendations for how to improve the internship process by focusing on elements like the social environment, knowledge organization, learner experience and outcomes. The overall goal is to provide a framework to help develop guided learning experiences and administer internship programs for sport management.
This document summarizes a research report on the challenges of transitioning young athletes into the Australian Football League (AFL) and the strategies used by Player Development Managers (PDMs) at six AFL clubs. Semi-structured interviews with PDMs found that current transition strategies are individualized and holistic, providing care and empowerment for each athlete. The PDM plays an important role by building relationships to effectively support athletes through the transition process. The results provide insights to expand career transition models to account for relocation factors faced by interstate athletes and help clubs reduce athletes returning to their home state.
A Critical Review Of Executive Coaching Research A Decade Of Progress And Wh...Jim Jimenez
This document provides a critical review of executive coaching research over the past decade. It summarizes the current state of coaching research and identifies areas for future research.
The document is divided into three sections. The first two sections review research from the 20th century through the past decade, categorizing recent studies into the nature of coaching, coach behavior, client behavior, relationships, and impact. Research has grown significantly in the past decade but still uses primarily case studies and surveys.
The third section considers future directions for research, identifying key questions like which groups benefit most from different approaches. Future research should build on past studies through controlled trials, large samples, and meta-analyses to develop theories and establish coaching as an evidence-
This document is a business project submitted by Dan Taylor to the University of Worcester investigating the most successful leadership styles exercised by sports team coaches. It includes an introduction outlining the purpose to analyze the relationship between leadership styles and success of sports teams. The methodology section describes distributing questionnaires to coaches and players from 16 university sports teams to identify leadership styles and measure team cohesion. The results will analyze relationships between leadership styles, key performance indicators of success, and team cohesion.
Athletes Satisfaction As Mediator Of Transformational Leadership Behaviors O...Kate Campbell
This study examined the relationship between high school football coaches' transformational leadership style and players' sport commitment in Iran. It hypothesized that player satisfaction would mediate this relationship. 280 high school football players aged 15-20 completed surveys measuring coaches' transformational leadership, player satisfaction, and sport commitment. Structural equation modeling found a positive relationship between transformational leadership and player satisfaction, and between satisfaction and sport commitment. Player satisfaction was shown to partially mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and sport commitment. The results suggest that when Iranian high school football coaches display transformational leadership behaviors, it increases player satisfaction and in turn increases players' commitment to sport.
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching inTimes of Organisational.docxtodd701
This study examined the impact of executive coaching on 31 executives during a period of organizational change at a global engineering firm. The executives participated in executive coaching sessions over 4 months. The study found that executive coaching was associated with:
1) Increased goal attainment, enhanced solution-focused thinking, and a greater ability to deal with change.
2) Increased leadership self-efficacy and resilience and a decrease in depression.
3) Positive impacts that generalized to non-work areas like family life.
The study provides empirical evidence that executive coaching can help executives develop skills needed to navigate organizational change.
Analyzing The Impact Of Higher Education CommissioKarla Long
This document analyzes the impact of policies by Pakistan's Higher Education Commission (HEC) on motivating faculty members at Jamshoro Education City universities. It aims to study how HEC's promotion policies between 2002-2012 impacted faculty qualifications, publications, and performance. A survey was administered to 190 randomly selected faculty members across three universities to understand the relationship between HEC policies and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation factors like empowerment, competence, recognition, salary, benefits, and promotions. The study found HEC policies increased faculty qualifications and publications during the tenure periods. A positive relationship was also found between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, though promotions had a negative relationship possibly due to tough criteria. Overall, HEC policies did not significantly
Education ________________________________ State Univer.docxtoltonkendal
Education
________________________________
State University,
Bachelor of Chemical Engineering
Relevant Coursework
______________________________________
- Advanced Reaction Engineering, - Reaction Kinetics for Industrial Processes
- Advanced Process Control, - Fundamentals of Chemical Engineering
- Operations Research – Optimization Methods, - Polymer engineering and science
Experience
_______________________________________
School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, 9/17 -6/18
Chemical Engineering Project Assistant
● Work in teams to perform measurements of viscosity and viscoelasticity of fluids and
solids by using a shear rheometer
● Prepare and print several 3D models using Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU)
University Housing & Dinning Services, 9/16 - Present
Service Center Representative
● Interview potential candidates for job openings, and provide training to new recruiters as
they fulfill their duties in the service center
● Work in different capacities at certain points during the year, including but not limited to:
leading tours, a courier shift, or administrative tasks to support UHDS operations
● Provide excellent customer service by addressing concerns and complains regarding
housing services
● Serve as a referral and resource agent for programs and services on campus
Community College 3/16 - 8/16
Physics and Mathematics Teacher Assistant
● Performed evaluations of student assignments
● Provided support to teachers with record-keeping, such as grades, and calculating
grades
The Com 10/14 - 06/16
Photographer and Photo Editor
● Worked with editors from different departments to check newspaper for quality purposes
and edit weekly student-run newspaper for LBCC
● Collected information and took pictures in order to inform students regarding breaking
news
● Adjusted, modified, and reworked photos using computer manipulation applications
● Created and maintained social networks, newsletters and blogs
Community College 09/14 - 06/15
Library Assistant
● Helped librarians to organize, and sort library material and make it available to users
● Assisted international students with library processes and translated informational
material to a different language
Projects
_________________________________________
● Virtual Lab Bioreactor Project
○ Determine near-optimal bioreactor growth condition for greatest volumetric
degradation of waste mixture by a consortium of bacteria containing sodium
benzoate
● Calcium Removal Project
○ Develop a steady state process for removal calcium ion from the aforementioned
batches by designing ion exchange resin, with a regeneration cycle
● Preliminary Acrylic Acid Plant Design
○ Redesigning an acrylic acid plant to only have one oxidizing.
This document reviews a journal article titled "Sport management internships: Recommendations for improving upon experiential learning". It begins with an introduction that discusses the importance of internships and experiential learning in sport management programs. It then provides an overview of experiential learning theory, particularly John Dewey's model, and how it can be applied to sport management internships. Finally, it identifies the primary stakeholders in internships - the student, the university/program/coordinator, and the host organization/supervisor - and their respective roles in ensuring a high-quality learning experience. The overall purpose is to provide suggestions for enhancing sport management internship programs based on experiential learning principles.
This dissertation explores factors that impact employee performance and well-being within organizations. Chapter 1 introduces the topic and outlines 4 research objectives: 1) determine factors influencing employee performance; 2) investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and well-being; 3) examine how organizational culture impacts behavior and performance; and 4) evaluate employee reactions to organizational change. The study aims to provide empirical insights and practical implications for management.
This dissertation explores factors that impact employee performance and well-being within organizations. It aims to add empirical insights through four main objectives: 1) determine primary factors influencing performance; 2) investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and well-being; 3) examine the influence of organizational culture; and 4) evaluate employee reactions to organizational change. The study seeks to provide quantitative data and practical implications to inform management practices and enhance employee outcomes. A literature review covers key theories in organizational behavior, including classical management, human relations, and contemporary frameworks. Organizational culture and its effect on behavior will also be investigated.
A Literature Review And Reports On Training And DevelopmentLisa Graves
The document provides a literature review on training and development. It summarizes several past studies on topics related to training evaluation and effectiveness. One study from 2011 examined the relationship between training characteristics and formative evaluation. A 2010 study reviewed alternative selection for training under risk conditions using estimated monetary value and decision tree analysis. Another 2010 study proposed an integrated model for evaluating training in organizations that assesses multiple dimensions of impact. A further study from 2010 evaluated a leadership training program based on process-designed groups.
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theoryi.docxransayo
A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory
in Organizational Contexts
Denise Linda Parris • Jon Welty Peachey
Received: 20 February 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2012 / Published online: 22 April 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract A new research area linked to ethics, virtues,
and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently
seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this
new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and
valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study
was to identify empirical studies that explored servant
leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order
to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and
impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide
an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leader-
ship work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a sys-
tematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted
from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a sys-
tematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disci-
plined screening process resulted in a final sample
population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these
empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the
definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership
theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts,
cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple
measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant
leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organi-
zations and improves the well-being of followers. This
study contributes to the development of servant leadership
theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the
methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of manage-
ment, highlighting an effective method for mapping out
thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics.
We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
Keywords Leadership � Leadership theory � Servant
leadership � Systematic literature review
Introduction
Leadership is one of the most comprehensively researched
social influence processes in the behavioral sciences. This is
because the success of all economic, political, and organi-
zational systems depends on the effective and efficient
guidance of the leaders of these systems (Barrow 1977). A
critical factor to understanding the success of an organiza-
tion, then, is to study its leaders. Leadership is a skill used to
influence followers in an organization to work enthusiasti-
cally towards goals specifically identified for the common
good (Barrow 1977; Cyert 2006; Plsek and Wilson 2001).
Great leaders create a vision for an organization, articulate
the vision to the followers, build a shared vision, craft a path
to achieve the vision, and guide their organizations into new
directions (Banutu-Gomez and Banutu-Gomez 2007; Kotter
2001). According to Schneider (1987), the most important
part in build.
Annotated Bibliography – Part 115MGMT 8410 Assignment A.docxjustine1simpson78276
Annotated Bibliography – Part 1 15
MGMT 8410 Assignment: Annotated Bibliography – Part 1
Uchenna Ohaeri, [email protected]
Student ID #: A00647580
Program: PhD in Management
Specialization: Leadership and Organizational Change
Faculty: Terry McGovern, [email protected]
Walden University
September 4, 2016
Scandura, T. A., & Pellegrini, E. K. (2008). Trust and leader-member exchange: A closer look at relational vulnerability. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(2), 101–110. doi: 10.1177/1548051808320986
The study by Scandura and Pellegrini examined the effect of trust in a leader-member exchange (LMX) quality, which they conducted amongst 228 full-time employed professionals enrolled in an Executive MBA program at a large Southeastern University. The authors achieved this by espousing Lewicki, Bunker, and Stevenson’s 11-item scaling method, which explored the Calculus-Based Trust (CBT), and Identification-Based Trust (IBT) scales. The scales are rated on the Cronbach alpha index to show their proportionality and linearity with LMX. Scandura and Pellegrini’s study revealed that a third-order “S-shaped” polynomial relationship existed between the CBT and LMX. They also found out that a linear relationship existed between the IBT and LMX, thereby providing support for their Hypothesis number 2.
The authors’ work draws strength from some four decades of available leadership researches and their opposition with leadership styles. Their main proposition is connected to the fact that leaders differentiate in their dyadic relationship with followers rather than espousing a particular leadership style with other members of the team or group. According to them, recent studies has resulted to the LMX research development, which in their view, asserts that the supervisor–subordinate dyad exist between two different possibilities ranging from “low-quality” relationship to “high-quality” relationships.
Scandura & Pellegrini’s finding reveals the significance of trust in the leader as a valuable tool between LMX and performance. This is affirmative, as the LMX concept is analyzed as a “trust-building” process. The implications of this study of the social exchange theory (SET) are that it will help in providing strategies on how ethical leaders affect organizational goals and outcomes. Some researchers posit that the SET suggests that team members and employees requite the leaders' behavior on them on a mutual ground. Relationship in social exchange can eventually evolve which is characterized by good levels of trust and diminished levels of control. The important concern is that it is pertinent to note that some of the LMX parameters have measures that are directly correlated with the concept of trust. I contend that power distance, which is an important cultural factor in any social exchange, may have an influence in an LMX relationship. Consequently, further research should be conducted in order to investigate the.
The document discusses the emerging roles of sports coaches based on a study conducted in the Philippines. It identifies four key roles that coaches play: (1) Motivator - to encourage and inspire athletes, (2) Instructor - to teach skills and techniques, (3) Supervisor - to manage training and provide direction, and (4) Assessor - to evaluate performance and provide feedback. These four roles - Motivator, Instructor, Supervisor, Assessor - form a new model called MISA that captures the essential functions of coaches in developing competent athletes. The study concludes that coach education should emphasize preparing coaches to fulfill these critical roles.
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The Golden Group is over. Can a new group step up? Two years ago, Kevin De Bruyne plunged Belgium’s Euro 2024 plans into disorder when he claimed the team was “too old” to win in an interview with The Protector. That Belgian squad had 10 players over 30 and the maximum average age of any Euro Cup 2024 team at the competition. A group-stage exit and just one goal at the World Cup put Belgium on course for a restructure.
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Euro 2024: Belgium's Transition from Golden Generation to New Hope
Tottenham guardian Vlad Dragusin is the only Euro Cup 2024 squad member singing regularly for one of Europe’s top clubs this flavor. He even played only nine Premier League games since adoption in January. Goalkeeper Horatiu Moldovan is a stoppage at Atletico Madrid.
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We are only a combine of days away from the UEFA Euro 2024 curtain raiser. The 24 squads are winding up their provisions and getting ready to give it their all to life the wanted Euro Cup Final trophy on July 14. Spread across six clusters, the first hurdle in the knockout phase will be the plump of 16.
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2. i
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT yang telah memberikan rahmat dan
hidayah-Nya sehingga saya dapat menyelesaikan tugas makalah yang berjudul
“Review Jurnal Internasional” ini tepat pada waktunya.
Adapun tujuan dari penulisan dari makalah ini adalah untuk memenuhi tugas
dari Bapak Dr. Made Pramono, M.Hum pada mata kuliah Filsafat dan Sejarah
Olahraga. Selain itu, makalah ini juga bertujuan untuk menambah wawasan tentang
review jurnal internasional bagi para pembaca dan penulis.
Saya mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Bapak Dr. Made Pramono, M.Hum
selaku dosen mata kuliah Filsafat dan Sejarah Olahraga yang telah memberikan
tugas ini sehingga dapat menambah pengetahuan dan wawasan sesuai dengan bidang
studi yang saya tekuni.
Saya juga mengucapkan terima kasih kepada semua pihak yang telah
membagi sebagian pengetahuannya sehingga saya dapat menyelesaikan makalah ini.
Saya menyadari makalah yang saya tulis ini masih jauh dari kata sempurna.
Oleh karena itu, kritik dan saran yang membangun akan saya harapkan demi
kesempurnaan makalah ini.
Nganjuk, 18 Maret 2021
MUHAMMAD ABDUR ROHMAN A.
3. ii
DAFTAR ISI
SAMPUL
KATA PENGANTAR...............................................................................................i
DAFTAR ISI.............................................................................................................ii
BAB I.........................................................................................................................1
JURNAL....................................................................................................................1
BAB II........................................................................................................................36
REVIEW JURNAL..................................................................................................36
BAB III......................................................................................................................38
KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN ................................................................................38
DAFTAR PUSTAKA................................................................................................39
4. 3
BAB I
JURNAL
Andrew Cruickshank a, *, Dave Collins a, b, Sue Minten c
a
Institute for Coaching and Performance, University of Central Lancashire, Preston,
England, PR1 2HE, UK b Grey Matters Performance Ltd, 181 Church Bank, Lower
Binton, England, CV37 9TQ, UK
c
Article history:
Received 3 August 2014
Received in revised form
15 April 2015
Accepted 15 April 2015 Available online 23 April 2015
Keywords:
Change management
Elite sport
Management
Success cultures
Succession
....................................................................................................................................O
bjectives: As part of the recent upsurge of work on management and organizational
factors in elite sports teams, researchers have focused on the team management-led
creation and regulation of high performing cultures. The purpose of this study was to
therefore add to a recently developed model of culture change best practice in
Olympic sports teams, as led and perceived by incoming performance directors, and
7. 6
particular (Wagstaff et al., 2012, 2013). These authors' appraisal has also provided
context for different work on the precise functioning and leadership of elite sport
organizations' performance departments, where attention has focused on those
directly responsible for sporting performance; normally known as team managers,
head coaches, directors of sport, or performance directors (e.g., Arnold, Fletcher, &
Molyneux, 2012; Cruickshank & Collins, 2012a; Cruickshank et al., 2013a, 2014;
Fletcher & Arnold, 2011). As performers, coaches, and sports medicine/science staff
are overseen by these specialist leaders, with the performance department often in an
entirely separate location to administrative and top management groups, research in
this area is bolstered by its applied relevance (Cruickshank, Collins, & Minten,
2013b).
Treating culture as “the shared values, beliefs, expectations, and practices across the
members and generations of a defined group” (Cruickshank & Collins, 2012a,
p.340), Cruickshank et al. (2014) recently contributed to this team management
agenda by developing the first theory of culture change best practice in Olympic
teams, as led and perceived by UK-based performance directors. Set in the context of
leader succession (i.e., when a new leader is appointed to sustain, or more usually
improve results), this investigation revealed that effective change consisted of two
components. First was a period of initial evaluation, planning and impact, through
which performance directors could establish themselves and the focus, content, and
nature of their program. Specifically, this involved developing an understanding of
cultural, political, and performance matters, working with experts, allies, and cultural
architects, promoting shared perceptions and support from both internal and external
stakeholders, dealing with the sport's most pressing needs, refraining from some
actions that would not be appropriately received in early phases of change, and
supporting optimal immediate results. Running together with these processes (before
becoming the prime mode of management) was the integrated management of both
internal and external stakeholder perceptions. More specifically, this approach
promoted long-term acceptance and regulation of the desired culture by those on the
inside (i.e., team management, support staff and performers) as well as protection
and reinforcement from those on the outside (i.e., top-management, funders, external
partners, the media, and other significant influences). To date, however, no research
8. 7
has explored how the equivalent culture change process is best led by incoming
managers of professional sports teams.
In prior linked work, Gilmore and Gilson (2007) presented a study on the response
of Bolton Wanderers Football Club to changes in its competitive and financial
surrounds (focusing on both performance and business elements). Effective
regulation of the performance department was achieved by developing a high
performing sport science support service, recruiting players and staff who were
congruent with the targeted system and culture, and aligning the first team and
academy. In other work, Sir Clive Woodward reflected on the need to facilitate
performer knowledge, communication, and ownership, support their families,
promote enjoyment, foster “no excuse” values, and sustain a consistent line on
performance preparation (Lee, Shaw, & Chesterfield, 2009). Cruickshank et al.
(2013a) have also reported that a culture change program at rugby union side Leeds
Carnegie was aided by the “onfield” management team developing clear objectives
and plans, optimizing the holistic performance environment, using multiple feedback
systems, reinforcing preferred perceptions and behaviors, and harnessing their
leadership and interpersonal qualities. Success here was also facilitated by the
shaping of contexts in which performers, support staff, and the CEO made
performance-impacting choices, as well as enabling a “to and fro” of power with
these groups. Although this body of work has therefore uncovered many themes,
principles, and mechanisms from single cases, a specific theory of team manager-led
change that represents perceived best practice from appointment has, however, yet to
be developed.
Given that opening research on the functioning of entire elite sport organizations has
gained from the transfer of business-based knowledge (e.g., Wagstaff et al., 2012), it
follows that investigation of manager-led culture change in professional teams may
also benefit from such application. Indeed, organizational researchers have
undertaken much work on change and its management.
Nonetheless, the foundation and orientation of many organizational change
management models appear to limit their potential to inform culture change in
professional sport performance teams. Specifically, organizational-based knowledge
has been restricted by many non-empirical, atheoretical, esoteric, n-step, and
9. 8
selfpromoting studies (as space precludes detailed discussion of these challenges
here, please see reviewsandarguments in Cruickshank & Collins, 2012a, 2012b;
Cruickshank et al., 2013b; du Gay & Vikkelsø, 2012; Sorge & van Witteloostuijn,
2004; Wetzel & Van Gorp, 2014). As such, leading organizational scholars have
called for a philosophically and methodologically refined approach to future study in
the management of change (du Gay & Vikkelsø, 2012; Pettigrew, 2012; Van de Ven
& Sun, 2011; Wetzel & Van Gorp, 2014). With the direct transfer of Cruickshank et
al. (2014) model also limited by its grounding in Olympic sport data, it seems that
developing a theory of incoming professional team manager-led culture change
would benefit from an explorative approach.
Methodology
....................................................................................................................................Pr
agmatic research philosophy
Given the issues from an often descriptive and esoteric treatment of change,
organizational researchers have recently called for
Thus, to add to the recent Olympic sport-based work of Cruickshank et al. (2014),
the purpose of this study was to create a first grounded theory of optimal incoming
manager-led culture change in the performance department of professional sport
organizations. In doing so, the research aimed to address the following initial
research questions: What is the chronology and nature of incoming manager-led
culture change best practice in professional sport performance teams, as perceived by
those responsible for its delivery? To what extent are prior general insights on
professional team culture change implicated within this specific process and how are
they operationalized? And how do the culture change perceptions of professional
sports team managers compare and contrast with those of Olympic sport
performance directors? In addressing these questions, the resulting grounded theory
model will provide a first conceptualization of culture change best practice from the
view of professional sports team managers as well as a tool on which these
individuals and supporting sport psychologists can base their practice. Such research
appears timely on both a theoretical and applied level as change processes require
contextually-specific rather than generalized treatment (du Gay & Vikkelsø, 2012)
10. 9
and professional team managers are now explicitly requesting culture change support
(League Managers Association, 2012).
a return to practically meaningful research (du Gay & Vikkelsø, 2012; Pettigrew,
2012). Heeding this advice, and mirroring the approach taken in Cruickshank et al.
(2014), a pragmatic research philosophy was thereby chosen to frame this study. We
consequently worked to our belief that sport psychology is a practical science, aimed
to uncover how an applied process worked in a world of incessant contingencies
rather than understand “reality” itself, and develop practical-level truths that “make a
difference” to the participants we studied (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Giacobbi,
Poczwardowski, & Hager, 2005). In this way, pragmatic research aims to unearth
solutions to.
applied challenges with developed knowledge at all times provisional, specific to the
context from which it was elicited, and reliant on constant refinement (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Giacobbi et al., 2005).
Rather than a primary concern with ontological and epistemological matters,
pragmatism prioritizes research questions and methods that are practically
meaningful and “more useful … within specific contexts (Giacobbi et al., 2005, p.
21). This philosophy still shapes all elements of the research process, however,
including: the goal of research (i.e., to develop practically-meaningful knowledge),
the role of theories (i.e., tools that facilitate practically-meaningful discoveries), data
interpretation (i.e., a focus on applied processes), and criteria for judging research
quality (i.e., results that facilitate advances in practice and practice-relevant theory)
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Giacobbi et al., 2005; Morgan, 2007). Pragmatists also
consider that the results of a study cannot be separated from the lens of “the
knower”; unlike foundationalists, who consider that there is one “reality” which can
be approached with a tabula rasa, objectively measured, and its “truths” revealed
(Bryant, 2009; Giacobbi et al., 2005; Morgan, 2007). Indeed, pragmatists
acknowledge that they possess a unique blend of biases and prejudices that can elicit
novel and innovative insights; a process defined as abduction (Bryant, 2009; para.
49). To be clear, however, the co-construction of knowledge with participants does
not reflect an extreme relativist position (where no findings can be considered more
accurate than others). Instead, pragmatism embraces the existence of multiple
11. 10
realities but sustains that this co-constructed knowledge relates to meaningful
applied artifacts (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
Grounded theory methodology
Useful for practice-led disciplines that aim to uncover “new modes of interacting and
organizing” (Suddaby, 2006, p. 641), grounded theory was developed to occupy a
pragmatic center ground between extreme empiricism and relativism (Suddaby,
2006). Focusing on how social processes operate in specific contexts (Holt &
Tamminen, 2010), and generating substantive rather than formal theory, different
variants of this approach have been developed for different philosophical positions
(for an overview, see Bryant, 2009). Corbin and Strauss' (2008) latest version was
chosen to meet the goals of this research given its pragmatic roots. As such, the
intention of this study was not to generate a speculative or universal theory but one
that was substantive, transient and a fallible tool that could support future
investigation, theoretical developments, and applied practice (Corbin & Strauss,
2008). This selection also met Pettigrew, Woodman, and Cameron's (2001) assertion
that theories of change must achieve scholarly quality and practical relevance.
As effective pragmatic andgrounded theory research is facilitated by the researchers'
experience, qualities, judgments, and commitment (cf. Bryant, 2009; Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Sorge & van Witteloostuijn, 2004; Suddaby, 2006), abduction and
decision making processes were aided by the first author's previous use of
CorbinandStrauss'method,immersion intheculture changetopicas part of a long-term
project (Suddaby, 2006), understanding of original texts and key discussions (e.g.,
Bryant, 2009; Holt & Tamminen, 2010; Suddaby, 2006), and prior experience as a
player in a professional sports team (including being the target of newly appointed
managers' programs of change). The second and third authors had also employed
grounded theory methodology in prior work, and the second author had managed,
supported, and participated in culture change programs in multiple elite sport
environments.
Sampling and participants
As grounded theories must be the product of an iterative research process, where
data collection and analysis recursively inform each other, theoretical sampling was
used to recruit participants based on the developing results (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
12. 11
Supporting our goal to develop substantive theory, this sampling approach
prioritized the quality rather than quantity of perceptions and focused (as per our
access opportunities) on managers who had led teams at the top level in one of three
high-profile professional sports in the UK: soccer (Premiership and Championship),
rugby union (Premiership), and rugby league (Super League). Sampling across these
sports was also supported by the need for grounded theorists to consider diverse
perspectives but against a similar central challenge. In the case of this study,
managers in all of the sampled sports need to interact with large squads of senior
performers, multidiscipline support staff, demanding Boards, passionate fans, and
notable media coverage.
Data collection occurred over three phases. Initially, one soccer and one rugby
league manager were purposively sampled based on their experience of managing at
multiple teams. To support the pertinence of perceptions, these managers were also
recruited on the basis that they had managed a team in the past year and had
experienced a mixture of success over their careers (as judged by factors such as role
survival, league standings, progression in knock-out competitions, and honors won).
From the analysis of this first data set e particularly the finding that opening
activities were shaped by team traditions and external stakeholder perception e it was
decided that the second sampling phase would target figures who had been appointed
at more historically successful or publicly scrutinized teams (i.e., those with greater
media coverage). Recruitment in this second phase was also weighted toward soccer
team managers due to the “prototypical” nature and scale of the challenges faced by
these individuals (as per the sport's financial stakes and high media coverage).
Ultimately, three participants in this second phase were from soccer, one was from
rugby union, and one was from rugby league. Three individuals in this second phase
had also only managed one team and therefore allowed us to gain a more detailed
appreciation of the core challenges in culture change delivery (i.e., these managers
could not rely on prior first-hand experience; although all had earlier worked as an
assistant manager or coach and could still provide a contrast to their actions).
Sampling on these grounds was also driven by our developing finding that internal,
public, and media reputation were key factors in shaping a managers' activities.
Similar to the first sampling phase, participants were selected on the basis that they
had managed a team in the past year.
13. 12
As few novel insights were offered by the seventh participant, a third and final
sample was a manager who also oversaw peer training programs. Beyond obtaining
this figure's views on the delivery of culture change at his managed teams, his
awareness of what had worked (and hadn't) for many of his peers offered a valuable
chance to confirm and consolidate the saturation of our results (Corbin & Strauss,
2008). Finally, similarities in all acquired perceptions also supported our decision to
sample across the three identified sports.
The final sample included eight managers: four from soccer and four from rugby
(two from rugby union and two from rugby league). All interviewees were male,
aged between 37 and 57 (M ¼ 47.50 age, SD ¼ 8.02 years), and had held
management roles (i.e., manager/head coach, assistant manager/coach, director/head
of sport) for 79 years in total (M ¼ 9.88 years, SD ¼ 4.80 years). The shortest and
longest tenures in the specific role of manager (i.e., with ultimate responsibility for a
performance department) were 6 months and 5 years respectively, with average
tenure across all managed teams 2.29 years (SD ¼ 1.44 years). Between them, this
group had (as manager) led teams to 13 major honors. As well as managers who had
achieved notable long-term success, this final sample included managers who had
been sacked early into a contract and those who had experienced a mixture of early
sackings and longer-term success. This diversity delivered a data set which contained
views on previously effective approaches as well as key errors and lessons; therefore
optimizing the credibility of the eventual “best practice” model (Corbin & Strauss,
2008; Pettigrew, 2012). Four participants were employed as a manager at their time
of interview, while four had left roles in the previous year. Moreover, all but the final
participant returned to active managerial service at the top level of their sport after
data collection. Institutional ethics approval was obtained for this sampling process.
Data collection.
Data were collected via one-shot, semi-structured interviews due to the elusive
nature of the targeted participants. Prior to interviewing the main participant group,
pilot interviews were undertaken with three elite sport performance team managers
to assess and improve the focus, content, and clarity of the interview guide. For
example, memos recorded during this process noted that perceptions and pressure
from the Board played a major role in shaping the manager's initial focus (e.g.,
14. 13
instant results or longterm agendas) and approach (i.e., instant changes or prolonged
planning). While the main questions of the guide were not adjusted by this pilot
work, follow-up probes were amended to allow for full discussion on this challenge
(as well as those for other apparently important factors: e.g., pre-appointment
considerations).
Interviews centered on seven chronologically structured and open-ended questions
for the main participants. These questions addressed: program goals, pre-change
steps, processes and actions for initiating change, processes and actions for
sustaining change, critical attributes and skills for carrying out change, evaluation
processes and actions, and reflections on success and failures. While lines of thought
were pursued as presented by participants, this guide provided a useful reference to
ensure that the essentially open ended conversation did not fail to cover the topic in
the allocated time. Interviewees were also asked to compare and contrast their
experiences across different teams to enhance data quality (limited to three to ensure
that findings were not diluted, that all questions could be asked, and that a critical
level of specificity could be sustained in the acquired perceptions: du Gay &
Vikkelsø, 2012). Follow-up prompts and probes were also carefully reviewed and
adjusted between each sampling phase to maintain an iterative process. As one
example, follow-up probes were amended after analyzing data from the first sample
to allow for more detailed investigation of the media's role in culture change
delivery. Other notable probes developed via our ongoing analysis included the
manager's initial interactions with socially powerful individuals and subgroups, the
way in which undesirable changes were “sold” and introduced to performers and
staff, and the nature of the relationship developed with key external stakeholders.
All interviews were conducted at locations chosen by participants and lasted between
100 and 200 min. Before beginning the focal discussion, the first author checked that
the participant had understood the purposes of the research, assured confidentiality,
and obtained informed consent. Since their interview, one manager has asked that
their data not be quoted in this paper due to changes in their employment
circumstances (NB. this participant's data were still used in the analysis and for
model development).
Data analysis
15. 14
Led by the first author and using qualitative analysis software (QSR NVIVO 9),
verbatim transcripts underwent open coding to develop concepts, with constant
comparison used to create unique categories with distinct core properties and
dimensions (enabled by comparisons of data to data, codes, concepts, and literature;
Strauss & Corbin,1998). Axial coding was then employed to expand on these
concepts and establish category and subcategory relationships. Paired with continual
critical discussion and reflection with the other researchers, this process provided the
impetus and direction for further sampling if additional development and saturation
was required. In situations when comprehensive analysis could not be undertaken by
the research team before the next interview, an iterative process was upheld through
the first author's detailed note-taking (e.g., on new concepts), memo writing,
listening to past interviews, focused critical discussion between the research team,
and preparing initial results for conference presentations (Holt & Tamminen, 2010).
Saturation was considered to have been achieved when participants offered little new
data or explanations of incoming manager-led culture change best practice (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008); a decision supported by our final interview with the manager
involved in peer training.
To discover a central process and refine the theory, theoretical integration was
applied (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). To this end, memos on evolving ideas and
relationships between concepts and categories were used in our critical discussions
to help us to “think theoretically”, with the drawing of diagrams also applied (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008). The developing concepts and categories were further compared,
contrasted, and integrated with extant theories and constructs during the final phases
of data collection and analysis; as supported by a delayed literature review by the
first author (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). As the “generation of new specialist
knowledge … is inappropriate when used in isolation [i.e., without integration with
‘old’ knowledge]” (Sorge & van Witteloostuijn, 2004, p. 1222), this inspection
process established whether pre-existing labels could be applied (to ensure
consistency with current knowledge) and confirm the uniqueness of other discovered
concepts. In particular, a number of labels used by Cruickshank et al. (2014) were
found to be pertinent and thus applied or used to guide the labeling process.
To ensure that findings were grounded in both the data and culture change practice,
the first and second authors held a separate and final meeting with the eighth
16. 15
participant (i.e., the manager involved in peer training) to “tell the story” (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008, p. 113), obtain his perceptions of a developed model, and refine the
theory. Feedback from this individual focused on the model's practicality and not its
“truth” to ensure consistency with our pragmatic approach (NB. no changes were
made to the model by this process). The final model and its underpinning principles
were then packaged into a workshop resource for 20 current and aspirant managers
on the English Rugby Football Union's Elite Coach Development program (delivered
by the first and second authors). Seeing the research come full circle (i.e., from
identifying an applied challenge to offering advice on its delivery), as well as
providing an additional source of feedback and marker of saturation, 100% of
attendees reported (through independent review) that the model was useful for their
current and future practice. Again, no changes were made to the model from this
feedback.
Results
To illuminate the process of culture change best practice within the performance
department of professional sport organizations, as led and perceived by incoming
team managers, we describe the activity's core components first before explaining
their conceptual links in the grounded theory model (see Fig. 1). As shown in the
model, successful change was perceived to involve the fulfillment of two roles that
we co-initiated and co-dependent yet conceptually distinct. Specifically, and akin to
Cruickshank et al. (2014), perceived best practice involved a finite phase of initial
evaluation, planning, and impact that was paired with the enduring management of a
holistic, integrated, and dynamic social system. We now describe the former process
and its constituent subthemes first. Supporting quotes throughout the results section
have been kept concise for purposes of parsimony in light of the study's scale. Soccer
manager quotes are denoted by (S), rugby union by (RU), and rugby league by (RL).
Initial evaluation, planning, and impact
Providing the catalyst for optimally efficient and effective change, managers
revealed the need to instantly establish both themselves and their programs when
attempting to deliver culture change. Although broadly similar to an opening culture
change aim of Olympic sport performance directors (Cruickshank et al., 2014), this
initial evaluation, planning, and impact phase reflected particular features of the
17. 16
professional sport environment and revolved around a manager's acquisition of
necessary knowledge, credibility, and support. More specifically, best practice
centered on six component actions, each of which will now be described.
Given the scale of the culture change task and need to deliver instant results, a
detailed assessment of the manager's perceived fit with a club and its Board prior to
appointment was reported as necessary. Primarily assessing the extent to which the
manager and their prospective Board shared views on the required changes,
participants also spoke of looking deeper and reflecting on the perceived fit between
personal (e.g., management style, career goals, values) and team factors (e.g.,
history, traditions, profile, resources, competitive context). For example, analyzing
one's fit with key Board members was deemed particularly important:
The first thing I did was … look at who the chairman was … what sort of business
he is in, where has he got his money. Also other
directors,youcantryandfindoutwhotheyare… Then I'velooked at the playing staff …
because you are going to have to work for [the Board] and they are non-[soccer]
people mainly. (S3)
Similarly, interviewees also described the importance of examining their fit with the
team's principal resource: its players. In the
Fig. 1. A grounded theory of incoming manager-led culture change best practice
within the performance department of British professional sport organizations. Solid
line arrows denote manager-based “to and fro” interactions. Broken-line arrows
denote secondary interactions of the manager through the media.
following example, a manager emphasized how failing to achieve this outcome
ultimately contributed to the early termination of his contract:
I told the Chairman [my salary demands] and he said “we'll give you it” … You'll
face it one time in life where you'll do something [for] the money … And that was a
mistake. It might not have been a mistake if I'd done my proper homework on the
players. It's only a mistake now. (S2)
18. 17
Evaluating the performance department
On appointment, managers reported that an opening evaluation should best continue
with an intense phase of multi-source information gathering on the performance
department. This mainly focused on the amalgamation of key stakeholder
perceptions (including current and former players and support staff) as well as an
assessment of player and support staff abilities and personalities, training facilities,
current systems, structures, and processes, prevailing challenges and issues, and the
social milieu. The speed of this evaluation was shaped by the manager's time of
arrival (e.g., mid-season) and the team's current contexts (e.g., league position).
Additionally, the uncritical transfer of prior methods was deemed naïve given that
each team's history, traditions, profile, and resources all worked to generate a unique
challenge:
Clive Woodward's [autobiography] … shows the … the preparation of England
winning the World Cup. It was absolutely bang on. Then I bought the DVD of the
2005 [British and Irish] Lions and he applies the same principles … with a different
group and it didn't work … You've got to be really clever analyzing the [team's]
culture … and deciding where that culture needs to go. The culture I developed at
[team] would be very different … if I was working at [team]. (RL1)
As indicated in the definition of this theme, and reflecting the emphasis of culture
change on social functioning, participants also spoke on the particular importance of
quickly assessing the loyalty of powerful players:
I asked [X], who had coached [influential player] at [team]: “What are this guy's plus
points and … negative points? Can he be trusted?” Harsh questions have got to be
asked in order for you to come up with the correct needs analysis. (RL 1)
Swiftly understanding each individual's man-management needs was also similarly
emphasized:
We did [an exercise] … to see who were the more submissive players in the group
… and who were the dominant ones … So we knew that some players were a little
bit introverted and might struggle if they were given feedback in a certain way,
whereas other people needed a kick up the arse in front of everyone…You [also]
wouldn't treat the senior players … the same as you'd treat a first year rookie. (RL2)
19. 18
Accordingly, rather than impose idealistic or imitative values, standards, and
practices, this extensive assessment instead enabled the generation of cultural,
performance, and outcome goals which were optimally grounded in the traits,
contexts, and potential of the team and its' individual members (particularly those
who led or were the “glue” between different structural or social subgroups).
Setting and aligning multi-stakeholder perceptions and expectations
To enhance the transition from the prior manager's program, instantly setting and
aligning multi-stakeholder perceptions and expectations was described. This
involved creating an early and shared understanding of the manager's goals and plans
for optimizing performance, and therefore the basis on which players and support
staff would decide to embrace and/or engage with subsequent changes. Notably, this
process was often supported by proactive upward influence tactics before
appointment:
[At] our interview, we … said “we know what it is that needs to be changed … and
if you can't provide that [then] don't employ us because we will be … coming to you
and saying [that] we need to employ X, Y and Z straight away.” (RU1)
Beyond Board-specific action, managers also noted the need to instantly optimize the
players and support staff's opinion of (and confidence in) the manager and their
impending program (or, in some cases, quell any initial uncertainty and resistance):
[On my first day] I had my suit on to give the perception of: “I'm in charge” … [But]
I didn't want to go in and say: “Right, I'm in charge, you will do this and you will do
that” … It was a case of: “Right, what are we good at?” I needed to see who wanted
to talk, how to get the interaction … The feedback [from the players and support
staff] after the first meeting (clicks fingers): I have them in my hand. (S4)
Reflecting players' primary interest in performance-based matters, the need to deliver
instant impact in training and game contexts was also reported; most simply by
addressing issues with the previous manager's approach (e.g., delivering shorter and
sharper training sessions). When new training approaches were needed but not
inherently appealing to players (e.g., practices to promote greater physical effort),
their introductions were explicitly justified in terms of their performance-relevance
to avoid or minimize any early resistance:
20. 19
Players have got to see the benefits [of new training methods] … For example, with
the GPS [monitors] it's no good just saying: “Wear these [because] they'll make you
better players”. You've got to say: “The reason that we've got them is … [to] make
training more specific [to your position] … and that will help you become a better
player”. That's the type of sell that you've got to do. (RL1)
Significantly, however, setting player expectations over some necessary new
approaches and standards was not always based on positive interactions. For
example, core standards and values could quickly be made “visible” to assert one's
position as ultimate authority on team functioning. Managers noted that this could be
done either overtly (e.g., in team meetings) or, to minimize any backlash from
criticizing or disciplining highly powerful performers in public view, through more
discreet methods:
[Player X] was a mess. First day at training … he smelled of alcohol and I said “have
you been drinking?” “Just a couple of beers” … “That's two weeks wages you're
getting fined”. I never made a big song and dance about it … because players talk.
And he's went back to the [rest of the squad] and gone “what about this maniac?!
He's done me two weeks wages!” … You set
standards then. (S2)
Identifying, recruiting, and harnessing social allies and cultural architects
Working to identify, recruit, and harness social allies and cultural architects (Railo,
1986) was also consistently discussed by interviewees; again reflecting the social
challenge of culture change. Akin to the results in Cruickshank et al. (2014), this
involved gaining support from individuals and groups who could foster acceptance,
fulfillment, and regulation of the desired team values, beliefs, perceptions, and
practices from within. Importantly, this type of action had to be focused on a range
of key actors; not just those with an immediate and overt willingness to “spread the
word”:
I [started the process] by canvassing the senior players … [Team captain]: no interest
in [team culture]; he is purely a rugby tactician … I had to explain to him as he is
Captain: “I know this is not your bag but I need you to support it.” (RL2)
21. 20
Beyond harnessing key individuals and groups already at the club, recruitment of
influential performers or support staff was also identified as a core means of shaping
new group norms:
We needed to bring people in … particularly somebody who understood how
medicine and conditioning needed to work … [and] how science can influence
behaviors … That's when we brought in [X] … He wasn't changing it for this week
or that week, he was changing it because it was going to be part of our [long-term]
approach to developing athletes. (RU1)
Withholding initial action in sub-optimal conditions
While instantly setting and aligning stakeholder perceptions and expectations was
vital for long-term success, managers also revealed that initial actions were often
constrained by the prevailing social milieu and the abilities of the inherited players
and staff. Participants therefore described the need to postpone, dilute, or phase in
some of their initial actions until a more socially and politically appropriate time.
Mirroring the approach taken by the performance directors in Cruickshank et al.
(2014), one participant exemplified this approach with his use of “damage
limitation” strategies to simply survive to the point when deeper changes could be
made:
It was a case of get your crash helmets on … because we knew half the guys were
not going to be there the next season and any significant changes [to training and
game-based processes] would simply be a waste of time … We had to just cajole and
kid and try and get the best out of what we had got. (RL 2)
Indeed, rather than forcing new values, standards, and practices on unreceptive or
incapable recipients, best practice during the early phase of one's tenure was
perceived to frequently involve the careful avoidance of conflict; even if it
temporarily compromised the manager's ideals and vision:
To help the process go forward sometimes you have to concede certain things that
you might not have believed in … As long as we were going in the right direction,
let's go to the halfway house … rather than make the big leap … Because by doing
the first step they realized it wasn't … as painful as they first thought. (RU1)
Delivering instant results
22. 21
While the above processes were all vital for establishing a manager and their
program, interviewees ultimately recognized that the extent to which new values,
standards, and practices were accepted and internalized by their players and support
staff was dictated by initial on-field results:
It's a results business. At the end of the day if you are not winning games you are out
…You can't lose six games on the spin … It's about winning, you've got to win …
you have got to find a way to win. You have to find a way to win. (S4)
With the interpretive lens of most players, support staff, Board members, fans, and
the media shaped by performance outcome, balancing a program's initial focus on
long-term plans and shortterm results was therefore deemed a fundamental skill for
the change process.
Management of a holistic, integrated, and dynamic social system
The second major component of optimal incoming team manager-led culture change
was found to be the management of a holistic, integrated, and dynamic social
system; made up of the subconcepts managing multi-stakeholder perceptions and
expectations and action-guiding multi-stakeholder perceptions and actions (see Fig.
1). More specifically, and mirroring the findings of Cruickshank et al. (2014),
managers revealed that successful change relied on a two-way interaction and
power-share process with both internal (i.e., support staff and players) and external
stakeholders (i.e., the Board, fans, media, other significant influences). We now
describe this two-way process with each identified group.
Two-way interaction and power flow with support staff.
As they jointly delivered and regulated the manager's culture change program,
continuously acquiring and integrating support staff perception was vital. Given the
diversity within and across support professions, as well as the plethora of opinions
on any performance issue, sourcing and using inputs from all practitioners was a core
theme of perceived best practice:
I want [the coaches] to coach … I want [the strength and conditioners] to have a
program in place that the coaches can follow and interact with. The medical staff, we
need to make sure that … a player is available to train and [play] … “You're in the
[soccer] club, your department is valued, and so we are going to listen.” (S4)
23. 22
Indeed, recognition that a strong team culture would be generated and regulated by
the group rather than imposed by manager was evident across all; particularly in
relation to close staff:
[The management team] have got to be singing from the same hymn sheet … and
agree with what you are trying to achieve … It's not a one-man job; it's a three, four,
or five [person job]. It's a united effort. (RL1)
Two-way interaction and power flow with performers
As opposed to purely top-down direction, the optimization of players' values,
standards, and behaviors also involved a two-way consultation and negotiation
process. Indeed, accommodating such a to and fro of power was mandatory given the
presence of high-status and often opinionated performers:
As soon as we told the squad [about travel plans] … you could see a couple of the
senior players pulling their faces: “Why don't we train at four … and then we'll go
straight to the hotel?” So within a couple of minutes … [we agreed] we would train
at four … and then go straight to the hotel. Great, that's all we wanted. (RL2)
Indeed, offering justification behind chosen actions as well as respecting and
meeting player needs (where appropriate) were important features of effective
change in modern elite sport:
The modern coach tends to be Generation X who is between 30 and 50, whose
learning tends to be: show me how to do it and I'll do it … They respect their elders
because they've been brought up showing respect for their elders … A challenge is to
coach a player who is … Generation Y because he is probably under 30 … who
learns by: why do I need to do this? Explain to me why and I'll do it; if not, no point
… I'll respect you if I think you deserve to be respected not just because you're older
… and I want feedback and I want it specific: Now! (RU2)
Two-way interaction and power flow with the board
Maintaining support from the Board through similar to and fro interaction was also
crucial given their ultimate control over the whole organization. With “managing up
[being] just as important if not more important than being able to manage the
24. 23
players” (S3), another interviewee reflected on the difficulties faced after failing to
establish a transparent and two-way relationship with top management:
We were encouraging our staff and players to report to us … I don't think we had
that the other way [from the Board] … If they had said [that the organization was
facing financial hardship], we could have said: “right, if that's the case we need to
take a different line” … I still think we could have … managed expectations in a
better way so that we didn't fall into the trap that actually happened. (RU1)
Beyond ensuring alignment with the organization's overall strategic course,
managing one's employers could also create the freedom to deliver innovative
changes, “buy time” for when inevitable mixed or poor results would be
experienced, and even prevent sport performance-naïve chairmen and owners from
making dramatic interjections:
We've got a very larger than life character [as Chairman]; runs the show from top to
bottom … He needs to know what's going on. He needs to know I'm in control of
everything … He could sack somebody just like that … [so] I try and be proactive …
I need to calm him down at times. (S4)
Two-way interaction and power flow with the fans
A two-way engagement with the team's fans was also reported given their role in
generating crucial psycho-social and financial capital. As well as noting the “demand
from the spectators for you to play [in a] certain way” (RL1), a proactive approach
was used to harness this group's influence; often via media interactions:
It was … about providing as much information as was necessary to … get people
through the turnstile: what sort of game are we trying to play, what is the goal, where
do we want to be in twelve months. Can we do it without you? No we can't. (RU1).
Two-way interaction and power flow with the media
Positive and two-way interactions with the media were also perceived as crucial due
to their ubiquity in professional sport and ability to shape the perceptions of support
staff, players, Board members, fans, and other stakeholders. While often turning
managers' perceptions and team-related matters into “fabricated dramas” (S2),
working to optimize this group's view could encourage positive coverage (or limit
25. 24
any negative coverage). Many participants accordingly spoke of the value of, where
appropriate, working to meet the needs of the group:
There may be an odd time when a story comes up … and [press officer] asks: “can
the press come down to training [i.e., before scheduled weekly press conference]?”
Something as small as refusing immediate access might get the press man's back up
a bit so you are always mindful of giving them a little bit elsewhere: “I can't meet
today I'm sorry, but if you give me a ring at six o'clock I'll be driving home and I'll
have a few quiet minutes with you.” So I always try to accommodate that way. (S3)
Beyond promoting respect from members of the media, and as shown in Fig. 1,
awareness of who the media spread information to (and how they could narrate the
manager's program) meant that this group could also be used as a tool to further
communicate with stakeholders:
[Manager X] talked about subliminal messages: I'm talking to the media but I know
the players are listening or the Board is listening; or I'm going to say how wonderful
the fans are and actually the players didn't play up to respecting the support we are
having. So I am saying: “fans stick with us”, or whatever. (RU2)
Two-way interaction and power flow with other significant
influences
Based on each team's bespoke history, traditions, profile, and resources, a two-way
interaction with a number of other key external stakeholders was also identified.
These included, amongst others, team icons (e.g., former players/managers), catering
staff, the local community, and sponsors. While these individuals and groups were
highly variable in terms of the scale and speed at which they could alter the
dynamics of the performance department, all could play a significant role in
constructing and reinforcing the team's culture. Emphasizing the need for two-way
interactions and a flow of power with such stakeholders, one manager spoke of the
need to “cement the right sort of relationships” with players' partners.
We helped some players' [partners] on nutrition because some … [had a] different
background to good cooking and poor cooking … We helped to sort of say: “your
husband or partner is struggling before us, you are doing a fantastic job but some of
the food you are providing actually isn't conducive to him losing weight.” (RU1)
26. 25
In another example, one manager spoke of a need to positively engage with a
groundskeeper to ensure that training pitches were in a condition that allowed for
changes to be made to the team's playing style. It is notable that this manager's
approach was shaped by the secondary influence which this figure could exert;
subsequently underlining the challenges of social complexity:
You are asking [the head groundskeeper] all of a sudden to get off his arse and not
be lazy, yet he might have the ear of three or four of the directors … That's where the
politician in you has to really come out … Don't go … and say: “this is wrong” …
Go in there and say “look, I think a little bit more work can be done, what do you
think?” You are tip toeing around it, not to upset people. (S3)
A grounded theory: Incoming manager-led culture change best practice within the
performance department of British professional sport organizations
The grounded theory of culture change best practice within the performance
department of British professional sport organizations,as led and perceived byteam
managers, is showninFig.1. After assessing fit with the club and Board, best practice
was deemed to involve a concentrated and detailed phase of analysis and planning to
ensure sensitivity to, and exploitation of a team's historical, psychosocial, and
competitive contexts. Shaped by the expectancy for instant and consistent high
performance, be it internal (i.e., players and support staff) or external (i.e., Board,
fans, media) this initial period also involved: setting and aligning multiple
stakeholder perceptions and expectations; identifying, recruiting, and harnessing
social allies and cultural architects; withholding actions in sub-optimal conditions;
and delivering immediate results. Undertaken to enhance respect and trust from the
players and support staff e as well as to buy time, space, and support from key
external stakeholders e this process was deemed crucial for creating the psychosocial
momentum for effective and enduring change.
Regarding its main and enduring component (i.e., management of a holistic,
dynamic, and integrated social system), the model also shows that culture change
relied on generating and regulating shared values, standards, and practices in the
performance department and also on protecting this “cultural bubble” (as shown by
the circle surrounding manager and support staff/players) from outside influence.
Moreover, this bubble was also reinforced by the more positive aspects of these
27. 26
external stakeholders' power and agency. Optimal culture change therefore involved
the constant acquisition, negotiation, and integration of (a) the players and support
staffs' oscillating perceptions and opinions, and (b) the perceptions and opinions of
those who could indirectly reinforce and/or shape team culture (i.e., the Board, fans,
media, other significant influences). Rather than a step-by-step or prescriptive
process, best practice was therefore deemed to revolve around a set of guiding
principles that worked to embrace and proactively manage (as opposed to ignore and
react to) the socially complex and contested nature of culture change delivery.
General discussion
In this study we have developed a first grounded theory of culture change best
practice within the performance departments of British professional sport
organizations, as led and perceived by incoming team managers. While efficient and
impactful change was based on an initial evaluation, planning, and impact phase, the
presented model primarily conveys a holistic and integrated process. Mirroring the
Olympic sport-based findings of Cruickshank et al. (2014), this approach revolved
around the power, agency, and interaction of connected stakeholders within and
outside the performance department. Working to constantly source, negotiate, and
align the perceptions of these groups was therefore perceived to enable sensitivity to,
and exploitation of a team's macro (e.g., Board strategy), meso (e.g., group-level
perceptions), and micro (e.g., individual-level perceptions) contexts. The boundless
and “multidirectional” nature of this model also echoes with Cruickshank et al. and
is in further contrast to the many decontextualized, top-down, and n-step approaches
generated within organizational change research (By, 2005; Cruickshank & Collins,
2012b; du Gay & Vikkelsø, 2012). Indeed, rather than working to a final act of
reinforcement (when a change process is “complete”), our model instead reveals that
a team's culture is continually constructed and re-constructed within complex social
and power dynamics (and not definitively achieved).
Extending current literature, some prior insights on professional team culture change
have also been operationalized within a practically-meaningful and time-locked
activity. More specifically, our results have revealed how incoming team managers
created evidence-based objectives and plans (cf. Cruickshank et al., 2013a; Gilmore
& Gilson, 2007), recruited individuals who matched the desired culture (cf. Gilmore
28. 27
& Gilson, 2007), aided performers' understanding, ownership, feedback, and support
in their home environment (cf. Cruickshank et al., 2013a; Lee et al., 2009), promoted
a to and fro with key stakeholders (cf. Cruickshank et al., 2013a), sent messages
through the media (cf. Cruickshank et al., 2013a), and deployed a coherent and
consistent approach whereby all action was locked into longer-term goals (cf.
Cruickshank et al., 2013a; Lee et al., 2009). The broad principles of this model also
notably parallel many of those in the performance director-focused work of
Cruickshank et al. (2014). Specifically, culture change in professional teams was
similarly based on the deployment of core principles (as detailed in the initial
evaluation, planning, and impact concept) against an overarching two-way power
share approach with implicated stakeholders. This parallel is perhaps unsurprising
given that the leaders of professional and Olympic teams must both interact with
powerful performer groups, diverse staff, outcome-focused Boards, selective and
sensationalist media, demanding fans or public, as well other influential external
stakeholders, t (cf. Collins & Cruickshank, 2014).
Notwithstanding these broad parallels, however, there are numerous points of
divergence between both models. Heeding requests to avoid the reductionist pitfalls
that have plagued much research on change, and therefore strive for a level of
specificity and precision that supports practically meaningful insights (du Gay &
Vikkelsø, 2012), these differences are also significant. Firstly, while the performance
directors in Cruickshank et al. (2014) detailed the importance of gaining an
understanding of the cultural, political, and performance landscape, the managers
interviewed here described the need to evaluate fit with the club and Board.
Reflecting lesser complexity within the top management structures of professional
sport (i.e., rather than one Board, Olympic performance directors need to engage
with multiple higher level management groups), this contrast raises an important
point on the speed at which professional team managers can (and are expected to)
deliver change, the depth of their programs (at least initially), and where greatest
power initially resides. Indeed, individuals in the professional domain have the
opportunity to be more selective in terms of agreeing to work with a particular
organization, given the greater number and availability of team manager roles, and
therefore possibly greater potential to gather and share immediate power. Moreover,
it also appears reasonable to assume that the focus of professional team managers on
29. 28
evaluating against “ideal types” e rather than gaining an understanding of the
conditions that one needs to work within e reflects their potential to recruit or sell
performers; an approach which is not available to Olympic performance directors
and so modifies the nature of the challenge and potential routes for impact.
In further contrast to the performance directors in Cruickshank et al. (2014),
participants in this study described setting rather than facilitating multi-stakeholder
perceptions; a process which may reflect the need to lead teams from “the
front/behind” instead of “above/through”. Presumably governed by their need to
deliver results on a weekly basis and their greater.
responsibility to oversee day-to-day functioning (as opposed to performance
directors who meta-manage national-level programs), this difference again raises
questions on the way in which power is controlled and shared in a professional team
setting where the pressure to perform is incessant. Questions on the mixture,
weighting, and operationalization of various employed leadership behaviors across
both professional and Olympic team manager roles are also raised. This pressure to
deliver instant and visible change perhaps also accounts for professional managers'
efforts to deliver instant results; in contrast to performance directors who reported a
need to facilitate optimal immediate results and “show” change by addressing a
sport's most pressing system-, structure-, and political-level needs (Cruickshank et
al.). This variation in pressure (whether actual or manufactured), stakeholder
expectations and interests, and the scale and regularity of personal and program
judgment (i.e., weekly games mean weekly assessment!) once again render the
culture change practices of professional team managers and Olympic performance
directors similar but critically different. The final main point of divergence from
Cruickshank et al. was the extent to which interviewees' reported that the media were
(or could be) used to shape and narrate the change process. Indeed, although the
media were not a regular concern for the performance directors of low profile
Olympic teams (other than in the period surrounding a Games), all of the
interviewees in this study emphasized the key role of this group and the critical
nature of enacting change through them. A focus on how the media can be used to
construct a change process therefore seems particularly relevant for continued
inquiry and theory-development in the professional sport setting.
30. 29
As facilitated by our pragmatic philosophy, the findings of this study are also applied
implications in their own right. Processes detailed within the initial, evaluation, and
impact period of the model should therefore be considered by incoming managers
(and supporting sport psychologists) as they attempt to establish themselves and their
programs. Specifically, managers should: assess their fit with a club and its Board
(especially in terms of professional philosophies); devote significant time and energy
into evaluating the performance department and its quirks (including its systems,
structures, processes, social milieu, and politics); set and align multi-stakeholder
perceptions and expectations (particularly those with greatest power); identify and
harness social allies and cultural architects (using those with influence to support the
acceptance and progression of the change program); withhold initial action in sub-
optimal conditions (or “pick one's battles”); and, as possibly the most critical maker
of success, work to deliver immediate results. Additionally, managers are also
advised to adopt a 360-degree approach to proactively and continually manage
stakeholder perceptions in a coherent and consistent manner. This advice recognizes
that all corners of a social setting can impact group functioning and performance
(Sorge & van Witteloostuijn, 2004); with particular attention required on those with
greatest power (or potential power) at any given moment. To support this process,
and deliver multiple “hits” to multiple targets simultaneously, managers are also
advised to embrace and strategically use the media; in essence, making this group
“work for you” more than “you work for them”.
Finally, and in line with prior research findings from professional sport (Cruickshank
et al., 2013a), managers should also facilitate a constant flow of power between
themselves and all key stakeholders (or at least a perception of a power flow). The
social complexity that pervades the performance department can then be adapted to
rather than absorbed (see Theodoridis & Bennison, 2009); thereby ensuring that
programs are at all times sensitive to, and exploitative of macro, meso, and micro
conditions. Such an approach recognizes that group members (i.e., support staff and
performers) require ownership over group functioning if they are to constantly
construct and regulate this in line with the manager's intentions. This “to-ing and fro-
ing” may offer similar opportunities for influential groups and individuals on the
outside of the performance department (i.e., Board, fans, media, significant other
stakeholders) to “have their say” in a more controlled manner than might otherwise
31. 30
prevail. By embracing stakeholder opinions (or being seen to embrace these
opinions), managers may then shape the environment in a way that increases the
chance that (hopefully) well-measured and evidence-based alpha plans can be
delivered. Although Van de Ven and Sun (2011) note that “instead of ‘swimming
upstream’, skillful change agents reflect on a situation and revise their mental
models in order to ‘go with the flow’” (p. 70), our results thereby indicate that, in
some cases, incoming managers may swim upstream if they source the combined
support of influential allies and cultural architects. Moreover, the respect achieved
by this power share process may also help managers to retain ultimate authority over
performance matters and the potential to use less socially desirable actions when
required (Cruickshank &
Collins, 2015).
To facilitate judgments of research quality, it is important to assess the strengths and
limits of this work. Regarding the former, and beyond generating the first model of
incoming manager-led culture change best practice in professional sports teams,
strengths of the work were our sensitivity to the philosophical requirements of
culture change study and consequent demonstration of methodological coherence
(i.e., the congruence between our philosophical position, research question,
participants, and methods: Holt & Tamminen, 2010; Suddaby, 2006). While the final
sample size was comparatively small in comparison to other grounded theories, but
comparable to the pool recruited by Cruickshank et al. (2014), another strength of
this study was the significant access gained to high-level (and usually elusive)
participants. Indeed, with a focus on the quality of perceptions and the development
of substantive rather than generalizable theory, the mean interview length of over 2.5
h allowed for saturation to be achieved through a depth of contextually-grounded
perspectives (rather than a breadth of more superficial perceptions from a broader
and diluted participant pool). This approach also met the calls for contextual-
specificity to be considered as the condition for theoretically sound and practically
meaningful research on change processes (du Gay & Vikkelsø, 2012).
To evaluate the quality of the findings, we ask the reader to apply the method-
specific criteria of Corbin and Strauss (2008). More specifically, results can be gaged
against their: fit (i.e., do they fit with the experience of managers and sport
32. 31
psychologists?); applicability (i.e., do they provide new insights and develop
practice?); concepts (i.e., are they organized around concepts and themes which
enable shared knowledge?) contextualization of concepts (i.e., are they
contextualized against UK professional team challenges?); logic (i.e., do they “make
sense” and have a rational flow?); depth (i.e., do descriptions add richness?);
variation (i.e., do they contain negative cases and demonstrate complexity?);
creativity (i.e., are they innovative?); and sensitivity (i.e., are they the product of a
data and analysis-driven process?). As a final consideration, the reader may also
wish to contemplate the “so what?” principle of pragmatic research (Bryant, 2009);
in short, if our findings do correspond to tangible applied artifacts, what difference
do they make to practice? In this sense, we have been reassured by the responses
from those who attended the workshop detailed in the Data Analysis section.
In terms of shortcomings, the retrospective design may have mediated data
credibility via inaccurate recall, hindsight bias, and self-preservation bias. The
relevance and usefulness of the results for professional sports in other countries is
further unknown given our UK focus; it is also possible that variations may exist
between the sports sampled here and others. Additionally, by focusing specifically
on managers' perceptions, the extent to which changetargets (i.e., players and support
staff) and key external groups (i.e., the Board, fans, media) perceive the presented
processes to be effective for optimizing the culture of the performance team needs to
be explored. Real-time case studies that incorporate multiple stakeholder
perceptions, as well as performance and outcome data to allow for triangulation, are
therefore needed to provide valuable insights into the manner in which the presented
model accounts for and facilitates optimal change (as well as lead to further
refinement). Furthermore, inquiry which focuses on key elements of the model is
also merited, particularly on the interaction between manager and the Board and
media. Finally, action-research will also provide a useful means to assess and refine
the presented model. Such work would also allow researchers to explore the
declarative basis of managers' decisions, as taken against the.
model's principles, and how these relate to their short-, intermediate- and long-term
goals.
33. 32
In summary, this study has developed a first theory of culture change best practice in
the performance department of professional sport organizations, as led and perceived
by incoming team managers. In doing so, this work has shown that an effective
approach is deemed to be based on an initial evaluation, planning, and impact phase
that is enacted alongside the enduring acquisition, negotiation, and integration of
internal and external stakeholder perceptions. These results also corroborate the need
for researchers to continue to investigate how the social and political complexity of
this process is best managed for (as well as through) the groups and individuals
which it implicates. Against the everprevalent need for managers to deliver efficient
and effective change, the elements and principles of the developed model also
provide incoming professional team leaders (and their supporting consultants) with
some much needed, domain-specific, and evidence-based advice on which to ground
their practice.
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37. 36
BAB II
REVIEW JURNAL
Judul Psychology of Sport and Exercise
Pengarang Andrew Cruickshank, Dave Collins, ue Minten
Nama Jurnal Driving and sustaining culture change in professional
Volume, Issue,
Tahun, Halaman
Received 3 August 2014
Received in revised form
15 April 2015
Accepted 15 April 2015 Available online 23 April 2015
Tujuan Penelitian tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menambahkan
model praktik terbaik perubahan budaya yang
dikembangkan baru-baru ini dalam tim olahraga
Olimpiade.
Metode Penelitian Filsafat penelitian pragmatis dan metodologi grounded
theory yang sesuai digunakan untuk menghasilkan model
yang bermakna secara praktis dari proses perubahan
budaya ini dari perspektif manajer tim profesional yang
berbasis di Inggris.
Hasil dan
Pembahasan
Praktik terbaik yang dianggap sebagai perubahan budaya
yang dipimpin manajer tim ternyata melibatkan fase
terbatas evaluasi awal, perencanaan, dan dampak yang
digabungkan dengan pengelolaan berkelanjutan dari sistem
sosial yang holistik, terintegrasi, dan dinamis. Dengan
proses sebelumnya yang bertindak sebagai katalisator
untuk perubahan yang berhasil, model ini mengungkapkan
bahwa perubahan optimal dirasakan terutama
mengandalkan akuisisi, negosiasi, dan penyelarasan
persepsi pemangku kepentingan internal dan eksternal
secara konstan.
38. 37
Kesimpulan Berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip model, optimalisasi budaya
tim profesional ditentukan oleh tindakan awal manajer dan
tidak pernah dicapai secara definitif, melainkan terus-
menerus dibangun dan direkonstruksi dalam dinamika
sosial dan kekuasaan yang kompleks. Selain memberikan
latar belakang konseptual untuk penelitian lanjutan di
bidang ini, model ini juga merupakan alat yang dapat
digunakan untuk melatih manajer tim profesional dan
psikolog olahraga pendukung mereka.
Keunggulan keunggunal dalam jurnal diatas adalah dimana perubahan
budaya tidak serta merta harus dihilangkan dalam
pelaksananaan kegiatan olahraga karena ada segi positif
dan seharusnya disesusuaikan dalam perubahan
perkembangan dalam dunia olahraga.
Kekurangan Penelitian kritis dan teori yang mengidentifikasi proses di
mana partisipasi olahraga terkait atau tidak terkait dengan
bentuk-bentuk keterlibatan sipil berikutnya dan upaya
untuk menghasilkan perubahan progresif yang melampaui
kehidupan individu tertentu.
39. 38
BAB III
KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
Kesimpulan
Jurnal diatas membahas serta mendekripsikan bahwa perubahan budaya
terhadap perkembangan ini diabadikan oleh anekdot dan pengamatan tidak sistematis
yang secara tidak kritis mendukung janji penginjilan bahwa partisipasi olahraga
menghasilkan perkembangan budaya positif di antara orang-orang muda. Meskipun
beberapa sarjana dalam sosiologi olahraga telah mempelajari partisipasi olahraga dan
mengidentifikasi kondisi di mana hasil tertentu kemungkinan besar akan terjadi,
tetap ada kebutuhan untuk penelitian kritis dan teori yang mengidentifikasi proses di
mana partisipasi olahraga terkait atau tidak terkait dengan bentuk-bentuk keterlibatan
sipil berikutnya dan upaya untuk menghasilkan perubahan progresif yang melampaui
kehidupan individu tertentu.
Saran
Sebagai penulis saya menyadari bahwa masih banyak kekurangan di dalam
makalah ini. Untuk kedepannya penulis akan menjelaskan secara detail dari sumber
yang lebih banyak.