Annotated Bibliography – Part 115MGMT 8410 Assignment A.docx

Annotated Bibliography – Part 1 15
MGMT 8410 Assignment: Annotated Bibliography – Part 1
Uchenna Ohaeri, [email protected]
Student ID #: A00647580
Program: PhD in Management
Specialization: Leadership and Organizational Change
Faculty: Terry McGovern, [email protected]
Walden University
September 4, 2016
Scandura, T. A., & Pellegrini, E. K. (2008). Trust and leader-
member exchange: A closer look at relational
vulnerability. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies,
15(2), 101–110. doi: 10.1177/1548051808320986
The study by Scandura and Pellegrini examined the effect of
trust in a leader-member exchange (LMX) quality, which they
conducted amongst 228 full-time employed professionals
enrolled in an Executive MBA program at a large Southeastern
University. The authors achieved this by espousing Lewicki,
Bunker, and Stevenson’s 11-item scaling method, which
explored the Calculus-Based Trust (CBT), and Identification-
Based Trust (IBT) scales. The scales are rated on the Cronbach
alpha index to show their proportionality and linearity with

LMX. Scandura and Pellegrini’s study revealed that a third-
order “S-shaped” polynomial relationship existed between the
CBT and LMX. They also found out that a linear relationship
existed between the IBT and LMX, thereby providing support
for their Hypothesis number 2.
The authors’ work draws strength from some four decades of
available leadership researches and their opposition with
leadership styles. Their main proposition is connected to the
fact that leaders differentiate in their dyadic relationship with
followers rather than espousing a particular leadership style
with other members of the team or group. According to them,
recent studies has resulted to the LMX research development,
which in their view, asserts that the supervisor–subordinate
dyad exist between two different possibilities ranging from
“low-quality” relationship to “high-quality” relationships.
Scandura & Pellegrini’s finding reveals the significance of trust
in the leader as a valuable tool between LMX and performance.
This is affirmative, as the LMX concept is analyzed as a “trust-
building” process. The implications of this study of the social
exchange theory (SET) are that it will help in providing
strategies on how ethical leaders affect organizational goals and
outcomes. Some researchers posit that the SET suggests that
team members and employees requite the leaders' behavior on
them on a mutual ground. Relationship in social exchange can
eventually evolve which is characterized by good levels of trust
and diminished levels of control. The important concern is that
it is pertinent to note that some of the LMX parameters have
measures that are directly correlated with the concept of trust. I
contend that power distance, which is an important cultural
factor in any social exchange, may have an influence in an LMX
relationship. Consequently, further research should be
conducted in order to investigate the different perspectives of
trust, and other non-linear results.
Wu, J. B., Tsui, A. S., & Kinicki, A. J. (2010). Consequences of
differentiated leadership in groups. Academy of Management
Journal, 53(1), 90-106. doi: 10.5465/AMJ.2010.48037079

The study by Wu, Tsui, and Kinicki focuses on two
distinct types of leadership, namely (1) team-focused, which is
based on idealized influence and inspirational motivation, and
(2) individual-focused differentiated, which is based on an
individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation. Their
study also determines how each of these leadership behaviors
affects the effectiveness of a team. In a bid to further explain
the leadership behaviors, the authors defined the team-focused
leaders as leaders who treat the team as a whole entity. Their
idealized influence nature is characterized by behaviors of
taking on a role model position, espousing high ethical
standards, and letting go for the good of the good entire team.
The leader’s inspirational motivation nature is characterized by
behaviors of positive “future-looking” that is filled with
optimism and enthusiasm. On the other hand, the individual-
focused differentiated leaders treat each member of the team
differently by behaviors characterized by supportiveness,
encouragement, empowerment, and helpfulness. Leaders
stimulate each team members intellectually by encouraging
them to set goals that are challenging and to solve
organizational challenges through innovative solutions.
The researchers examined 70 work groups or “teams” from
eight companies spanning the construction, recreation,
healthcare, retailing, and telecommunication industries. The
size of the groups ranged from two to nineteen people, and
comprises of units from product management, marketing,
customer service, accounting, retailing, human resource,
purchasing, engineering human resource and engineering. The
authors gathered data from the teams by means of a three web-
based surveys where the team members’ feelings about their
supervisors and their respective management styles are polled.
Also polled was the combined health and effectiveness of their
respective groups.
The survey result revealed that the teams working under
the group-focused leadership were likely to be committed to
their supervisors and connected more to their respective

organizations. They were satisfied and happy with the roles
within their jobs, and the supervisors felt more loyalty from the
groups and are generally hopeful and enthusiastic about the
future. For example, a team leader in my organization, I
supervise the activities of ten members of my team, and decides
I was going to relate and communicate with them as a single
unit, Wu et al. explains that this behavior leads to the positive
thinking of the team members toward their leader. There is an
increased affinity for their leader or supervisor, and in doing so,
the members support their leader’s course and values on the job.
On the long run, it will give members the impression of positive
chances for success and better performance in the future.
The study by the authors contributes to the body of
research in a way that it has made clearer the effects and
consequences of work groups or team dynamics on the
effectiveness of organizations. The finding of the authors will
effectively empower managers and leaders to create a mutual
team working experience that will make their teams more
focused on the organizational goals and by extension, ensure the
going concern of their organizations.
Agho, A. O. (2009). Perspectives of senior-level executives on
effective followership and leadership. Journal of Leadership &
Organizational Studies, 16(2), 159-166. doi:
10.1177/1548051809335360
The study by Agho examined the perceptions executives have
on the different attributes of effective leaders and followers. To
achieve this feat, the author adopted a three-part questionnaire,
which he administered to sample participants of 302 senior-
level executives spanning for-profit and not-for-profit sectors,
comprising of consulting firms, medical centers, accounting
firms, community health centers, academic institution, federal
government agencies, and community-based organizations. The
author adopted the triangulation method of questionnaire
development by employing a group of faculty with experience
in management development and research methods. The study
found out that some of the qualities of effective leadership were

observed for the different from those of connected with
effective follower. Most of the characteristics associated with
effective leaders were perceived to be different from those
associated with effective followers.
In recent times, changes and turbulence in the
organizational world need leaders who are able to operate and
make decisions in the midst of uncertainties, and have the
power to affect readiness to change in their team, and groom
followers who can provide supporting roles in tough and
challenging times. The author argues that followers are a
prerequisite condition for organizations that have been
successful over time, from his finding, over 98% of the 302
senior-level executives concur with statements concerning the
effect that effective followers have on the organization and on
the work team of the group. For example, a considerable number
of the research participants concurred with the affirmative
assertion of the interrelatedness in the roles between leadership
and followership, the respondents also confirmed that
leadership and followership skills have to be learned and that
effective leaders and effective followers can influence work
performance, quality of work output, satisfaction and morale,
and cohesiveness of work groups.
Generally, followership is considered to be spreading
through every part of organizational existence, and in
organizations today, the numbers of followers are more than the
leaders, and a number of employees find themselves straddling
between the role of a leader and a follower in the course of their
entire work life. In the absence of followership, a leader’s role
at any level of the organization will fall short in leading to an
effective organization. In a bid to build effective
transformational leaders, the value and importance of followers
must be taken into consideration. In the author’s
recommendation, he stressed that “the concept, phenomenon,
and practice of effective followership must be highlighted in the
organization’s development programmes” (p.166).
Hogan, R., Curphy, G. J., & Hogan, J. (1994). What we know

about leadership: Effectiveness and personality. American
Psychologist, 49(6), 493–504. doi: 10.1037//0003-
066X.49.6.493
In this article, Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan evaluate
past and relevant research work and empirical literature in a bid
to make them more accessible, interpretable, and relevant to
managers and leaders in their day-to-day leadership decision-
making processes. The authors began by defining leadership as
a building block of personality and organizational effectiveness.
To reduce the knowledge and practical gap between researchers
and the public, the authors tries to answer nine important and
relevant questions that researches in psychology are often
confronted with when presented to them by those who evaluate
the leaders.
Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan present a morally neutral
definition of leadership, where they suggest in their view that
“it involves convincing other people to set aside for a while
their individual concerns and to pursue a common goal that is
beneficial for the responsibilities and welfare of a group in the
organization” (p. 3). The authors make emphasis on the
persuasive leadership traits, a situation where a leader goes
ahead to execute the bidding of the entire group and not using
his or her domineering power to intimidate the group members.
The researchers assert that true leadership comes into existence
when a team or group members willingly and freely accept, for
a brief period, the goals of a group as their primary
responsibility. This the authors explain as emergent leadership,
which is a trait in individuals who are made to take an informal
responsibility of a leadership role in a discussion group without
a leader.
In evaluating the connection between personality of a
leader and effective team performance, Hogan, Curphy, and
Hogan draw on the strengths and attributes of the charismatic
leader. They tend to develop a strong relationship with the team
members, and are able to gear them up to work and support the
common goal of the organization. The importance and relevance

of this study to management cannot be overemphasized enough,
but my concern has always been on the management of virtual
teams or groups, as virtual team calls for different forms of
team management. There are a number of management issues,
which arises from a distance, and configuration of work nature.
They include decision on the physical location of a leader,
individuals required to lead each team, and the leadership
process. Unlike traditional face-to-face team, virtual team
demands a different form of leadership approach in which a
leader should manage the team of individuals that are
geographically scattered while located in a certain location.
Kotter, J. P. (2001). What leaders really do? Harvard Business
Review, 79(11), 85–96. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Discovery
Service.
In this article, Kotter explores how leadership and management
are critical success phenomenon for the success of an
organization. The author draws on the fact that both leadership
and management complement each other when put to use in the
day-to-day running of the organization. Kotter distinctively
elaborated the difference between management and leadership,
stating that management is the act of coping with complexities
and uncertainties in the business environment, while leadership
is the ability to cope in the midst of change. On a basis of
decision-making, each also functions in a different pattern.
Leadership encompasses the setting of direction, aligning
people in the proper frame of mind and tasks, and motivating
and inspiring group members. Management encompasses the
functions of planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing,
implementing, and controlling.
The current environment is characterized by a relentless
turbulence and uncertainty, hence, the need espouse a dynamic
and strong leadership in the business environment. Kotter
further provided highlights and avenue to consider the main
challenges that comes with leadership and our personal
relationship to the leader’s work and duty. The researcher
observes that while leaders perform similar functions and

managers like setting of agenda, they execute other functions
such as the establishment of the organizational direction and
planning and budgeting, people alignment and staff
organization. This is also the ability of the leader to multi-task
in his role.
The article is compiled with the most rigorous theoretical
background on leadership theory. It informs future researchers
and scholar-practitioners on the benefits of conducting research
with rigor and complexity in a bid to identify the suitable
leadership styles and orientation in all sectors of business where
performance is captured and measured by employee’s output.
Elshout, R., Scherp, E., & Feltz-Cornelis, C. M. (2013).
Understanding the link between leadership style, employee
satisfaction, and absenteeism: A mixed methods design study in
mental health care institution. Neuropsychiatric Disease and
Treatment, 9, 823-837. doi: 10.2147/ndt.s43755
Elshout et al. examined the mutual relationship between
leadership style, employee satisfaction, and absenteeism in a
challenging and stressful work environment. The researcher’s
work is centered on the mental health care institution (MHCI)
which is located in the Netherlands. Elshout, Scherp, and Feltz-
Cornelis’ work is structured as a mixed methods design and
carried out as semi-structured interviews with recorded
research. Four departments were compared against each other
using the factor analysis of the data obtained (satisfaction
surveys and the sickness rates of the MHCI workers). The
analysis of the data involved the use of qualitative software and
was conducted thematically by the method of coding and the
exploration of patterns. The result of the study revealed that in
2010, a higher sickness rate in the MHCI was observed when
the national rate is compared to it. Also recorded were a higher
rate of sickness and a lower employee satisfaction in a
transactional leadership style when compared to that of
transformational leadership.
The authors centered the research and its design on the
significance and aim of the study, little or no emphasis was

placed on the research questions. The study is also focused on
only two types of leadership styles, which is a major limitation
to the study. It is highly based on appropriate and adequate
theoretical framework regarding leadership theories. However, a
single institution was researched, thus chances are that the
results will be highly biased, which forms another limitation is
that the study. The consequence of this is that it does not give a
generalized and holistic analysis countrywide.
The study is based on the healthcare space and the leadership-
employee performance effect, which makes the source unique.
The study can be employed for future research to study the
influence leadership has on employee morale. The study also
bridges the gap in the literature on the effects leadership has on
worker’s behavioral attitude in a stressful work environment.
Leroy, H., Anseel, F., Gardner, W. L., & Sels, L. (2015).
Authentic Leadership, authentic followership, basic need
satisfaction, and work role performance. Journal of
Management, 41(6), 1677-1697. doi:
10.1177/0149206312457822
Leroy, Anseel, Gardner, and Sels investigated the relationship
that exists between authentic leadership (AL) and authentic
followership (AF). A critical view was taken particularly on
how the AL affects the performance of the follower. The
authors defined AF as the process by which openness and
ownership is brought in as an approach to their work. Kernis
introduced the concept of authentic functioning (as cited in the
authors work) as “the operation of one’s core or true self in
one’s daily enterprise” (p. 1679). This Leroy et al. further
described as exhibiting some form of relational orientation,
unbiased processing, self-awareness, and authentic behavior. A
combination of these tenets culminates to mean the term
authentic. Certain behaviors are exhibited by an authentic
leader, which in turn influences the followers in their
development towards functioning authentically.
In the study, Leroy, Anseel, Gardner, and Sels conducted a
survey of 30 leaders and 252 followers in 25 Belgian service

companies. The result reveals a positive relationship between
AL and AF with the follower basic need satisfaction. Followers
exhibit the tenets of “true self” at work through authentic
functioning, whether in periods of tension and stress, followers
are able to cope and withstand the work pressure. They are able
to go along with changes that come along with the job settings
that might seem to challenge their capabilities and values.
Autonomous motivation is the driving force that enable the
follower feel their basic needs of relatedness, autonomy and
competence have all been met. Leaders ensure followers’ needs
are fulfilled via authentic behavior modeling. The researchers
study also revealed that the engagement to authentic behaviors
by the leaders sends a positive signal to the followers, which
shows that such behavior are anticipated and accepted. A higher
degree of the satisfaction of basic needs is attained through the
authentic behavior combination exhibited by both the leaders
and the followers in a given work setting. Finally, this
satisfaction of basic needs, promotes motivation and optimal
functioning that leads to higher work role performance.
This study resolves the call to single out other more related
promoters of behavioral integrity. The authors’ work adds to the
field of leadership study by providing valuable data and
information on how AL promotes the autonomous work
motivation of the follower. AL can also promote behaviors
geared towards follower performance. It is the interaction
between the AL and the AF that affect behavior and motivation.
It is obvious that the AL affects the work performance of the
follower.
Huettermann, H., Doering, S., & Boerner, S. (2014). Leadership
and team identification: Exploring the followers' perspective.
Leadership Quarterly, 25(3), 413-432.
doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.10.010
Huettermann, Doering, and Boerner investigate the leader’s role
in the identification of team members. This role, according to
the authors plays a crucial function in ensuring that team
cooperation is determined while also ensuring that the team’s

successful operation is enhanced. Hence, it can be espoused in
an operational team setting to improve upon the work
performance of a team and promote job satisfaction. The
authors’ work was conducted using a qualitative research
method and administered at seven United Nation (UN) different
and distant peace-building teams formed in crisis region in Haiti
and Liberia. The major focus of the research is on the stemming
of various leadership behaviors by the follower’s viewpoint and
perspective that is related to the development of the
identification of teams. Data was collected from the various
team members in the seven UN teams via a rigorous tape
recorded semi-structured interview method. Four basic
collective dimensions (administering teamwork, role modeling,
encouraging involvement, and providing guidance) of leadership
were established by the data collected, and support the process
of team member’s identification.
The research is built on the foundation of wide array of
literature, which thoroughly evaluates the team identification
role of a leader. However, the main focus of the identified
literature is on charismatic and transformational leadership,
which a reader may misconstrued to mean that the study is
based on only the two forms of leadership styles in the
identification of teams. The research conclusion only pointed
out the types of behaviors to be exhibited by a leader in a bid to
enhance the identification of teams, no suggestion was proffered
on issues that a team member dislikes while functioning in the
team. The authors’ conclusion is also based on a work
environment where role designation are stereotyped to the
functions of the leaders, thus, the end result cannot be engaged
in other work environment where a designation to a leader’s
role are not designated formally.
The research work contributes to the body of knowledge in the
study of leadership, which would impact positively on the
effective identification of teams. Although previous researches
examines the behavior of leaders in the identification of teams,
but there are none that are focused on diverse teams. The

research results provide a footing for future work on diverse
behaviors of leaders with results that promotes the follower’s
identification within a work group.
Azanza, G., Moriano, J. A., & Molero, F. (2013). Authentic
leadership and organizational culture as drivers of employees'
job satisfaction. Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 29, 45-50.
Azanza, Moriano, and Molero investigate the relationship that
exists between authentic leadership (AL) and organizational
culture (OC). Azanza et al. defines OC as the set of believes,
norms, assumptions, and values held by every members of the
organization. In this research, the authors directed their study
on the flexibility-oriented cultures of work and their effects on
AL and the outcome of employee.
Differentiation and decentralization are the characteristics of
flexibility-oriented organizations. An organization that does
follow this definition in the opposite orientation is an
organization that is geared toward guided rules and regulations,
policies, control, and stability. The OC of the flexibility-
oriented organizations are embodied with employee
development, support, and innovation.
Azanza et al. surveyed employees totaling 571 in 114 Spanish
private organizations. The responses of the participants are
based on questions that concerns job satisfaction, authentic
leadership, and organizational culture. The authors found out
that there exists a relationship between OC and AL. The
researchers also found out that AL is positively correlated to
job satisfaction and employees who found more authenticity in
their leaders also reported a higher degree of job satisfaction.
It is obvious that in a bid to foster AL, an organization that is
flexibly oriented and supportive in providing a cooperative
work environment will have to be built. On the long run, this
endeavor will have a positive effect on the job satisfaction of
the employees.
Bergman, J. Z., Rentsch, J. R., Small, E. E., Davenport, S. W.,

& Bergman, S. M. (2012). The shared leadership process in
decision-making teams. Journal of Social Psychology, 152(1),
17-42. doi:10.1080/00224545.2010.538763
Bergman, Rentsch, Small, Davenport, and Bergman investigate
the process of shared leadership (SL) in 45 ad hoc decision-
making teams. The authors developed the "Behaviorally
Anchored Rating Scales" (BARS) and engaged the services of
raters that are trained to watch videotapes of interactions within
teams in the process of decision-making. Each team member’s
behavior was rated based on the scales on the BARS. The
number of team members exhibited leadership behaviors are
then used by the researchers to operationalized SL. Bergman et
al. argue that as suggested by empirical research, SL are
inherent in project teams that are self-managed and in teams
that are involved in a decision-making process, which is a
deciding factor on the outcome of the team.
According to Carson et al. (as cited in the authors’ work), "SL
occurs when two or more members engage in the leadership of
the team in an effort to influence and direct fellow members to
maximize team effectiveness" (p. 18). SL enhances the ability
of members of the team to effectively express their individual
opinion and abilities in a given decision-making process, which
in turn allows the exhibition of diverse leadership behaviors to
be showcased in one team. The researchers also found out that
the various teams did exhibit other variants of leadership
behaviors when more team members took part in the team's
leadership process. Additionally, they found that each leader
only effectively engaged in one type of leadership,
Previous researchers have done similar work to investigate
employees' organizational commitment; their research reveal
that the practice of leadership like the delegation of the roles of
leadership, corporation, and social relation and interaction, has
a positive correlation to the reinforcement of the employees’
commitment to his or her organization.

Annotated Bibliography – 1
MGMT 8410 Assignment 1: Annotated Bibliography
Program: Ph.D. in Management
Specialization: Leadership and Organizational Change
Faculty
Date
Ayman, R., & Korabik, K. (2010). Leadership: Why gender and
culture matter. American Psychologist, 65(3), 157-170. doi:
10.1037/a0018806.
Ayman and Korabik evaluated the major models and theories of
leadership in relation to gender or culture. The authors focus
their review on the relationship that exists between the three
leadership approaches (traits, behavioral, and contingency) and
the impact of gender and culture on various aspects of
leadership. In the past, the majority of researches conducted in
the field of leadership has been executed in the U.S. with White
men as participants. The authors try to answer the question, “To
what extent do North American models, which have been
developed primarily by men and mostly validated on men

leaders, apply to women and people from other cultures” (p.
160).
The researchers illustrate on how the gender, ethnicity, and
culture variables affect leadership. The author’s survey was
conducted on leaders from diverse racial and cultural
backgrounds. The researchers found out the importance of
gender and culture to the experience of leadership. From their
review, both culture and gender are relevant because of the
influence they have on the emergence, style, effectiveness, and
behavior of the leader in numerous ways. This is because the
cultural values and the gender character identities of the leader
can influence the decision about their leadership style.
Additionally, leaders who are people of color and women have a
low social status and privilege, which places them in a position
of having their achievements being devaluated by others. The
authors argue that connection between leadership behavior and
outcomes can be controlled by culture and gender. This is
evident in a deprived leader–member relationship, which seems
to be more disadvantageous for men leaders with women
followers than for women leaders with men followers.
Research from the three behavioral styles shows that leadership
behaviors are not automatically universal in a cultural context.
Therefore, there is a need for extensive evaluation of cultural
values and country limitations in leadership research. A critical
examination of the impact of culture and gender has the
capability to change the definition of what institutes leadership
and what effective leadership is reflected as. By espousing, a
more comprehensive theoretical approach, the outcome of
leadership will be expanded to encompass all human beings.
Dixon, M. L., & Hart, L. K. (2010). The impact of path-goal
leadership styles on work group effectiveness and turnover
intention. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22(1), 52-69. Retrieved
from the Business Source Complete database.
Dixon and Hart examined the interrelationships among
Path-Goal leadership styles, work group effectiveness, diversity
in work groups, and work group members’ turnover intentions.

The researchers admit that different leaders espouse diverse
leadership viewpoints. Furthermore, the authors assert that both
team culture and gender are vital variables that considerably
impact the results of any leadership style. In driving
aggressiveness and curbing the effect of worker turnover,
leaders constantly try to improve execution on a hierarchical
basis and improve the effectiveness of work group. Utilizing the
study data collected from the 242 workers of a United State
multinational manufacturing firm, the researchers found out
that, although each one of the Path-Goal leadership styles
(instrumental, participative, and supportive) exhibited positive
correlation with work group effectiveness, the supportive style
showed a negative correlation with members’ turnover
intentions. Amazingly, no significant relationship was
demonstrated between the work group adequacy and turnover
intentions.
The Path-Goal leadership style also has some level of
influence on the work group or team performance and
effectiveness. House and Mitchell ( as cited in Dixon & Hart,
2010), argue that “Path-Goal leadership theory provides a
framework that explains the success of leaders who are flexible
and able to generate high levels of work group effectiveness by
increasing members’ motivation through clarification, direction,
structure, and rewards” (p. 55). This means that the Path-Goal
theory of leadership describes the way leaders inspire and
support their followers in realizing the goals they have been
assigned by creating a clear and easy path to follow. Therefore,
the authors posit that leaders who exhibit the Path-Goal
leadership styles elucidate and provide bearing for followers,
help eliminate hurdles and provide inspiration and rewards for
goal realization.
The Path-Goal leadership theory has some strengths in that it is
an effort that provides a simplified and expanded framework
that brings together the earlier works of contingent, situational
leadership, and theory of expectancy. The leadership theory also
highlights the importance of the factors of motivation from the

perspective of the follower and outlines the pragmatic functions
of a leader. On the other hand, the generalizability of the study
is limited because the data used in the study emanates from a
single source, thereby subjecting it to a common method
variance. Furthermore, because the data collected was
quantitative in nature, the research did not engage with the
specific work conditions of the survey participants. The
research did not consider other forms of leadership styles that
might be inherent in the leaders of the organization’s work
groups, a critical examination of other types of leadership styles
might bring additional insight to the study. Finally, the Path-
Goal leadership theory by itself is limited in the sense that it
lays on the leaders a huge level of duties and minimal on the
subordinates, thus the dependability of the subordinates on
leadership increases and constrains their autonomous growth.
Kahn, W. A., & Kram, K. E. (1994). Authority at work: Internal
models and their organizational consequences. Academy of
Management Review, 19(1), 17-50. doi:
10.5465/AMR.1994.9410122007
The leadership concept has always been dynamic and ever
changing. Hence, Kahn and Kram seek to provide the definition
of the leadership concept. The researchers also seek to expatiate
the numerous key critical matters that are prominent in the
leadership perspective. The authors focus on how members of
an organization approve and de-authorize themselves and other
members of the group within the period of executing their work.
Thus, Kahn and Kram recommend that unvalued positions are
founded in relative routes transverse over progressive and
common work game plans and transverse over varied positions
and parts. Hirschhom (as cited in the researchers work)
recommended hidden models. Working from a theoretical
framework that connects concepts from clinical and formative
psychology, the progression of groups, and the conduct of
organization, the researchers, illustrate and define three types of
interior power models namely; association, reliance, and
counter-dependence. Suggestions were offered by Kahn and

Kram about how organization members’ practices are impacted
by these inside models within task exhibitions for the greatest
part, and even more specifically, as progressive dyads members
and work groups.
The authors concluded that the methodical study of the outlined
suggestions in their work would culminate to the understanding
of how teamwork and innovation are shaped by the dynamics of
authority, which are progressively becoming the critical success
factor of organizations today.
Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996).
Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional
leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. The
Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 385–425. doi: 10.1016/s1048-
9843(96)90027-2
Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubramaniam examined a meta-analysis
of the transformational leadership literature using the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). The leadership
literature was conducted to (1) integrate the diverse findings,
(2) compute an average effect for different leadership scales,
and (3) probe for certain moderators of the leadership style-
effectiveness relationship. According to the Lowe et al., the
transformational leadership scales associated with the MLQ was
found to be dependable and significantly predicted work unit
effectiveness across the set of studies observed. The literature
suggested that the moderator variables, including the leader’s
level (high or low), the setting of the organization (public or
private), and the criterion measure operationalization
(subordinate perceptions or organizational measures of
effectiveness), were tested empirically and found to have
variance influences on correlations between effectiveness and
the style of the leader. The criterion variable operationalization
occurred as a powerful moderator in the study. In summary, the
researchers found that the follower’s performance and
satisfaction are enhanced by the transformational leadership
style.
The implication for practice in this study is in the development

of active and continuous leadership, which is a central concern
for most organizations. While much of the devotion in the past
has been on the progress of leaders at the higher levels of the
organization, new paradigm of an organization that contains the
decision-making authority decentralization, information
distribution, and extensive use of teams has made the
improvement of leaders across levels of the organization more
and more significant. The findings of the present study also
have associated consequences for the choice, training, and
improvement of all types of management and administrative
personnel for these new structures of organization
Maner, J. K., & Mead, N. L. (2010). The essential tension
between leadership and power: When leaders sacrifice group
goals for the sake of self-interest. Journal of Personality &
Social Psychology, 99(3), 482-497. doi: 10.1037/a0018559
Major weaknesses witnessed in the leadership field are but not
limited to the problems of firm resources mismanagement,
limited rationality, among others. Often time, leaders do exhibit
actions in opposition to organizations’ established principles,
rules, and regulations, they might even disregard important
information, and over time, the entire organization operates
contrary to their goals and objectives. Most times, leaders might
disregard the goals of the team as a sacrifice to their selfish
interests. Hence, a well-defined structure is required to keep
their selfish motives under control to the benefit of the
organization.
Maner and Mead conducted five experiments, which identified
factors within both the person and the social context that
determine whether leaders exercise their power to promote
group or team goals as against self-interest. The researchers
have found that leaders were more interested in protecting their
own power than in helping the group achieve its goals, that is,
the leaders’ actions reduced the likelihood of optimal group
performance. For example, in experiment 1, leaders sought to
preserve their power by withholding valuable information from
their group, in experiment 2, leaders sought to exclude a highly

skilled group member, and in experiment 5, relegating a skilled
group member to a role of little consequence within the group.
Wisse and Rus (as cited in the researcher’s work) posit that the
leader’s “self-construal” is responsible for this self-interested
behavior, which is exhibited due to the cognitions and
knowledge structures of powerful leaders. However, the
limitation to this study as highlighted by Maner and Mead
shows that the designs of the study were rigorous and group
decision controlling is upheld in the lab tests. This is contrary
to the ideal situation of group decision making being
uncontrolled and dynamic in nature.
Pierro, A., Raven, B. H., Amato, C., & Bélanger, J. J. (2013).
Bases of social power, leadership styles, and organizational
commitment. International Journal of Psychology, 48(6), 1122-
1134. doi: 10.1080/00207594.2012.733398
Social power is defined as the potential or ability of a leader to
bring about a change in the attitudes, behavior, or belief by
using available organizational resources. Hence, Pierro, Raven,
Amato, and Bélanger posit that leadership, however, refers to
the actual use of power in effecting attitude or behavioral
change. According to social power theory, leaders can utilize a
broad range of bases of power to influence their followers, such
as harsh and soft bases of power depending on how they restrict
individual’s freedom to comply. The authors investigate the
mechanism between affective organizational commitment and
transformational leadership style. The researchers hypothesized
that affective organizational commitment would be increased by
transformational leadership style via its influence on readiness
to comply with the power of soft bases. The authors projected
the hypotheses in two studies. The first study suggested that the
mediation model was supported by the public sector Italian
employees.
Consequently, the second study replicated the first study using a
different yardstick of transformational leadership. Pierro et al.
noted that both the first and the second studies provided
outcomes that conform to their hypotheses. The researcher

pointed out that despite the differences in the power bases, not
all leaders will bring theses power bases into action, different
leaders possess diverse leadership styles that influence which
power bases they will espouse. However, despite the differences
in the power bases, the authors argue that not all leaders will
bring theses power bases into action, different leaders possesses
diverse leadership styles that influence which power bases they
will espouse. These findings provide additional support for the
interpersonal power/interaction model and pave the way for new
research directions.
The limitation to studies 1 and 2 is that they do not allow causal
inferences due to their correlational nature of results; thereby
requiring a further research to validate the results using
appropriate experimental designs. Furthermore, the research is
limited by the method of survey deployed where respondents are
asked to judge perception rather than the actually examine
behavior and be prone to social desirability bias.
Rowold, J., & Heinitz, K. (2007). Transformational and
charismatic leadership: Assessing the convergent, divergent and
criterion validity of the MLQ and the CKS. Leadership
Quarterly, 18(2), 121-133. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.01.003.
Rowold and Heinitz examined the difference and
similarities between transactional, transformational, and
charismatic leadership. More precisely, the divergent,
convergent, and instruments criterion validity. The authors also
explored the Conger and Kanungo Scales (CKS) and the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X). The
researchers found out that charismatic and transformational
leadership revealed a high convergent validity. Furthermore, the
identified leadership styles were divergent from transactional
leadership. In addition, the researchers also revealed that
charismatic and transformational leadership both enhanced
unique variance to subjective performance, beyond the
respective leadership style. Furthermore, the impact on profit
was highly attributable to transformational leadership than
transactional leadership. The results of the research have

implications for managerial training and selection. Both
transformational and charismatic leadership behavior are vital
to subjective performance. Hence, both methods to leadership
are cherished and should be the focus of interventions in
leadership development. The researchers noted the limitation to
their study, highlighting that the sample is restricted to one
single organization. Therefore, the results obtained may be
specific in context.
Strang, S. E., & Kuhnert, K.W. (2009). Personality and
leadership developmental levels as predictors of leader
performance. Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 421-433.
doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.009
Strang and Kuhnert investigate the application of constructive-
developmental theory in leadership study. The predictors to
their study are the Leadership Development Levels (LDL), the
Constructive-Development Theory (CDT), and the Big Five
Model. According to the authors, the LDL is the development
stages that stay in order but differ in “rate and catalysis”. The
stages range from 2 through 5 and are significant in the study
which comes with goals and subject for each stage. The CDT
show how the individual experience and organize things
according to their situation or environment and personality. The
Big Five or the Five Factor Model is a 5-personality dimension,
which is referred to as Openness to experience,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N). These Five personality traits will be
significant for defining leadership.
The study by the researchers is an empirical investigation of the
CDT as a theoretical framework for illustrating leadership and
as a predictor of 360-degree rating for the performance of the
leader. The aim of the study is on investigating the possible
variances in the performance of the leader, which depends on
the LDL. Scores were revised both in conjunction and distinctly
with the rater sources. The result of combining the sources of
rater revealed no meaning while revising the scores distinctly
shows no noteworthy changes in superior ratings. The

researchers found out from the power analysis, that a sample
size of about 78 would be adequate to notice substantial effects.
In the study, the same size was 67 with a power outcome of
0.74. Based on this result, the researchers suggest that the
readers exercise caution in the interpretation of the data.
The researchers provide some limitations in their study based on
the use of the LDL. According to them, it brings in distinctions
in general; the use of ratings at sub- level would present
distinction at a finer level and the difference between leaders at
the same level is increased.
Webb, K. S. (2014). How managers’ emotional intelligence
impacts employees’ satisfaction and commitment: A structural
equation model. IUP Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13(2),
7-24. Retrieved from the Business Source Complete database
Webb explores the power of Structural Equation Model (SEM)
to find the association between managers’ Emotional
Intelligence (EI) and employee commitment and satisfaction in
the workplace. The researcher found out that the paradigm of
well-being was represented the most by the leaders in the
studied industry. The researchers also revealed that the leader’s
behaviors correlated with the paradigms of emotionality and
self-control. The study provides recommendations that may
assist leaders, supervisors, and managers to influence team
members and subordinates in achieving greater levels of
commitment, performance, and satisfaction in the workplace.
Emotions are one of the most interesting aspects of the human
way of life and relationships. They play a vital role in
interpersonal relationships owing to their strong connection
with behaviors and thoughts. EI is a concept that supports the
positive role of emotions with interpersonal effectiveness.
Leaders who are responsible for influencing their team members
possess some form of power, and position provides a certain
level of authority, their level of knowledge and expertise
provides another. One of the most important bases of power
originates from relationships, which are determined by emotion.
The implication and application of this study rest on the fact

that the findings are generalizable to leaders and managers in
organizations. This is due to the large sample space.
Additionally, the sample involves a wide-ranging array of
participants within the age bracket of the 20s to 60s. The
strength of the wide generalizability is upheld by the
representation the various ethic groups, which reinforces the
case for wide generalizability. One of the limitations of the
study is the inconsistent number of female participants in the
sample. Webb recommends that the findings would be
strengthened if the study were stretched to include a larger
number of males.
Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. M. (2010). Linking empowering
leadership and employee creativity: The influence of
psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative
process engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1),
107-128. doi: 10.5465/AMJ.2010.48037118
Zhang and Bartol investigate leadership empowerment and its
psychological effects. The researchers’ study specially blends
the theories of leadership, empowerment, and creativity, in a
bid to further form and access theory with respect to the
potential impact of leadership empowerment on creativity.
Utilizing the data from the administrators and their expert
workers in a large data innovative organization in China, Zhang
and Bartol found out that, as anticipated, enabling leadership
absolutely affected mental empowerment, which in turn
influenced both the engagement of inventive procedure and
inborn motivation. The engagement of inventive procedure
variables then influenced creativity. The empowerment part
character shaped the association between mental empowerment
and leadership enablement, whereas the main promoter of
creativity supported the linking between imaginative procedure
engagement and mental empowerment.
The authors highlighted some limitations to their study firstly,
as being constructed with a cross-sectional design. However,
the modeling of structural equation permitted the synchronized
test of the whole system of variables in the postulated model,

the interpretation of outcomes should be conducted with care.
Secondly, the limitation of same-source bias was inherent due
to the fact the data collected on the creative process
engagement, intrinsic motivation, and psychological
empowerment, were executed with self-reports from employees.
Thirdly, the entire data collected was carried out in one
organization, therefore placing a limit on the variability
observed and the decreased external validity.

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